Helpful Tips for Writing a Thesis

Part I – Introduction

The following pages are written assuming that you have already selected a topic,
designed your study, and had your proposal accepted. You now face the writing. Writing
is not the insurmountable obstacle you imagine if you will use the following suggested
guidelines. There is no easy way to overcome inadequacies in logic or language control.
But, if you will read this set of instructions carefully, you will find a step-by-step process
whereby you can begin with the raw idea of your design and terminate with an
acceptable copy for your thesis committee.

To Whom Do You Write?

While writing, you must remember that you are directing your remarks to a broader
audience than your own discipline. You must meet not only your advisor's requirements,
but also the requirements of a second reader. Furthermore, your thesis will be available
in the library and may be read by people of other disciplines. Therefore, the thesis must
be able to communicate to a broad audience.

Your particular style of writing will emerge in the initial chapters of your rough draft. Your
advisor will try as much as possible to let you retain your style, but at the same time
directs you toward good expository writing. For some of you this process will be most
difficult because you are used to writing in high abstraction with absence of operational
definitions. For others, the writing will be difficult because you insist upon using
elaborate constructions, which confuse the reader. However, for a happy few of you,
writing will be no trouble at all because you have already acquired the habit of scientific
exposition, and a simple and straightforward writing style.
 How to Get Started

Writing a thesis can have the same overwhelming effect on the future author that writing
a book can have. If you sit down to write a thesis you will probably be "immobilized."
Instead, consider approaching the task by deciding to write chapters. If you set small
goals for yourself around the chapter production and use the detailed outline in the
following section, you will find that the task readily begins to fall into place.. (In fact, it
might help you to start if you expand or adopt the suggested outline into a table of
contents, realizing that as you progress you will put your own stamp of creativity and
originality on the skeleton.)

The point of writing in smaller units needs to be examined further. Generally, in one
sitting, it is more efficient to write a complete section--such as a chapter--and then go
back and rewrite the rough spots. If you write in too small a unit, you will find that your
writing begins to degenerate in creative quality and become filled with "dead"
vocabulary. The experience of seasoned writers has been that writing progresses most
rapidly when they write a section, let it "set" for two or three days, edit it carefully,
looking for particular weaknesses, and then let it "set" for two or three days more,
editing again where necessary. At the end of this time, the copy may be ready to show
to some sympathetic friend or editor for critical analysis.

Getting started on thesis writing has more to it than just developing an outline.
When you have determined your topic and design, you might try writing the outline from
the sections which are described in the following pages. Immediately thereafter, label a
file folder for each chapter with the outline of that chapter inked on the face of the folder.
On the back of the folder, list the types of information that have to be included for your
final writing in that chapter. In this way, as you progress through your study - whether it
be descriptive, predictive, experimental or literature review - you will find that you will be
accumulating the necessary information for the final stage of assimilation. Without
taking such precaution, you can find yourself in the embarrassing position of needing a
particular bit of information, such as a current reference, and not having it. The chapter-
by-chapter file folders are convenient for keeping notes to remind yourself of necessary
processes and incidental kinds of information which is accumulated as you go through
the research experience. Then you will find that when you finally start to write the
chapter the basic relevant material will be there and your task of writing a meaningful
thesis is simplified.

Part II – Outline of the Thesis

The format of a thesis has become fairly standardized. It is not necessary for you to
"invent the wheel" all over again. Each chapter has its usual content and if you will
examine the following sections carefully, you will find a way to organize your own
particular thesis. It should be stressed that this outline is a flexible one and is subject to
alteration as your needs dictate. Note: Please see Appendix B for an outline of the
chapter of a thesis.

The number of chapters a thesis should have depends on what you care to emphasize.
Remember that a chapter designation is used to highlight a particularly important
subject or concept. Most theses in Criminal Justice will have five chapters; (1)
Introduction: statement of the problem, (2) review of literature, (3) design of study or
methodology, (4) analysis of results and (5) summary, conclusions, and
recommendations.

