Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Above all, we praise the lord God and next we want to express our deepest gratitude to our
advisor Eng. Mulugeta Abera for excellent scientific guidance and support in fruitful ideas. We
also appreciate all staff of Mechanical Engineering Department for their unreserved
assistance, sharing of knowledge and for extensive scientific discussions. Then we want to
express our heartfelt gratitude to our family for all their support during whole study period from
the beginning. All classmates and friends of the members of Mechanical engineering streams
are greatly thanked for the wholehearted studying during the entire stay throughout the
programed duration. Last but not least, our heartfelt gratitude to our computer keeper, Sintayehu
gobena, for his relentless service, tolerance and shouldering all the responsibilities
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
ii
ABSTRACT
The idea to design cobblestone shaping machine comes from looking the existing problem of
the country in cobblestone production that motivates us to design such machine. This project
focuses in design of mechanical parts of the machine and the system of the cobblestone shaping
machine. To achieve this project objective, the machine body structure and mechanical
system needs to concern some other criteria such as strength, safety and ergonomic design.
Our project flow must start from design and analysis process. Before developing the machine, it
must compare with other product in market. The reason is to study the customer need and to
create a new design with new feature.
Cobblestone shaping machine is a device used for cutting and shaping cobblestone for different
purposes such as road construction, buildings and bridges constructions as well. Cobblestone
shaping processes in our country Ethiopia is mostly manual or out dated with the present
technology. This causes low productivity, high fatigue of workers, and unfavorable working
condition, inaccurate surface finishing, spending much time on small products and lack of
uniformity of tasks.
The project met the following steps: - project selection, data acquisition and presentation, data
analysis and development of design analysis and presentation. Thus steps enables in
investigating alternative solutions. The purpose of this project is to increase cobblestone
productivity of our country Ethiopia, so that it reduce the fatigue of the workers, create good
working conditions, increase customary satisfaction and perform uniform tasks. To come into
reality the project uses direct observation, primary and secondary sources.
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
iii
NOMENCLATURE
G= Modulus of rigidity ( GPa)
Allowable shear stress (
a
MP )
= allowable stress (GPa)
=Yield stress (GPa)
= Maximum stress (MPa)
=critical load (N)
=static head (mm)
F= friction loss (mm)
Angular velocity (r.p.m)
g = gravity (m/s
2
)
T= torque (N.m)
F=friction loss
=axial load (N)
E= Modulus of elasticity (GPa)
D = mean diameter of spring wire (mm)
t = thickness of key (mm)
W = width of the key (mm)
d- Shaft diameter (mm)
. L=length of the key
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
iv
=
r4
2
=
r3
2
From the properties of the granite
max =14-50Mpa, considering max =25N/mm
2
let area of shear surface is calculated from
16mm
10mm
Area =L*W=16mm*10mm=160mm
2
F =max*rp
F=25N/mm
2
*160mm
2
=4,000N
T =F*rp=4,000N*0.0625m=250Nmm
Calculations
Shaft material is commercial steel and
=40Mp =40N/mm
2
=
16
3
d
3
=
16
=
16250
4010
6
/
=3.183*10
5
m
d =
3.183 10
6
m =32mm
Shearing surface
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
27
Therefore, the diameter of the shaft is 32mm
5.2 Force on foot press
Force applied on a foot press is equal to mass*acceleration due to gravity
But, Mass =35% average mass of a person
Let average mass a person= 60kg, then
Mass= 35% * 60kg =21kg
W=21kg*9.8m/s
2
= 206N
Taking moment @ 0
mo=w*2000mm-Fy*300mm=0
FY=
W2000mm
300
=
2062000
2300
=686.67N
Resolving forces gives, FY=686.67N
From the above fig. cos 30 =sin60 =
2
2Fr=
cos 30
==
686.67
0.866
=1373.3N=Fr=792.9N
5.3 Force analysis on bar
Mass of electric motor = 70kg
Fm=mg =70kg*9.8m/s= 686N
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
28
Mass of cutter (circular blades and its supports and cover) =8kg
Wc=8kg*9.8m/s
2
=78.9N
Now taking moment @ point 0,
Mo=0
1373.3N*200+1567F+78.4*1567=0
1567.3F=78.4*1567-200*1373.3
1567.3F= -151881.2N
F=96.9N
Summation of vertical forces
FY=1373.3N+FY=686N+175N
2FY =861N-1373.3N
FY= -256.15N
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
29
Diamond Tools for Machining of Granite
Force analysis on cutter blade
Fc Fv
Fn Vs
Ft
Fh
cos =
Fv
FC
..eq. 1
Ft=
VS
d
sin =
Fh
FC
..eq.2
Fn = Fc*cos[() ].....eq. 3
Fn= Fc*[ cos(k)*
Fv
Fc
+sin(k)
Fc
]
Fn=FV* cos() + Fh*sin(k)
Ft= Fc*sin(k)- )...eq. 4
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
30
Ft= Fc*[sin(k)*
Fv
Fc
- cos()*
Fc
]
Ft= Ft*sin(k)- Fh* cos()
Fc=
2
+
2
eq. 5
= sin(1-
2
)
=0.7
SE=
FtVp
[Journal of Mechanical Engineering 55(2009)12, 775-780]
Max cutting speed for granite cutting diamond blade is 100m/s.
