The Role of Social Media in Election Campaigns

The Role of Social Media in

Election Campaigns
Author: Alexandru Moldovan
Frst Franz osef Strasse !"# $%$&# 'aduz
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alexandru,moldovan-uni,li
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Seminar paper
.niversit/ of 0iechtenstein
1raduate School
2rogramme: 3,T, and 4usiness 2rocess Management
Course: Topics in 3S Research
Assessor: Stefan Seidel
5or6ing period: ),&&$,(&!7 to !(,!(,(&!7
8ate of su9mission:
The Role of Social Media in Election Campaigns
Table of Contents
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. The liberal perspective (The positivist perspective)...................................................................3
2.1. Behaviorism................................................................................................................................ 4
2.2. tructural functionalism school................................................................................................!
". Conclusion
#eference list
(
The Role of Social Media in Election Campaigns
Abstract
4/ stud/ing the statics of the presence of the electorate at the voting sections it 9ecame
o9vious for politicians that less and less people are :illing to express their vote, As a
conse;uence# ne: measures are needed to 9e ta6en in order to enlarge the distri9ution of the
political message and to convince people to vote, The purpose of this stud/ :as to investigate
the changes that a ne: political instrument# social media# 9rings into the d/namics of the
political game,
The starting point of the anal/sis is represented 9/ the understanding of the concepts of
political communication and pu9lic opinion 9/ means of stud/ing ade;uate scientific
literature, 4/ identif/ing pu9lic opinion as a 6e/ concept# the next step :as ta6en in
explaining ho: this is formed and evolves over time under the influences of factors li6e
media and societ/,
After understanding the inner d/namics of pu9lic opinion 9/ the means of three :ell 6no:n
theoretical models# the factor ne: media :as introduced into the anal/sis of these models,
4enefits and limitations of using social media are identified after stud/ing those extended
models,
7
The Role of Social Media in Election Campaigns
1. Introduction
2olitical communication is defined as <an interactive process concerning the transmission of
information among politicians# the ne:s media and the pu9lic,= >2ippa# n,d,# !?
According to S:anson and @immo# the field of political communication is a complex
interdisciplinar/ field, Since the appearance of the first chrestomathies in the field of the
political communication science > !$"7# in France# 1rand 0arousse de la language franAaise
and in .SA# Band9oo6 of Communication# coordonated 9/ @immo# 8, C Sanders D,R,# E
apud @immo# 8,# S:anson# 8,0,# !$$&# p,"? the authors tried to structure the theories
ela9orated in this field on several dimensions,
Some authors thought to structure this teories depending on the research topic in the field# so
@immo and S:anson structured them in t:o categories: voter persuasion paradigm and
<after voter persuasion paradigm=# :hat the/ call the critical a9ordation >@immo# 8,#
S:anson# 8,0,# !$$&# p,"E%"?,
2ippa @orris >2ippa @orris# !$$$? prefers also a chronological approach, Bence# he starts
from the <anteE:ar theories# the mass propagation theories=# 9efore the second :orld :ar 33#
after <post :ar theories of strengthening the partisanship= and the last class of theories#
<cognitive theories# agendaEsetting and the theories of the persuasive effects=,
Fther :or6s# li6e Band9oo6 of 2olitical Communication >@immo# 8,# Sanders# D,R,# !$*!?
and Band9oo6 of 2olitical Communication Research >Daid# 0,0,# (&&%? presents the theories
9/ their aparition /ear and 9/ their importance,
Another model of structuring the theories in the field of political communication it is offered 9/ the
Gue9ec school through the <0a communication politi;ue: Htat des savoirs# enIeux et perspectives=
:or6 coordinated 9/ AnneEMarie 1ingras >(&&7?, This model has at its 9asis t:o 9ig epistemological
schools: positivist thin6ing and critical thin6ing,
Although apparent so different in structure all these perspectives are stud/ing the same theories,
Therefore# :e :ill continue on the structure proposed 9/ AnneE Marie 1ingras,
1. The liberal perspective (The positivist perspective)
The main stud/ goals of the positivist school are: the effect of massEmedia on the vote process# the
development of the pu9lic opinion# the role and effect of the opinion pools# the role and the functions
of the massEmedia in democrac/, 3f :e :ould concentrate on @immo and S:anson# :e could sa/ that
%
The Role of Social Media in Election Campaigns
the li9eralJpositivist school covers those theories included in the persuading votant paradigm# therefore
the most :ell 6no:n positivist theories >i,e,# agenda setting# the spiral of silence# user and gratification
theor/? are enclosed in the massEmedia influencing models section, 3n addition# this vie: highlights
the most the interdisciplinar/ nature of political communication, This perspective includes the
9ehaviorist school and structural functionalism school,