In some cases it may be necessary to expand to six and even seven chapters. For
example, chapters are added when: (a) a new research instrument is produced as part
of the study, (b) the findings are distinctly divisible into two or more sections, or (c) the
theory needs separate and extensive development. You will have to make such
decisions as you progress. The following is assuming your thesis has five chapters.
Please note that the titles of each chapter are as they should be in the actual thesis.
 CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Chapter I is sub-divided into the statement of the problem, need, purpose, hypothesis,
theory (if used), terms and definitions, and over-view of thesis. (Theory may be
developed in a separate chapter if it is highly original or sufficiently elaborate.)

Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem is a succinct and clear explanation of “what is broken that
needs fixing.” Is there an absence of literature on the topic that the student is writing
about? Is the study a replication of a previous study? What is this student going to do that
other studies have not done?
Need
For some reason many students find this section one of the most difficult of the entire
thesis. You might fall back on the old high school and college English theme trick -force
yourself to start to write while you think your problem is important and look carefully to
see if the second or third paragraph might be a better beginning than the one with which
you started.

This section need not be long but should clearly focus on why your particular study
should be done. It is difficult for a reader to distinguish between what you specifically
are doing and what is in the realm of a generalized approach when you commit yourself
to the salvation of the criminal justice system. Try to modestly relate what your research
might contribute, either to theory building or to understanding about the problem under
study or as a positive contribution to the literature. Purpose Here you need a distinct,
direct, short paragraph that explicitly states what your study is about. You cannot
wander and ramble for four or five paragraphs, weaving the ideas hither and yon, and
expect your readers to acquire the main intent of your writing. Somewhere in this
section you should write, preferably the first sentence, "The purpose of this study is .... .
There should be no question as to you are about.
 Hypothesis
As out of keeping as it may seem, tradition has it that the hypotheses appear in Chapter
1. Many students protest that they cannot write the hypotheses in the first chapter
because they generate them from the theory and the particular design of study. As
pertinent as this argument is, we suggest that you capitulate to the conservatives' point
of view and view the solution to the problem as follows: If you will state your hypotheses
in broad research form you will not encounter the internal resistance that comes as a
reaction to this apparent "jumping of the gun." Initially, your hypothesis should be a
succinct statement of the broad implications which you expect to find in your study. It
might make you feel a little better if you put a footnote to the effect that the hypotheses
are restated in testable form in Chapter 3.

Examine the following examples of a good first-chapter research hypothesis:

1. A positive relationship exists between unemployment and the increase in armed

robberies in the United States. Or,

2. Students who are taught following procedures 'Y' will achieve higher scores at
the end of treatment and one year later than will students who are taught
following the traditional "y" approach.

If you have difficulty in formulating hypotheses or your thesis design does not require a
hypothesis statement you may substitute, "General Research Questions." (See your
advisor for clarification.)

Theory
The elaboration of theory in the first chapter begins the tie-in with the Summary and
Conclusion chapter of your thesis. In this regard, it is similar to the first statement of the
hypothesis (above) which links the first chapter with your Design chapter and you
Analysis-of-Results chapter. The selection of theory is always difficult, particularly
because theories in criminal justice and the behavioral sciences tend to be extremely
broad and difficult to operationalize. You may select only some of the assumptions of a
broad theory, but remember that in this section you must bring your conceptualizations
down the hierarchy of abstraction to a point where they make sense for your study.
Remember also that a theory is not just "tacked" into the first chapter and then wantonly
forgotten. You must formulate this section so that you satisfactorily operationalize what
it is that you are trying to describe, predict, or control.

Terms and Definitions

To ensure clear understanding of your thesis, ambiguous terms must be defined in the
context of your writing, e.g., terms such as terrorism, criminal, corruption, aggression,
etc., must be specifically defined by the writer. You can begin this section with the
sentence "To ensure a clear understanding of this thesis, terms used throughout the
study are here defined".

Overview
You will note that the first and last chapters do not have summaries. Instead, by
tradition, you tell the reader how you are going to treat him in the middle sections of
your "magnum opus" by including an overview of the thesis in the last section of the first
chapter. You start by describing what you will do in Chapter 2, then 3, stopping short of
the final chapter, which is, itself, a summary and conclusion,

Beware! A most common error is to animate chapters. That is, do not write, "Chapter 2
reviews the literature ...... Chapters do nothing! You do things in chapters! Therefore,
the statement should read, "In Chapter 2, the pertinent literature is reviewed." (The
above is meant only as an example--not a dictum to have all students use this phrase in
their writings. Put it into your own style.)