Therefore
Let take Vs. =60m/s
Ft=
Vs
,
= ()=7500W=7.5kw
Vs=circular speed in m/s
Ft =
7500
60/
= 125N
From previous calculation
Fv=175N
Let =30 then, From eq. 2
cos =
Fv
FC
, sin =
Fh
FC
Fc =
Fv
cos
Fh=FC*sin
Fc =
175N
cos 30
= 202N Fh=202N*sin 30
Fh=101N
From equation.6
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
31
Fc=
2
+
2
-Fn=
2
2
-Fn=(202)
2
(123)
2
Fn=158.8N
From previous calculation
Fv=175N
5.4 SHAFT DESIGN
A shaft is a rotating member, usually of circular cross section, used to transmit power or motion.
It may be solid or hollow. It provides the axis of rotation, or oscillation, of elements such as
gears, pulleys, flywheels, cranks, sprockets, and the like and controls the geometry of their
motion. [1]
Material selection for shaft
The material used for shafts should have the following properties:
It should have high strength.
It should have good machinability.
It should have low notch sensitivity factor.
It should have good heat treatment properties.
It should have high wear resistant properties
From ASMA Standards
Commercial steel shaft with key way
Given max= 40Mpa=40N/mm2
Km =1.5 and kt =1
Rotating shaft subjected to gradually applied load
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
32
Bending vertical plane
Resolving tensions into vertical and horizontal components,
T1=446N
T 2=29.3N
TV= (T1+T2) sin 30
TV= (446+29.34) sin30= 237.67N
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33
Th= (T1+T2) cos30
Th= (446+29.34) cos30 =411.65N
TORSION AT C
TC= (T1-T2)*
dp
2
TC= (446-29.34)
165
2
TC=34374.45Nmm
TC=34.4Nm
FORCES ON VERTICAL PLANE
Taking moment at A
MA=0
(237.67N-24.5N)*50mm-175N*150mm +RBY*200 =0
200mm*RBY = 15591.5N
RBY =78N
Summing forces vertically
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
34
RAy+237.67N+78N-175N-24.5N=0
RBY=199.5N-315.6N= -116.2N
FORCES ON HORIZONTAL PLANE
Taking moment at A
MA=0
411.65N*50mm-101N*150mm+200mm* RBY=0
200mm RBY= -5432.5Nmm
RBY=27.16N
RAH=44.65N
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35
Summing forces horizontally
FH=0
RAH+411.65-101-27.16N=0
RAH= (101+27.16) N-411.65N
RAH=283.49N
Shear force diagram and bending
moment
Shear force diagram and bending moment
for vertical plane.
a) + =0
-116.2N-V=0
V= -116.2N=116.2N
+=0
-116.2N*50mm-M=0
M=-5810Nmm
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
36
b) + =0
213.2N-V=0
V=213.2N
+ =0
213.1N*100mm-M=0
M=21320Nmm
a) + =0
-283.49-v=0
V= -283.49N=283.49N
+ =0
-283.49N*50mm-M=0
M=-14174.5Nmm
b) + =0
411.67N-V =0
V =411.67N
+ =0
411.67N*100mm-M=0
M=41167Nmm
Reaction forces on bearing
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
37
Reaction force on bearing A
(FRAY)
2
= ( FRAX)
2
+ ( FRAY)
2
FRA=(283.49)2 +(116.2)2
FRA=306.4N
Reaction forces on bearing B
(FRB)
2
= ( FRBX)
2
+ ( FRY)
2
FRB=(27.6)2 +(78)2
FRB=83.6N
Bending moment
Bending moment at C
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
38
MC=RAY*50mm
MC = -50mm*116.2Nmm
MC = -5810Nmm
MC = 5.81Nm
Bending moment at D
MD = RBY*50
MD=78*50Nmm = 3900Nmm
Therefore max bending moment is at C I, e.
ME=Mmax=M=5810Nmm
T= TC
T=35,000Nmm
T=35Nm
Equivalent twisting moment on the shaft is given by
Te=()2 +()2
Te=(1.5 5810)2 +(1 34,400)2
Te=35486.7Nmm = 35.5Nm
Equivalent bending moment
Me=
1
2
(km*M+()2 +()2
Me=
1
2
(km*M+Te)
Me=
1
2
(1.5*5810Nmm+35.5Nmm)
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
39
Me=4375.25Nmm
Case 1
all=
16Te
d3
d
3
=
16Te
all
d=
(1635.5)
4010
6
3
=16.54mm
Case 2
all=
16Me
d3
d
3
=
16Me
all
d=
16Me
al
3
=
164375.25Nm
40N
m
10
6
3
d= 82.3mm
There diameter of the shaft due to equivalent twisting is greater than that of bending moment.
For safe design take larger diameter
Therefore d=16.62mm, Diameter of the shaft from the standard shaft diameter d=..
But, the maximum arbor diameter for circular diamond cutting disc with diameter of 400mm is
25.4mm. Therefore, diameter of shaft taken as d=25.4mm.
Shaft diameter based on stone properties.
all =14-50 Mpa
Take all=25Mpa
T= all /= all*r
3
/2
But considering shear area of stone let
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
40
10mm
16mm
all =40Mpa
all =16T/*d
3
T=330,000Nmm=330Nm
all of shaft material
d=34.76mm d =16/
3
all A=*w=160mm
2
Fsh= all*Ash
Fsh=25Mpa*160mm
2
Fsh=4000N
T=FSH*rp
T=4000N*0.825mm
d=16
330,000
40/2
3
d=34.76mm
d=35mm
Factor of safety
Safety factor (SF), is a term describing the structural capacity of a system beyond the expected
loads or actual loads. Essentially, how much stronger the system is than it usually needs to be for
an intended load. This is a measure of the reliability of a particular design
max = 30% of Sy ,
Sy =40Mpa/0.3=133.33 Mpa
Shear area
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
41
max =
Sy
.