1.1. Behaviorism
This approach focuses on the stud/ of political 9ehavior# the approach of the voting process# pu9lic
opinion research designed as aggregation of individual opinions and the impact of electoral
campaigns,
Man/ theoreticians consider the :or6 of 5alter 0ippman# 2u9lic opinion >!$((?# as 9eing the
founding material of the stud/ of communication science, K0ippmann :as a contemporar/ researcher
:ith the political scientist Barold 0ass:ell# :ith respect to the stud/ of propaganda and pu9lic
opinion, >L? The contri9ution of 0ippman :as an important one regarding the identification of the
massEmedia role in the development of the pu9lic opinion in democrac/, Be argued that media :hose
freedom :as protected 9/ the First Amendment# is a crucial factor in the formation of a space of ideas,
>Daida# 00# (&&%# p,%?=,
The second conception regarding the effects of massEcommunication is the one of 2aul F,
0azarsfeld,Baving a mathematician formation# he 9ecame an important methodologist in the
;uantitative research of the mass communication, K Be led the Radio Research 2roIect funded 9/ the
Roc6efeller Foundation in !$7"# :hich examined the effects of radio on American audiences, 0ed
0azarsfeld led also the first ;uantitative research on voting 9ehavior# the most famous of them 9eing
the research in Erie Count/# :hich accounted up to a certain level as 9eeing# Mthe most important
pioneering investigation of political communication, M>39id,# p +?=,
This contri9ution had a maIor impact on multiple further research, The 1erman researcher @oelleE
@eumann :ill ta6e later in from 0azarsfeldNs research the concept of 9and:agon, According to 0ong
and Ruth >(&&"? the 9and:agon effect refers to people doing certain things 9ecause other people are
doing them# regardless of their o:n 9eliefs# :hich the/ ma/ ignore or override, 3n comparison# K>L?
2aul F, 0azarsfeld# specialist in social ps/cholog/ and electoral processes# once tal6ed a9out a
hierarch/ of sta9ilit/# putting the voting intentions on top of itO in his opinion# the/ are sta9le#
changing ver/ slo:l/# depending on experience# o9servations# information and ne: vie:s= >@oelleE
@eumann# E,# (&&%# pag, ("?,
The concept of Agenda ESetting :as formulated in t:o different studies# occurring almost
simultaneousl/ > !$"(? in the .nited States: Max:ell E, Mc, Com9s and 8onald 0, Sha: P The
Agenda E Setting Function of Mass Media# in the M2u9lic Fpinion Guarterl/# no, 7)# !$"( # p, !")E!*"
+
The Role of Social Media in Election Campaigns
M and R, Co99 and C, Elder E2articipation in American 2olitics: The 8/namics of Agenda ESetting
> !$"(?,
AgendaEsetting theor/ is a model of media influence# :ho considers that media has the po:er to
choose the order and prioritize the information to present to the pu9lic# thus setting not onl/ the
agenda of the media 9ut also the pu9lic agenda, According to this perspective the media agenda
9ecomes pu9lic agenda,
This paradigm is a ne: approach to the role and functions of the media that ta6es into account t:o
novel representations of communicators# the relationship 9et:een the media and pu9lic opinion, M3tQs
Iust the media facult/ to order and mentall/ organize the :orld for us M >8rRgan# !$$)# p, ()&?,
This perspective has 9een made on the 9asis of the anal/sis of McCom9s and Sha:# during the !$)*
election campaign # 9eing su9se;uentl/ confirmed and supported since !$"(# the anal/sis of Rogers
and 8earing made outside election campaigns, Bo:ever# model refinement :as carried out 9/ Co9
and Elder :ho introduce 9esides the t:o varia9les >agenda media and pu9lic agenda? a ne: varia9le:
the political agenda,
This ne: paradigm arises in the context of studies on media use and satisfaction caused 9/ media
consumption, 3n 9oth studies# ho:ever# :e are given different complementar/ media notions of the
MAgenda ESetting M function: McCom9s and 8, Sha: stud/ refers to the media function to 9uild the
MagendaM E the agenda of the pu9lic opinion # :hile the stud/ of R, Co99 and C, Elder ta6es into
account the media role in the design of the M 2olic/ Agenda E9uilding M, So# on one hand# media
influences the M Agenda M of the citizens >pu9lic opinion? E the correlation 9et:een the MAgenda M of
the media and MAgenda M pu9lic opinion E and on the other hand the correlation 9et:een the media and
M political agenda M >politicians discourse?, Fverall# it is the correlation 9et:een the mediatization of
the actualit/ > MAgenda M esta9lished 9/ mass media?# pu9lic perception over the actualit/ >pu9lic
opinion MAgenda M? and the MAgenda M of the political de9ate >su9Iects and priorities addressed 9/
politicians especiall/ during election campaigns ? M > 8rRgan# 3, # !$$)# p ()7? ,
Even currentl/# the 9ehaviorist approach sho:s a strong trend 9ecause of the man/ researchers in the
field and man/ positivist current follo:ers,
1.2. tructural functionalism school
From this perspective# political communication lies Min a set of interactive processes 9et:een elements
of a political s/stem and surrounding elementsM >1erstlS ,# (&&(# p, 7+?,
De/ concepts in structuralEfunctionalist approach are: s/stem# exchange and 9alance, The first