Finally, the overview should end with a transitional phrase or statement which will lead
from Chapter I into Chapter 2.
 CHAPTER 2
Review of the Literature
When you begin the review of the literature, you should give the reader a basic idea of
how you intend to treat him. You are not writing a mystery. Tell the reader who "done" it!
Show your plot! Reviewing literature may be particularly difficult because for some
topics you will have a hard time "hedging" in the beginning and ending of your review.
The more extensive the previous work, the more difficult the preparation of the
Literature chapter becomes. Following are some suggestions which may be of help to
you. (If you have chosen a topic on which there has been little previous research, do not
panic.) It is acceptable for you to review two or three closely related studies and no
more.

You may find, on the other hand, two or three areas of investigation that relate to what
you are doing. Then you face the question of which of these to review in depth, or
whether it is necessary for you to review all of them. Generally, the solution is worked
out as follows:

1. You review in depth those studies which are similar to yours, indicating their
strengths and weaknesses and how their findings might be incorporated or
improved upon in your research design;

2. and , you put those aspects which have a bearing on your problem but are not
directly related into a general review of several paragraphs or pages to bring the
reader closer to your particular problem.

In such a case, you may cite summaries that others have pulled together on the topic. It
is highly unlikely that any area of high "investigatory saturation" has not, somewhere
along the line, been reviewed in either a professional journal or a doctoral dissertation.
Remember that you are responsible for the authenticity of the summary, so you should
read the original accounts of investigation that are particularly germane to your study, in
other words, go directly to the original source, avoid secondary sources.
It is especially desirable to include a discussion section at the end of the literature
review, in which the implications of the previous studies are pulled together and the
direction you will be taking in the third chapter is pointed out. Some of you will find that a
separate section labeled "Discussion of Previous Research" is a comfortable way to go
about this articulation. Others will prefer to put their overall observations in the
"Summary" section. Other times a table or figure in which you summarize the major
research components and findings can serve as a useful device to help your reader
comprehend the various elements of the studies you reviewed.

The summary section of the review of the literature should include some of the major
findings of your review. You must remember that committee members may only have
time to read the summaries of some of your chapters. Therefore, give the committee
facts, data, and the important information. Then, too, since you will have read other
peoples' theses, you should begin to feel some compassion for those who follow you
and will have to figure out what you were doing! The summary is where you give a
succinct account of your contributions.

CHAPTER 3
Design of the Study or Methodology
The third chapter is your "map of operation" in which you describe your sample,
operational measures, testable hypotheses, design, and analysis. For many of you it will
be a "rewrite" of the proposal, which you prepared for earlier courses. Check with your
advisor before making any major "detours."

Sample
Specify the nature of your sample, indicating the population from which it came. Give
the sex, age, range, geographical location and all other vital demographic data you can
accumulate on your particular group. This is important because future researchers may
want to replicate your study (when you become famous for your discoveries).
Remember, unnecessary arguments can be forestalled if you have adequately defined
the sample.

Measures
Specify the nature of the devices you have used for measuring the characteristics you
are studying. Also, include your reliability estimates for your particular sample. Many
of you express an inclination to move reliability findings into the analysis of results
chapter. This is an inappropriate move because when you calculate the reliability for the
particular group you studied, you are merely trying to establish the soundness of your
independent variable; therefore, what you find cannot, in all honesty, be classified as a
result.
The fact that it is necessary for you to establish the reliability of your instruments on
your samples cannot be emphasized too much! The figures reported in the
standardization manual are not sufficient to explain or define the reliability of your own
samples. Low reliability might be one explanation for negative or "flip flop" results.
As stated previously, if you have developed a new instrument and you think it should be
seen as a particular contribution, you may want to write a separate chapter on
instrumentation.
Design
Tell your reader what plan you will follow in arriving at probability statements about the
nature of the variables you incorporate into your study. If you do an experimental study,
standard terminology such as "felony" or "misdemeanor" will be sufficient to
communicate to your reader what you intend, provided you also diagram the
adaptations you made to your problem. You may find it useful to cite Campbell and
Stanley's "Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research," Chicago: Rand
McNally, 1976, for descriptions of certain variations of "true" experimental designs. In
other cases, you may simply name the plan appropriate for your data, such as
"predictive" or "descriptive" in nature. Remember, the design of your study is the
framework you are to follow. Make the plan explicit to your reader.
 Testable Hypotheses