F.S =
Sy
max
=
133.33 /
40 /
=3.3
Therefore, the design is safe
5.4.1 Key design
A key is a machine element inserted between the shaft and rotating machine element like pulley,
gears, sprockets or flywheel to connect these together in order to prevent relative motion
between them. It is always inserted parallel to the axis of the shaft. Design of key depends on
two criteria; these are failure due to shear stress and failure due to compressive stress.
The two functions of key are:-
Transmit the torque from the shaft to the hub of mating element and vice versa.
Prevent relative rotational motion between the shaft and the joined machine element like
gear or pulley.
Key materials
Key material is low-carbon steel and r rectangular sunk key. The proportion of this key:
W=..equation1
H=t= =..equation2
L=1.5d..equation3
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
42
Where t is thickness of key
W is width of the key
d- Shaft diameter
L=length of the key
Substituting the values into above equations,
W=mm = 6.35mm =6mm
t= =4.23mm =4mm
L=1.5*25.4mm=38mm
5.5 Belt design
Belts are flexible machine elements used in conveying systems and in the transmission of power
over comparatively long distances. It often happens that these elements can be used as a
replacement for gears, shafts, bearings, and other relatively rigid power-transmission devices. In
many cases their use simplifies the design of a machine and substantially reduces the cost. The
four principal types of belts are: Crowned pulleys are used for flat belts, and grooved pulleys, or
sheaves, for round and V belts
The cross-sectional dimensions of V belts have been standardized by manufacturers, with each
section designated by a letter of the alphabet for sizes in inch dimensions. Metric sizes are
designated in numbers. Though these have not been included here, the procedure for analyzing
and designing them is the same as presented here.
Dimensions, minimum sheave diameters, and the power range for the standard V-belt sections A,
B, C, D and E are listed in Table 20.1[1]
Type of
belt
Power
ranges in
kW
Minimum pitch
diameter of pulley
(D) mm
Top width
(b) mm
Thickness
(t)mm
Weight per
meter length in
newton
A 0.7-3.5 75 13 8 1.06
B 2-15 125 17 11 1.89
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
43
C 7.5-75 200 22 14 3.43
D 20-150 355 32 19 5.96
E 30-350 500 38 23 ---
Table 20.1 Dimensions of standard V-belts according to IS: 2494 1974.
Belt tensions
The belt drives primarily operate on the friction principle. i.e. the friction between the belt and
the pulley is responsible for transmitting power from one pulley to the other. In other words the
driving pulley will give a motion to the belt and the motion of the belt will be transmitted to the
driven pulley. Due to the presence of friction between the pulley and the belt surfaces, tensions
on both the sides of the belt are not equal. So it is important that one has to identify the higher
tension side and the lower tension side, which is shown in Fig. 13.1.3.
Fig3.7 Belt tensions
Advantages V-belt drives
low initial cost;
low noise;
no lubrication required;
ease of installation; and removal
low maintenance requirements
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
44
The V-belt drive gives compactness due to the small distance between centers of pulleys.
The drive is positive, because the slip between the belt and the pulley groove is
negligible.
Since the V-belts are made endless and there is no joint trouble, therefore the drive is
smooth.
It provides longer life, 3 to 5 years.
The operation of the belt and pulley is quiet.
The belts have the ability to cushion the shock when machines are started.
The high velocity ratio (maximum 10) may be obtained.
The wedging action of the belt in the groove gives high value of limiting ratio of
tensions. Therefore the power transmitted by V-belts is more than flat belts for the same
coefficient of friction, arc of contact and allowable tension in the belts.
The V-belt may be operated in either direction, with tight side of the belt at the top or
bottom. The center line may be horizontal, vertical or inclined.
Material selection for of v-belts design
Leather with allowable stresses from 2.0 Mpa (N/mm) to 3.45 Mpa (N/mm
2
).[1]
Belt calculations
=180
0
+2 Eq1
Where =sin
1
(
1
2
)...Eq2
=180
0
-2 =. Eq3
Lo = length of open belt
Lo =
2
(d1+ds) +2c+
1
4
(d1-ds) ..Eq4
Power transmission of the belt drive is expressed as
P = Eq5
Where
1
T -tight side tension
2
T -slack side tension
V-speed
The maximum tension in the tight side of the belt depends on the allowable stress of the belt
material. From standard table dimensions of v-belt for power range between 2-15 Kw and B-
section belt,
ds =125mm and dl =165mm
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
46
C 1.5-2* (ds+dl) .Eq6
C =2*(125mm+165mm) =580mm
From equation 4
Lo =
2
(125mm+165mm) +2*580+
1
4580
(165mm-125mm)
Lo =1616mm, subtracting 43mm for B type belt, inside length of the belt is
1616mm-43mm =1573mm, According to IS: 2494 1974, the nearest standard inside length of
V-belt is 1567mm
From equation 2
= sin
1
(
165125
2580
) =1.976
2 =3.95
But for v-belt, groove angle is usually 32-38 then taking 32
From equation1
=180+32=212
=212*
180
rad =3.7 rad
From equation3
