March 2001 PROCESSINGs 2001 Mixing, Blending & Size Reduction Handbook 1

The 2001
Mixing,
Blending
and Size
Reduction
Handbook
High shear mixing
advances for foods,
pharmaceuticals, cosmetics
p. 2
Mixing scale-up
speeds new products
to market
p. 5
A Putman Publication A supplement to Processing
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S
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The 2001
Mixing,
Blending
and Size
Reduction
Handbook
2 PROCESSINGs 2000 Mixing, Blending & Size Reduction Handbook
H
igh shear mixing equipment has been used in
hygienic processing industries over the past two
decades. The equipment that was first developed to
handle these difficult-to-dissolve formulas has con-
sistently been improved upon to allow for less wear-
ing parts, quicker processing, and easier cleaning.
These changes have allowed for even more applica-
tions that once required expensive homogenizers, low
flow colloid mills, high upkeep liqui-processors, and
other high-powered equipment. Beyond its applica-
bility in high viscosity creams and lotions and meat
tenderizers, high shear mixing is now used without
maintenance issues in such areas as the reconstitution
of milk powder, high temperature processes, and the
dissolving of abrasive materials, such as TiO2.
Background
High shear mixers are an important tool for dispersing solids
into liquids, emulsifying immiscible liquids, breaking down
solids and agglomerates, and other applications in which low
speed agitation is often not sufficient. One of the character-
istics that make high shear mixers different from traditional
low-to-moderate speed agitators is the use of high speed
motors, operating from 3600 rpm to as high as 10,000 rpm.
High speed mixers typically provide a very high degree of
shear and a low
level of pumping
and circulation.
Shear is produced
through a combi-
nation of hydraulic
forces, as the mix-
ing head turns at
very high speeds,
and by mechanical
forces, as particles
split when contact-
ing the edges of the
mixing blades, or
when forced
through slots, ports
or orifices.
The Evolution of the Mixing Heads of Today
The first few high shear mixing heads developed could
be classified as either an open-disk impeller type or a
closed rotor-stator type.These worked great with respect
to shear, but have limitations in other areas.
Special impellers such as an open-disk type rely mostly
on hydraulic shear rather than mechanical and cannot be
used for large batches without very high energy require-
ments. Open-disk mixers utilize a flat disk ranging in diam-
eter from 10 to 30 and saw teeth on the perimeter.
They are designed to
promote high shear
and particle reduc-
tion at moderate cir-
culation rates, but
they require very
high tip speeds (up
to 80 to 90 fps) for
total effectiveness.
Open-disk high
shear mixers have
found wide applica-
tion in the paint and
coating industry and
related markets.
Unfortunately, the
saw teethare worn down with products containing abra-
sives and require replacement frequently.
The closed rotating rotor-stator type of mixers relies on
somewhat different technology. The high shear rotor
develops a pressure differential immediately below the
rotor and the process material, causing the product to be
continuously drawn from the bottom of the vessel and
into the mixing head. Once the product enters the mix-
ing head, it is forced through the restricted openings of
the stator, where mechanical shear causes further particle
reduction. Most rotor-stator devices utilize a deflection
plate somewhere above the mixing head to create the
proper circulation pattern dictated by the process. These
units can operate effectively at lower tip speeds (50 to 60
fps) and therefore require less power than open-disk types.
They can be difficult to clean and do not provide enough
pumping on their own to mix very viscous products.
High shear mixing advances
for foods, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics
High shear disperser/dissolver
High shear emulsifier
PROCESSINGs 2000 Mixing, Blending & Size Reduction Handbook 3
The closed rotating rotor-stator mixer has been modified
to increase the positive aspects of both flow and shear.This
generation of high shear mixers utilized the rotor-stator
principle to create high shear, with the additional feature of
a revolving stator rather than conventional stationary types.
The revolving stator is driven by the fluid movement and
is restrained by friction and drag so that it rotates at approx-
imately 1/10th to 1/15th the speed of the rotor or motor
speed. The revolving stator has extended arms, which due
to the reduced speed, provide high pumping capacity with
minimal power requirements. These devices are normally
used in combination with special high flow propellers or
impellers mounted below the high shear head to increase
pumping while maintaining high shear.This type of head is
extremely efficient and very useful in such industries as
meat processing in preparing meat brines and tenderizers.
Virtually all of the problems associated with maintenance,
cleaning, and hygiene were solved with the development of
a new type of mixing head that uses a fixed rotor and stator
combined into one part, which does not require bushings.
Flow is drawn into the mixing head from above and below,
where all materials are immediately mechanically sheared by
teeth on the rotors at the top and bottom of the stator.The
two high velocity counter current streams converge within
the stator causing high turbulence and hydraulic shear, with-
out momentum loss from obstructions within the stator.
Hydraulic pressure forces material to the periphery of the
stator where it is subjected to further mechanical shear as
material passes through the sharpened slots.The high shear
velocity radial discharge combines the slower moving tank
flow for additional hydraulic shear and circulation.This new
design allows for good top to bottom motion within a tank,
high shear rates, great particle size reduction, mixing of high
viscosity fluids, and large batches with the benefit of CIP
capability and containing no wearing parts.