It is now time to restate your statistical or testable hypotheses. However, you still may
not state them specifically. The hypotheses will be broader in nature than those used in
the analysis chapter, but not as broad as stated in Chapter 1. If you have directional
hypotheses these are also stated. In other words, you will state your null hypotheses
and their directional alternates. (Because it is so thoroughly understood that you will test
the null before examining the alternate hypotheses, some authors only state the
alternates. If you are not confused on this issue, the procedure is acceptable.

Students find it helpful to translate the hypothesis from word statements to symbols.
Both ways are illustrated below. Note that the word "significant" would be redundant
because you are testing for significance.

Null hypothesis: No difference will be found in empathy as measured by average test

performance between police officers and probation officers.
Symbolically: Ho; M, = M2
Legend: M, = Police officers mean; M2 = Probation officers group mean
Alternate hypothesis: The police officers group mean score on a measure of
empathy will exceed that of the probation officer group.
Symbolically: H1a ; M1 = M2
Legend: M, = Police officers mean; M2 = Probation officers group mean

Analysis
Designate which models you will use to test your hypotheses. It helps if you include a
discussion of the appropriateness of the models and any assumptions. If you make
certain assumptions about the nature of your data, such as normality or homogeneity,
give the reader cues to help understand why you think they are warranted. Remember,
too, that you should use the most powerful model appropriate for your data. You need
not state commonly acceptable statistical formulas, nor do you need to derive them for
the readers' benefit. This activity is merely "padding" and annoys your readers.
However, if you use a statistical formula, which is not generally accessible or known to
the reader, you should state it with full interpretation of all symbols.
Summary
Write a meaningful summary, letting the reader know in a few specific statements what
it is that you are using as a "map for your hunting license."

CHAPTER IV
Analysis of Results
The three previous, chapters serve to prepare your reader for the "main course." It is in
The Analysis Chapter that you present findings that come from the data you have
gathered and analyzed. Incidentally, do not be dismayed if you get negative findings. It
is disappointing, but perfectly acceptable if you have developed an appropriate design
and followed it. Present your results in the same order in which you presented your
hypotheses in Chapter I. Use tables to summarize and pull together information
wherever appropriate to do so.

Organization of Analysis Chapter

The general procedure for presenting data is to restate your hypothesis, show your data
with probability statement of reject or accept, and then make a statement about whether
the hypothesis was rejected or accepted. Do not begin to interpret the meaning of your
data at the same time that you present your data to the reader. You may want to do this
in Chapter 5 under a title labeled Discussion. The combination of presentation and
discussion can sway your reader and bias conclusions about what you have done.

The combination of presentation and discussion can sway your reader and bias

Restatement of Hypotheses
For each section of your analysis, begin with a statement of the hypothesis under
consideration. If you have stated the hypothesis in Chapter III in symbolic form,
restatement in symbolic form in this section is completely appropriate. However, your
statement of hypothesis should be specifically related to the instrument used for its
testing.
 Interpretation of Results

There are three conditions which can result from your analysis. Consider each of these
conditions carefully. Each has its own peculiar hang-ups.

1. Condition 1: "Not So Good" You failed to reject your null hypotheses. Do not say
that you accept your null hypotheses and that no differences between groups
exist. You do not prove equality by failing to reject the null hypotheses. All you
know is that there is not a statistical difference. Establishing equality or identity
requires more sophisticated testing than normally included in master's theses.
Negative results do not necessarily mean your study is unacceptable, only that
your "rabbit test" is disappointing. Watch the temptation to write about
"approaching significance."