=180-32 =148
=148*
180
rad =2.58rad
Power required, P =7.5 Kw
Design power, Pmax =service factor*power required
Service factor for medium shock load from standard table: Ks =1.3
P =1.3*7.5 Kw=9.75Kw
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
47
Density of the leather belt from standard 1000 kg/m
Allowable stress of the belt is 3.45 MPa = 3.45 N/mm
Coefficient of friction =0.4
V=
60
=
60
(m/s) Eq7
V =
0.1252750
60
m/s =18 m/s
V =
60
=
0.125
60
=18 m/s
Ns =
60
0.125
=
6018
0.125
rpm =2083rpm
Centrifugal force Tc can be calculated as
Tc =mvEq8
But mass of the belt is given by,
M=Area*length*density
M=b*t*l* = 0.017*0.011*1.567*1000kg/m =0.29kg/m
Tc =0.29kg/m*[18m/s]= 94N
The material of the pulley selected is steel and assumed to be dry. Hence the coefficient of
friction for leather material is taken from the table, 0.25 i.e. =0.25
Then:
1
2
=
/ sin
.Eq9
While determining the angle of contact, it must be remembered that it is the angle of contact of
the smaller pulley, if both pulleys are of the same material
sin=
12
= Eq10
_radius of larger pulley
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
48
_radius of smaller pulley
x (c) -center distance of the belt
Angle of contact on the smaller or V-pulley
1 = 180 2
1 = (180-2*2.95) * rad =3 rad, and
Angle of contact on the larger or flat pulley,
2 = 180 + 2
2 = (180+2*2.95)* =3.28 rad
Therefore smaller value must be selected for the design, that mean angle of contact for smaller
pulley say =3 rad
1
2
=
(
)
=
(
0.253
sin16
)
=15.2
T1 =15.2*T2Eq11
From eq5 tension forces can be determined as
P= (T1-T2)
P = (15.2T2-T2)*V=14.2T2*[18m/s]
2
=7500W
T2=
75
14.218/
=22.2N
T1=15.2*T2=15.2*29.3N
T1=416.67N
Initial tension in the belt can be given by,
To =
T1+T2
2
.Eq12
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
49
To =
416.67+29.3
2
=223N
Tangential force (T)
T =T1-T2
T =416.67N-29.3N=387.3N
Torque on each of the two shafts can be calculated as follows.
Torque exerted on the driving shaft, T is given by equation
T = (T1 T2) * r1
T1
N/mm
= (416.67N-29.3N)*0.0625m
T1 =24.2Nm
Torque exerted on the driven shaft is given by equation.
T2 = (T1-T2)*r2
T2 = (416.67N-29.3N)*0.0825m
T2 =32Nm
Stress calculations of the belt:
1 =
1
where,
1
_stress due to tight side tension
1 =
416.67
187
=2.23N/mm
2 =
2
where,
2
_stress due to slack side tension
2 =
29.3
187
=0.16N/mm
c=
1
Where
b
_bending stress
d
F _correction factor on arc of contact (0.78 from table)
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
50
d1 _diameter of smaller pulley
b =
0.78/
125
=0.00624N/mm
Maximum belt stress (
max
)
max =1+ 2+ c+ b<all Where, all allowable stress
max =
2.23N/mm + 0.16N/mm + 0.5N/mm + 0.00624N/mm
max
=2.89N/mm
2.9 N/mm
Maximum design stress is less than allowable stress of the belt, so the design is safe.
The unit elongation of the belt is given by:
e =
max
69000
Where, e_unit elongation
e =
2.8/
69000
=
2800000/
69000
=0.024
P= (T1-T2)
P = (15.2T2-T2)*V=14.2T2*[18m/s]
2
=7500W
T2==22.2N
T1=15.2*T2=15.2*29.3N
T1=416.67N
Tangential force (T)
T =T1-T2
T =416.67N-29.3N=387.3N
Torque on each of the two shafts can be calculated as follows.
Torque exerted on the driving shaft, T is given by equation
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
51
T = (T1 T2) * r1
T1
N/mm = (416.67N-29.3N)*0.0625m
T1 =24.2Nm
Torque exerted on the driven shaft is given by equation
T2 = (T1-T2)*r2
T2 = (416.67N-29.3N)*0.0825m
T2 =32Nm
Pulley
Steel Pulleys
Steel pulleys are made from pressed steel sheets and have great strength and durability. These
pulleys are lighter in weight (about 40 to 60% less) than cast iron pulleys of the same capacity
and are designed to run at high speeds. They present a coefficient of friction with leather belting
which is at least equal to that obtained by cast iron pulleys.
Width of the pulley (
p
w )
p
w =1.19*b+10mm for single belt.
Where, b =width of the belt
wb =1.19*17mm+10mm
wb =30.23mm
Crown for wide belt (h)
H=0.00426 ) (
3
p
w y widthpulle Where,
p
w = Width of the pulley (m)
H =0.00426*30.23
3
H =0.0133mm
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
52
The bending moment on each arm (
b
m ) is:
b
m =
i
D F
where, i-no. of arms
For d200mm, i=1
i= assumed to be 1 for up to 200mm diameter.
For 200mm d450mm, i=4
For d450mm, i=6
F =tangential force
mb =
315.20.165
1
=52Nm
5.6 Spring design
A spring is defined as an elastic body, whose function is to distort when loaded and to recover its
original shape when the load is removed. A spring is a flexible element used to exert a force or a
torque and, at the same time, to store energy. The various important applications of springs are as
follows:
1. To cushion, absorb or control energy due to either shock or vibration as in car springs,
railway buffers, air-craft landing gears, shock absorbers and vibration dampers.
2. To apply forces, as in brakes, clutches and spring loaded valves.
3. To control motion by maintaining contact between two elements as in cams and followers.
4. To measure the forces as in spring balances and engine indicators.
5. To store energy, as in watches, toys etc.
Spring materials for the proposed design
The material of the spring should have high fatigue strength, high ductility, high resilience and it
should be creep resistant.