theoretical formulation of the functional relationship 9et:een the social s/stem and media :as made
9/ political scientist Barold 0ass:ell in !$%*,
0as:ell is the one :ho formalized the content anal/sis methodolog/ of media messages, Be is 6no:n
for the communication model consisting of five ;uestions: <5hoT=#< 5hat does it sa/T=# <To :homT=
)
The Role of Social Media in Election Campaigns
<Through :hat channelsT=# <5ith :hat effectT=, This conceptualization :as to influence pioneering
communication studies in the media effects field# a concern that continued up to a certain point until
toda/,
0ass:ell has studied the political propaganda 9et:een the /ears !$(&E!$7&# in the .,S, Be tried to
catch the communication process into a matrix# creating one of its general models# creating one of its
general models# :hich he called <0inear model of communication=, This model <illustrates a t/pical
feature of the firstNs models of communication: the/ consider almost self meaning that the transmitter
has certain intentions influence receptor and# therefore# communication :ould 9e treated primaril/ as a
process for persuasion, 3t is also assumed that messages have al:a/s effective= >McGuail# 8,#5indahl#
S,# (&&%# p,(&?,
After 0as:ell communication fulfills in the social s/stem three essential functions# namel/:
<environmental monitoring# esta9lishing a correlation 9et:een various components of societ/ and
transmitting
socioEcultural heritage from one generation to another= >1ingras# A,M# (&&7# p, ((?,
The emergence of Talcott 2arsonsQ 9oo6# <The Social S/stem=# in !$+!# :as a starting point for the
development of s/stemic theories of political communication, This is the starting point of theories of
Darl 8eutch >!$"%? and 8avid Easton >!$))? theories that are 9ased on concepts of c/9ernetics,
After 8avid Easton# Mthe political s/stem :or6s li6e a 9lac6 9ox that receives inputs >demands and
supports? and produce outputs >actions and decisions? and interacting :ith the external environment
allo: construction of media and ne: re;uirementsM >1ingras# A,M# (&&7# p (7?, Further# the same
author adds: <using the same 9lac6 9ox and the same feed9ac6 s/stem# Darl 8eutsch sees
communication as 9eing necessar/ for the transmission of information 9et:een various components of
the political s/stem# assimilating communication as a function that ena9les this s/stem =, Be conceives
governments as decision ma6ing s/stems 9ased on various information flo:s, Be conceives
governments as s/stems made decisions# 9ased on various information flo:s, 8ifferent political
s/stems are measured in terms of their a9ilit/ to operate as some steering devices# more or less
effective# an analog device operation of a vessel, 3n this model# information flo:s and stimulates
political s/stem# :e sa/ then that it is the nerve cells of the government M>i9id,?
<StructuralEfunctionalist approach has inspired several authors led 9/ Ro9ert D, Merton# to develop a
list of functions# manifests and latents fulfilled 9/ the media >1ingras# A,M# (&&7# p (7?=,
.nder this approach# <manifest function can 9e called also the apparent function :hile the latent
function represents the real function,= Merton illustrates this concept :ith the :ell reno:ned example
of the invo6ing rain dance of the Bopi 3ndians# :hich during drought# have the declared aim# manifest
to 9ring rain# and the latent dangers have the latent function# so real# to maintain cohesion in the Bopi
3ndians tri9e,
"
The Role of Social Media in Election Campaigns
Starting from MertonNs model# in France# ean Stoetzel ela9orated in !$+!# a list of functions around
the concept of information, Also# Charles R, 5right compiled a list containing more than )&
information functions,
3n this context# appears in the earl/ )&s <.ses and 1ratifications= theor/, .nder this orientation the
audience manifest activel/ 9ased on previous media experience, The 6e/:ords of this orientation are:
the needs of this audience and its motivations,
<The 9irth of <.= and <1= >.ses and 1ratifications? can 9e located at the 9eginning of the %&Ns, 3n the
am9itious research program on mass communication started 9/ 2aul F, 0azarsfeld# Berta Bertzog aims
to reveal gratifications that radio listeners derive from movie serials# games etc,= >8rRgan# 3,#!$$)#
p,!*&?,
F, 4alle 9elieves that research on media that led to the model of M.M and M1M or :ho deli9eratel/
applies it can 9e classified into three categories:
!, Research including the interrogations on the functions performed and on the functional exigent of
media# starting :ith the stud/ of 4ernard 4erelson from !$%+# stud/ conducted during the extended
stri6e of a local ne:spaper in @e: Uor6,
Through this experiment of evaluating the reaction of readers in special conditions# 4, 4erelson
:anted to find out :hat people miss during a prolonged stri6e of their favorite ne:spaper, >0azarsfeld#
2,# Stanton# F,#!$%*?,
These studies represent the prere;uisites of a series of studies on the functions of media from the
perspective of the aims# utilization and satisfactions searched 9/ the receptors# more precise the media
users,
The second


*
The Role of Social Media in Election Campaigns
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