2. Condition 2: "All Systems Go!" You win! You have rejected your null
hypothesis and accepted your alternate hypothesis: you are in the grand position
of having lots of "goodies" to relate to your theory and interpret in your conclusion
section.

3. Condition 3: "Nice Try" You reject your null! But, oops, the alternate is contrary
to prediction. You lose! Accept fate. Do not try to rationalize the many mysteries
of nature. For all practical purposes your findings lead to conclusions similar to
condition "Not So Good." Accept the fact that you made predictions which were
either not right or at least not verified by your data. The findings suggest revising
theory, but be sure you make suggestions in a section separate from your result
section or some readers may misunderstand.

Note: Sometimes you find combinations of the above conditions from one replication to
another. In such cases be conservative, assume your findings are unstable, and try to
identify conditions such as low-measure reliability which resulted in such a catastrophe.
 Statements of Significance
Do not commit the sin of saying your results approach significance. You either have
significance or you don't. There are no near misses in statistical analysis, unless you
consistently find an alpha level over a number of studies. Trends are not interpretable
on a single study; you just lucked out, even though the magnitude of the value of the
statistic is only a few points from that required for your specified alpha level. Remember,
error can vacillate below as well as above a point.

Summary
This section becomes the last of your summaries. Sometimes it is helpful to make a
table which summarizes hypotheses tested, the significance level, and statement of
reject or accept. This is a helpful procedure if you have tested a number of hypotheses.
In any event give your reader "meaty" material--facts, just the facts!

CHAPTER 5
Summary and Conclusions

In the last chapter you collate your summaries (it sounds repetitious and it undoubtedly
is), state your conclusions, discuss the implications of the results for your theory, and
set up the theses of your fellow graduate students and your own future research
endeavors.

Summary
Writing the major summary is a difficult job because usually you are so loaded with
information, tables, data, and interpretations that you find narrowing yourself down to a
few words almost impossible. However, see if in a few pages you can bring your reader
from the beginning to the end of your contribution to the science of behavior. It is
perfectly permissible to go back and lift paragraphs and-sentences from summaries in
the body of your report. Furthermore, if this section is carefully enough written it can be
adapted easily for the abstract which is necessary for the completion of your thesis.
 Conclusions
You should bring your conclusions to the attention of your reader. In general, a listing of
the findings by number, blocked and indented, helps the reader to see unquestionably
what you found.

Discussion
Here is your chance to integrate the findings of your study with the theory that you might
have employed in the first chapter. You should come to some conclusions and not
merely raise questions about what you have done. Particularly is this true if you have
positive findings in your study. It is permissible in the discussion section of your thesis to
quote others' findings and to raise some general doubts about the previous research if
your is in contradiction to what others have found.

Implications for Future Research

Be careful in this section. Your tendency will be to have the next investigator
discovering "God, mother, and country!" Narrow it down to an extension of what you
think should have been done or could have been done, now that you know something
about going through the labyrinth of research yourself You can "sky" dream a little, but
don't go too far afield.

Appendices

Do not fill chapters with irrelevant details. Picayune details may be put in the appendix
for the specialist who may want to replicate your study. These details will not be lost to
the few who may want access to them and yet they do not "clutter up" the main study.

The appendixes (or appendices) are labeled in order of their appearance in the body of
your report. That is, those things that are first mentioned in the body becomes the first
appendix and those that are mentioned later become second, third, and fourth
appendix. Following the appendices is the last piece of information--the bibliography.
Needless to say the bibliography should be comprehensive and current.
 PART III - STYLE OF WRITING

The style of scientific writing is different from other forms of written communication. You
must write so that your reader has no doubt what you actually are describing or
intending. Therefore, you will have to dispense with using indefinite, vague, and
nefarious references.

Expression
All of us acquire a set of loaded words or phrases with which we harangue readers at
random.

In terms of
This expression is freely battered about in criminal justice writing. Rewrite the sentence
to remove it completely.

As to
Here is a phrase that is cumbersome and awkward. Generally the word "to" will suffice,
or "about" is appropriate.