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
53
Oil-tempered wire
It is a cold drawn, quenched, tempered, and general purpose spring steel. It is not suitable for
fatigue or sudden loads, at subzero temperatures and at temperatures above 180C.From Table
23.1Values of allowable shear stress, Modulus of elasticity and Modulus of rigidity for various
spring materials. [Gupta]
For medium service,
all =420N/mm
G =80KN/m=80GN/mm
E =210KN/mm=210GN/mm
Selection of spring
There are different types of springs but, in this design a helical spring is used which is made up
of wire coiled in the form of a helix having circular, square or rectangular cross Section and is
primarily intended for compressive and tensile loads. Helical spring with circular cross-section is
selected for the proposed design, because which have the following advantages:
(a) These are easy to manufacture.
(b) These are available in wide range.
(c) These are reliable.
(d) These have constant spring rate.
(e) Their performance can be predicted more accurately.
(f) Their characteristics can be varied by changing dimensions
The three forms of helical springs are:-
Compression helical spring
Tension helical spring
Torsional helical spring
Cobblestone Shaping Machine
54
Extension Springs
An Extension springs differ from compression springs in that they carry tensile loading, they
require some means of transferring the load from the support to the body of the spring, and the
spring body is wound with an initial tension. The load transfer can be done with a threaded plug
or a swivel hook. Standard springs have constant diameter and pitch, thus providing a constant
spring rate. Extension springs are made such that the body coils are touching each other and the
spring usually has pre-tension. They provide wide range of load-deflection curves. Stresses in the
body of the extension spring are handled the same as compression springs. In designing a spring
with a hook end, bending and torsion in the hook
Some common hook types:
Fig 3.7 Stress in the Hook
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In a typical hook, a critical stress location is at point A, where there is bending and axial
loading.
Maximum shear stress will occur at point B where there is primarily torsion.
Fig 3.Initial Tension in Close-Wound Springs
Figure schematic representation of a helical spring acted upon by a tensile load F
Spring calculations
A =F*[KA*
16
+
4
].eq1
KA=
41+11
41(11)
.eq2
Where, C1=
21
...Eq3
B=KB
8
Eq4
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KB=
4+2
43
Eq5
F=
+ k*.Eq6
Lo=2(D-d) + (Nb+1)*d = (2C-1+Nb)*dEq7
Na=
.Eq8
C =
.Eq10
D=DO-dEq11
F=K*Eq12
L=LO+.Eq13
=
8
3
a
.Eq14
Spring rate
K=
d
4
G
8D
3
a
=
..Eq15
i= (
231
0.115
6.9*(4-
3
6.5
) Mpa.Eq16
Fi=
...Eq17
P =
2
..EQ18
=KB*
8
3
..Eq19
Given data
4C12, take c =10
d=6mm
3Na15, take Na=15
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From equation 11,
D =C*d =6*10mm =60mm
DO=D+d=60+6=66mm
From equation2,
KA =
410
2
+101
410 (101)
=1.14
From equation8
Nb=Na-
= 15--
80/
210/
=14.6
From equation7
XO=2(60-6)+(14.6+1)*6=202mm
Maximum force applied to the spring is given as
M=21 kg and g=9.81m/s,
F=m*g =35*9.81N =206N
From equation 16, Initial shear stress is given by,
i=
231
0.11510
6.9*(4-
103
6.5
)=88.26N/mm
2
From equation 17,
Fi=
6
3
88.26
81.1460
N=109.45N
Maximum tensile stress calculated as
A =KA*[
16
+
4
]
A =1.14*[
1620660
(6)
+
4206
(6)
]
A =340.5Mpa
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It is therefore less than allowable shear stress, and the design is safe.
From equation5, KB calculated as
KB=
410+2
4103
=1.135
From equation 4, bending shear stress of the spring is calculated,
B= 1.135*
820660
6
N/mm
2
=165.4N/mm
2
From Equation16,
=
820660
3
15
6
4
8010
=51.5mm
L=LO+
X=202mm+51.5mm=253.5mm
Then, K=
=
FFi
K* =F-Fi,
K=
=
(206109.45)
(253.5202)
=1.9N/mm
From equation 18, pitch of the coil calculated as,
P =
253.526
15
=16mm
From equation 19, factor of safety calculated as,
ns=
8
=
4206
3
1.135820660
N/mm =2.54
5.7 Bearings design
Bearings are machine elements that allow components to move with respect to each other. There
are two types of bearings, contact and noncontact. Contact-type bearings have mechanical
contact between elements, and they include sliding, rolling, and flexural bearings. Mechanical
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59
contact means that stiffness normal to the direction of motion can be very high, but wear or
fatigue can limit their life.
5.7.1 Bearing selection
Rolling contact bearings
Rolling contact bearing classified as ball bearing and roller bearing. But for the proposed design
radial ball bearing is selected as a best due to its high speed of rotation.
Fig.3.8 Radial ball bearing
Advantages of Rolling Contact Bearings over Sliding Contact Bearings
Advantages
Low starting and running friction except at very high speeds.
Ability to withstand momentary shock loads.
Accuracy of shaft alignment.
Low cost of maintenance, as no lubrication is required while in service.
Small overall dimensions.
Reliability of service.
Easy to mount and erect.
Cleanliness.
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Standard Dimensions and Designations of Ball Bearing
Fig 3.9 Principal dimensions for radial ball bearings.
Bore diameter is equal to the shaft diameter, d=25.4mm
Outer diameter of the bearing is D=80mm for bearing number 405 and width of the bearing
W=21mm
Bearing Life calculations
The life of an individual ball (roller) bearing may be defined as the number of revolutions (or
hours at some given constant speed) which the bearing runs before the first evidence of fatigue
develops in the material of one of the rings or any of the rolling elements.
The rating life of a group of apparently identical ball r roller bearings is defined as the number of
revolutions (or hours at some given constant speed) that 90 per cent of a group of bearings will
complete or exceed before the first evidence of fatigue develops (i.e. Only 10 per cent of a group
of bearings fail due to fatigue).
The term minimum life is also used to denote the rating life. It has been found that the life which
50 per cent of a group of bearings will complete or exceed is approximately 5 times the life
which 90 per cent of the bearings will complete or exceed. In other words, we may say that the
average life of a bearing is 5 times the rating life (or minimum life). It may be noted that the
longest life of a single bearing is seldom longer than the 4 times the average life and the
maximum life of a single bearing is about 30 to 50 times the minimum life.
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S,No Bearing applications Life of bearing, in hours
1 Machines working 8 hours per day and not always fully
utilized. E.g. stationary electric motors, general purpose
gear units.
12 000 20 000
Table. Life of bearings for the designed machine. [1]
LH =12,000..From table for machine for 8 hour
Dynamic Equivalent Load for ball Bearings
Life of bearing B in revolution
L=60N*LH=60*12000=7.2*10
5
rev
Equivalent radial load =
+
, for all ball bearing x=1 and y=o,FA=0
Shaft reaction force is 78N use as radial load.
Load (P) =XFR=1*78=58N
Dynamic Load Rating for Rolling Contact Bearings under Variable loads. The approximate
rating (or service) life of ball or roller bearings is based on the fundamental Equation,
C=P (
10
6
)
1/k,
where L =7.2*10
5
REV
K =3, for ball bearing
W =78N
C =78N*(
720000
10
6
)
1/3
C =69.9
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5.7.2Lubricants
Lubrication of Ball and Roller Bearings
The ball and roller bearings are lubricated for the following purposes:
To reduce friction and wear between the sliding parts of the bearing,
To prevent rusting or corrosion of the bearing surfaces,
To protect the bearing surfaces from water, dirt etc., and
To dissipate the heat / carry away the heat generated by friction.
All lubricants are classified into the following three groups:
Liquid
Semi-liquid and
Solid
1) Liquid lubricant
The liquid lubricants usually used in bearings are mineral oils and synthetic oils.
The mineral oils are most commonly used because of their cheapness and stability. The liquid
lubricants are usually preferred where they may be retained.
2) Semi-liquid lubricant
Grease is a semi-liquid lubricant having higher viscosity than oils. The greases are employed
where slow speed and heavy pressure exist and where oil drip from the bearing is undesirable.
3) Solid lubricants
The solid lubricants are useful in reducing friction where oil films cannot be maintained because
of pressures or temperatures. They should be softer than materials being lubricated. Graphite is
the most common of the solid lubricants either alone or mixed with oil or grease.
Properties of Lubricants
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Viscosity
Oiliness
Density
Viscosity index.
Flash point
Fire point
Fire point
Pour point or freezing point
1. Viscosity. It is the measure of degree of fluidity of a liquid. It is a physical property by virtue
of which oil is able to form, retain and offer resistance to shearing a buffer film-under heat and
pressure. The greater the heat and pressure, the greater viscosity is required of a lubricant to
prevent thinning and squeezing out of the film.
2. Oiliness. It is a joint property of the lubricant and the bearing surfaces in contact. It is a
measure of the lubricating qualities under boundary conditions where base metal to metal is
prevented only by absorbed film.
3. Density. This property has no relation to lubricating value but is useful in changing the
kinematic viscosity to absolute viscosity. The density of most of the oils at 15.5C varies from
860 to 950 kg / m3 (the average value may be taken as 900 kg / m3).
4. Viscosity index. The term viscosity index is used to denote the degree of variation of viscosity
with temperature.
5. Flash point. It is the lowest temperature at which oil gives off sufficient vapors to support a
momentary flash without actually setting fire to the oil when a flame is brought within 6 mm at
the surface of the oil.
6. Fire point. It is the temperature at which oil gives off sufficient vapor to burn it continuously
when ignited.
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64
7. Pour point or freezing point. It is the temperature at which oil will cease to flow when
cooled.
Chapter six
6.1 Roller conveyor selection
A roller conveyor system is a common piece of mechanical handling equipment that moves
materials from one location to another. Roller Conveyor systems allow quick and efficient
transportation for a wide variety of materials, which make them very popular in the material
handling and packaging industries. A roller track for a roller conveyor, comprising a wall
arrangement, and a longitudinally-extending array of freely rotatable roller units supported on
the wall for supportive engagement with a load, the roller units being disposed for rotation about
generally parallel horizontal axes which are horizontally spaced along a longitudinally-extending
conveying direction, each roller unit including an annular roller housing supported through an
annular array of antifriction bearing elements on a support frame for rotation about the respective
horizontal axis.
Fig,3.10 roller conveyor
The principal characteristics that typify all the roller conveyors are:
Long service life,
quality of all components,
high efficiency and
Economy of use.
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65
Roller body
It is Consists of a steel tube of adequate thickness and diameter to match the required use,
machined at either end to allow maximum precision in the assembly of the roller. Bearing
housings are positioned at either end by welding or by deep swaging. The design of the housings,
of strong and rigid construction, has been developed using a computerized system that
determines their thickness in relation to the maximum load required for various types of rollers.