Etc.
In scientific writing we do not use etc. If you use the word "such as" then give some
illustration or example and cut it off with that.

Indefinite Person
You use the indefinite person in thesis writing. To be more explicit you do not use
pronouns such as, "you," "our," and "we." Furthermore, you do not refer to yourself
except on rare, rare occasions. Some of you will fall into the habit of stating "the
author..." You will be allowed this luxury only a few times in your scientific publications,
say after your third book.
Tense
Much energy is spent trying to decide what to do -about tense in thesis writing. Please
follow this procedure! In the first chapter you will probably use the present tense and
you will also probably use the present tense in the paragraphs at the beginning of the
chapters where you let the reader in on what you're going to do. The rest of the thesis
should be in the past tense except for the suggestions for future research in the last
chapter.

Use of abbreviations
You may have a situation where you will repeat the name of a concept, such as a test,
throughout the body of your thesis. If you do, it is permissible to make a footnote and
use the capital letters of the words in the title. Be sure that you repeat the footnote in
your summaries and at the beginning of chapters, where you may lose your readers. Be
merciful in such endeavors because your reader may find himself in the position of
having to refer back and forth time and time again, trying to remember what it is you are
about. Some of our current professional journals are so saturated with such junk that
reading becomes a chore.

Spelling
You can be as certain as death that your advisor and reader will know when the
slightest letter is misplaced, inverted, or substituted, so beware of misspelling. You are
totally responsible for the accuracy of your copy. If you have trouble, hire an editor. In
fact, the services of an editor will greatly enhance the readability of your study. Check
with the English Department for editors.

This, These, That, Them, Many, Most

The excessive use of the above words indicates lack of clarity in writing. Avoid using
such words. Usually "the noun" will do.
 PART IV
Submitted for Reading
Your thesis will have to be read by both your advisor and second reader.

Advisor
When you turn copy in to your advisor, give him or her an outline of the total thesis and
at least two chapters. She will read them carefully and indicate her-reactions. Therefore,
be sure that you leave wide margins and that you double-space everything. It goes
without saying that this should be a typed copy.

After your advisor has read the first two chapters, you are to apply the criticisms to the
remaining chapters. You are not expected to retype the rough draft unless it is too
messy. Just make sure that when you hand the copy back to your advisor he can read
easily what it is that you have corrected. You may use inserts, pinned-on or staples
sheets, and whatever else your ingenuity will allow. Do not use scotch tape--it is too
hard to write over; a stapler is much better. Remember, rough draft is not an exercise in
perfection so use the most expedient way to show clearly how you have altered your
copy.

Reader
Some of you may want to present your rough draft to your second reader as you go
along. As a staff, we have not clearly defined whether this should be done or not.
Usually if a reader does agree to read your rough draft, he is doing you a favor because
the primary responsibility of the Advisor is to get the draft in shape so that the second
reader will approve it. If you have any doubts on this, check with your chair and reader
to see how they feel.

Final Copy After the copy is ready for final production, you can have it typed and the
required number of copies made. You should give the final copies to your advisor and
reader at least two weeks in advance for their final review. Courtesy requires that you
make a copy of your thesis for both your advisor and reader.

CHAPTER V
THE FINAL THRUST

When a thesis is finished, you still have some details to take care of.

Checking with the Graduate School Office You must check with the graduate
coordinator, both in the Division of Criminal Justice and the University Graduate Office
to be sure that all of your requirements have been met. Be sure that you go over your
courses carefully to determine if you have taken everything you contracted to take. At
the same time, acquire all the forms necessary for the advisor's and reader's signatures.

Furthermore, you should have an abstract of the thesis which your advisor signs.
Finally, you should have all of your courses cleared through the Graduate Coordinator.
One last point. There is a little sheet that you are asked to fill out which asks for
personal information. Be sure that you fill it out before you leave campus; otherwise you
may find at graduation that you came from a town somewhere in Hoboken, Alaska. If
you are trying to meet a deadline for graduation, remember that the Graduate Office will
under no circumstances certify you for graduation unless the copy is in their hands at
the specified date. Do not forget to thoroughly review the Graduate Studies Office
Manual of Thesis Preparation.