Spindle
The spindle is the load carrying component of the roller and must be sized in relation to the load
and the roller length. It is important not to overload the roller due to the resultant excessive
deflection of the spindle which in turn places irregular pressure on the bearing, and reduces, as a
consequence, the roller life.
Standard Dimensions of rollers [14]
Pitch of roller should be such that minimum of three rollers must remain under load at all
times.
Spacing is generally kept at 8cm, 10 cm or 15 cm.
Diameter of rollers range from 2cm to 8cm
Dimensions for the proposed design should be:-
Diameter of roller, d=50 mm
Spacing between roller =80mm
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66
Chapter seven
7.1 Cooling system
Cooling system for this cobblestone shaping machine uses gravity to discharge water simply
from tank to the cutter blade disc of the machine. It is a simple means and do not uses pump.
Water cooling in cobblestone shaping is a means of cooling which absorb heat from the cutter
blade, and it also removes chip and dust during operation. During water cooling heat transfer
from cutter to water. Cooling system is inexpensive, non-toxic, higher specific heat capacity,
density, and thermal conductivity. This allows water to transmit heat over greater distances with
much less volumetric flow and reduced temperature difference.
The aims of cooling system in cobblestone shaping machine are
To reduce the heat produced at cutting zone due to high cutting speed.
To cool and clean the work piece, cutting tool and to keep the chip away from the cutting
point properly.
Using cutting fluids in machining include reduced deformation of work piece better
surface finish machining.
By using viscous lubricants have to reduce the protection cost as well as to minimize the
production time taken to cut the work piece. And also get high production rates with
better surface finish. This is mainly affected selection of suitable machining parameters
like cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut according to cutting tool and work
piece material finish and higher material removal rate.
Components used in cooling system
Reservoir or water tank
Valves
Pipe
Hose
Water tank: - is a container which is used to store water. During shaping process it needs water
for cooling purpose due to this reason stored water from tank can be discharge.
Dimensions of water tank
Height (h) =100cm Height =2.5m
Radius(r) =22.64cm
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67
Volume =0.4m
3
Fig3.11,watertank
Density of water () =1000kg/m
3
Pressure= *g*h==1000kg/m
3
*9.81m/s
2
*2.5m=24.5kpa (KN/m
2
)
m=*v
m=1000kg/m
3
*0.4m
3
=400kg
F=mass*gravity
F=400kg*9.81m/s
2
=392N
P=F/A
A=F/P =3924N/24500N/m
2
=0.161m
2
Assume h=1m
Area, A=r
2
h
0.161m
2
=r
2
h
r=0.2264m
Relief Valve:- a is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of water by opening,
closing, or partially obstructing passage ways in shaping process. In an open valve, fluid flows in
a direction from higher pressure to lower pressure. Valve regulates pressure by creating special
pressure conditions and by controlling how much water will flow in portions of a circuit and
where it will go.
Fig3.12, control valve
Pipe:-is hollow cylinder used to transport water from tank to cooling system. Proper sizing of the
tube for cooling system results in an optimum combination of efficient and cost effective
performance. A tube that is too small causes high fluid velocity, which has many detrimental
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68
effects. In pressure lines, it causes high friction losses and turbulence, both resulting in high
pressure drops and heat generation. Too large of a tube increases system cost. By these reason
we have select the recommended values of the internal and external diameter of pipe is: - pipe
(O.D. =46mm, wall thickness=5mm)
Sieve: - A sieve is a device for separating rock elements from water material. After coiling
process powder contain small size rocks, this can be filtered for reusing of coolant. From U.S.
standard mesh sieve sizes 4mm. [15]
Fig.3.18 sieve
Water recycling process
Water recycling is a process to change used water into new products to prevent waste of water,
reduce the consumption of fresh raw water, reduce energy usage and environmental pollution.
Sedimentation:-process is the deposition of small rock by natural gravities. After sedimentation
water can be recycled. Sedimentation tank is used to hold water and sediments after cooling.
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Sedimentation tank
Rectangle area (A) =width * length
=50cm*70cm=3500cm
2
Volume (V) =lengthen*width*height
=70*50*60=210000cm
3
Fig3.21 sedimentation tank
Chapter eight
8.1 Electric motor selection
Electric motors are used as a prime mover for driving various machines and pump sets in
industry, agriculture and domestic application. Electric motor has over riding advantages of easy
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starting and control, low cost, clean operation, easier maintenance, lesser space and its great
versatility to be adapted to wide ranges of loads and improved efficiencies. The function of an
electric motor is to convert electrical energy in to mechanical energy and consists of a stator
housed in the body with rotor mounted on shaft, which is free to rotate in bearings.
Direct current motors:-these motors are quite expensive requiring a direct current Source or a
converting device to convert normal alternating current into direct current. They are capable of
operating with adjustable speeds over a wide range and are perfectly suited for accurate and
flexible speed control. Therefore, their use is restricted to special applications where these
requirements compensate the much higher installation and maintenance costs.
The cutter was controlled by a DC motor. The performance of the DC motor controlled
diamond cutter was mainly evaluated for its dynamic performance. The main indicators of the
dynamic performance for the DC motor controlled cutter in this the response speed and operating
stability. The speed of the dynamic response was demonstrated by the rise time. It is a very
important specification in assessing the dynamic performance of the cutter. A smaller rise time
means a faster response. To achieve the design, dynamic response of the cutter was required to
be as fast as possible; however, this response was limited by the operating stability
considerations of the complete system. The cutter had to work in a stable manner, which means
without limit cycles, under various loading conditions [9].
To achieve the best performance of the cutter, the DC motor controller was required to meet the
following requirements:
Fast dynamic response (small rise time) at any operating point and
Stable operation (elimination of any limit cycle oscillations) under various loading
conditions.
Based on the design conditions, proper motor selection considered which performs high
efficiency of the cutter. The selected motor has 7.5 KW and also has 2750 rpm.
Chapter nine
Benefits and Beneficiaries of the project
9.1 Benefits of the project
Reduce cost of production by minimizing materials cost.
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71
Increase customers satisfaction by increasing quality of the product.
Decrease fatigue and risk of the workers.
Increase production by using resources effectively.
Create comfortable working conditions.
Can be used as a reference and guide line for further studies.
9.2 Beneficiaries of the project
The beneficiaries of the project are all private and public consumers, such as:-Urban centers for
different construction purpose, such as paving roads (streets), real estate companies, and Bridge
construction companies in urban and rural areas. Cobblestone is an important sector in creating
jobs in quarrying and paving streets and roads. Employment in cobblestone sectors is open to all,
focuses largely on unemployed women and youth, disabled working people, TVET graduates
and other.
Limitation
Lack of research related to saw blade with cobblestone.
Power interruption during when we done project.
Lack of data and information about cobblestone
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Chapter ten
Cost estimation of the project
Cost estimation for the completion of the project, including manufacturing cost of the machine
represented in table as follows.
S.No Materials Quantity Average unit cost Price
(birr)
Total cost
1 Electric
motor(7.5kw)
1 1,890 1890
2 Cobblestone
cutting diamond
blade
2 977/piece
1954
3 Shaft 3 666.66 2000
4 Bearing 34 195.46 6,644
5 Pulley 2 391/piece 782
6 Belt 1 300 300
7 Sheet metal ----- 1500 1500
8 Bolts and nut 12 19.58 235
9 Upright frame 2 300 600
10 beam 2 2000 4000
11 Rollers
14 143
2000
12 Total 8382.7 21905 birr
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Chapter eleven
11.1 Conclusion
Existing Cobblestone production in the country is one of the cobblestone shaping methods that
encounter different problems in inefficient production capacity, large time consumption and
excess raw material wastage, less quality products, high production and labor cost, safety and
environmental hazardous. This is unable to satisfy customers needs. Therefore, in this project,
the problem of cobblestone shaping methods in the production line in the country specifically
Addis Ababa has been taken as an initiative for designing this cobble stone shaping machine.
Cobblestone shaping process of Addis Ababa cobblestone production is characterized by manual
shaping process. Manual shaping method shows that a simple way of cobblestone shaping
mechanism by man hand using chisels and hammers. These leads to conclude that the processes
have negative consequences on workers health, environment , production cost as well as
production capacity and quality and improper management of materials and time resources. To
overcome this problem, mechanically operating cobblestone shaping machine required. From
this design, the production center can get good quality of end product and more profit. To ensure
that; properly using of this machine cause effective and efficient of this production center. In
Addition to this, the machine has significant advantages, since; it does not need professional
person, easily operative and save time. Finally, this project makes the cobblestone production
centers to be efficient and achievable. From the overall design consideration, and analysis done
on this project, what we conclude that, the machine can performs the expected efficiency. It is
designed and assembled with the given dimension and the selected material, to manufacture this
machine; it requires the departments budget so in our stay we cover the design of overall basic
part.
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11.2 Recommendation
The cost of cobblestone production can be minimized by maintaining the optimum efficiency of
the cutters and reducing improper utilizations of time for shaping cobblestone. The profitability
of the enterprise highly depends on the production capacity and effective utilization of energy
and resources. But, the existing cobblestone shaping methods have severe problem in
cobblestone production centers which highly affects the profitability of the cobblestone
production. Depending on this project and technical feasibility, the following recommendations
are suggested:-
Knowledge of the costs involved in cobblestone shaping process is important in determining the
severity of the problem. The total operational costs arising from cobblestone shaping at the
production centers are not fully determined due to lack of information on some cost
elements. It is recommended that Addis Ababa cobblestone production centrs should consider
implementing a system for determining production related costs so that severity of the
shaping process easily raveled. For the long term solution of the problem, Addis Ababa
cobblestone production centers should implement automatically shaping technology to increase
high quality products, to increase production capacity, to reduce environmental hazards.
Mechanically working cobblestone chapping machine can satisfy the customers need in any
street and constructions projects. In order to obtain realistic efficiency and eliminating of labor
forces, the enterprise (company) should use this mechanized machine.
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75
11.3 Reference
1) A textbook of machine design by R.S. KHURMI J.K. GUPTA, 2005, first multicolor edition
2) Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design, Eighth Edition by BudynasNisbett
3) Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design Ninth Edition by Richard G. Budynas
4) Geology and the development of upstate new Yorks distinctive cobblestone architecture
5) Swartout, B. C, 1980, Survey of Cobblestone Buildings in Ontario County, working
documents on file with the Landmark Society of Western New York, Rochester.
6) National historic landmark nomination
7) Obert L. & Duvall W. I., 1967. Rock mechanics and design of the structures in rocks,
John Wiley & Sons, 650pp.
8) UN-Habitat 2013, Scroll of Honor Award Competition Proposal.
9) Small cobblestone enterprise proposals of 2005-2009
10) Road construction enterprises researches.
11) Product design and development project.
12) Manufacturing industries researches.
13) Diamond Saw Blade Overview
14) Material handling equipment
15) U.S. standard mesh sieve
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11.4 Parts drawing
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77
Stone feeder and conveyer
Cover
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78
Roller
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79
Bearings
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81
Extension Spring
Pulley
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Blade
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11.5 Assembly drawing