Advancements in Continuous Mixing
Not only have advancements been made with high shear
batch mixing, but also with high shear in-line mixing. Some
in-line mixers consist of an axial flow rotor and stator or a
radial flow rotor and stator. For even finer particle size
reduction, there are those featuring a system of interlocking
channels. While all work well with respect to emulsifying
and dissolving, there was room for improvement. Those
with axial rotors and stators cannot achieve high flow rates
in small sizes and also require shims to maintain the gap dis-
tance. Shims present cleaning and assembly issues. Radial
flow in-line mixers have higher pumping rates, which may
also correspond to larger motor requirements.
To avoid these problems, a design that combines the
different types of mixing has been developed.This design
consists of both an axial stage and a radial stage, allowing
for the benefits of both. The high flow from the radial
stage is obtained, but power is kept in check due to the
efficiency of the two stages working together. Design
advancements have been made to allow for the elimina-
tion of bushings, bearings, wear sleeves, and shims so that
cleaning and assembly are as easy as possible.When com-
bined with stainless steel motors, the in-line mixer can be
considered ultra sanitary.
Scale-Up
The more high shear batch mixers have been studied and
improved, the better understood the processing problems
have become. Scale-up is one such issue that has often
been ineffectual or difficult to provide. The methods of
using geometric similarity and torque per unit volume
have become obsolete with their lack of success. Now
high shear mixers are scaled-up by trying to match a
variety of properties from the small scale to the large scale
to maximize similarities that define the mixing.
High shear mixers are typically sized according to the
following:
Tip speed - the peripheral speed or velocity of the
mixing head or impeller
Bulk Fluid Velocity (Intensity) - the pumping capac-
ity of the specific mixing head; a measure of how vigor-
ous the mixing is within a volume of fluid
Blend Time - time required to turn over the vessel
Summary of Typical Operating Conditions
Tip Speed Tip Speed
Open-Disk Impellers 80-90 fps
Closed Rotating Rotor-Stator 50-60 fps
Rotor-Stator w/Revolving Stator 40-60 fps
Fixed Rotor and Stator 40-60 fps
High Shear In-Line 60-110 fps
Bulk Fluid Bulk Fluid V Velocity elocity
Low to moderate mixing for
relatively mixable components 24-35 ft/min
Fairly vigorous mixing,
sufficient for most applications 35-47 ft/min
Vigorous mixing for
difficult applications 47-59 ft/min
Extremely vigorous mixing
for very difficult jobs 59-88 ft/min
Blend Blend Time Time
Low concentrations 5-10 min
High concentrations 10-15 min
4 PROCESSINGs 2000 Mixing, Blending & Size Reduction Handbook
contents enough times to cause complete, homogenous
blending
Scale-up can generally be achieved by maintaining
equal ratios on all three parameters and typical values
used are listed below.
Scale-up with continuous mixers is done within the
enlarging of the mechanical design, and different sizes are
chosen based on required flow rates.
High Shear Technology in Sanitary Industries
Cosmetics
High shear mixers have been present in the cosmetics
industry for years dealing with the rapid growth of viscous,
exotic liquid makeup, face creams, and lipsticks.They were
and still are useful tools in dispersing talc to produce an
ultrasmooth, lump-free product.
The new design improvements allow for the dispersing of
metal oxides and abrasives without a worry about having to
frequently replace wearing
parts.Titanium Dioxide and
Calcium Carbonate can be
dispersed for use in lotions,
creams, and sunscreens.
Any high temperature
processes can be done with-
out a concern, such as the
preparation of hair gel. Hair
conditioner can be made
smoother and more consis-
tent than ever, reports one
cosmetics manufacturer
using a new axial and radial stage in-line mixer.
Difficult viscosity building ingredients such as
Carbopol, Methocel, and many other gums are
quickly dispersed and 100% hydrated in room temperature
water for use in shampoos and other products.These solu-
tions can be prepared easily in high concentrations with-
out any clumps.A major cosmetic/personal care manufac-
turer was able to reduce water phase mix times with poly-
mer gums from two hours to 15 minutes with the upgrade
from a low speed agitator to a fixed rotor and stator mixer.
The emulsion droplet size reduction that Rotor-Stator
mixers are capable of makes them a necessary tool when
preparing shelf-stable lotions. Other common applications
include hair dyes, liquid mascara, and perm solutions
because of the difficult-to-mix ingredients.
Food and Beverage
One of the most important advancements in high shear
technology is the ability to quickly dissolve stabilizing and
thickening agents, such as pectin and carrageenin, with
considerably less power and faster process times. A major
tomato company was able to reduce power requirements
from 150 hp to 40 hp for paste thin-down applications in
750-gallon batches. A confection manufacturer was able
to increase the solid content of a slurry from 78% to 85%
and higher with the use of a fixed rotor and stator mixer.
Further modifications have allowed high shear mixers to
also be used in the dairy industry. Fixed rotor-stator mixers
and sanitary in-line mixers can be used for the reconstitu-
tion of milk powder or making sweetened condensed milk
without bacteria and cleaning concerns. Developments have
also been made to reduce the air incorporation with those
products to produce a uniform product with minimal foam.
Pharmaceutical
The new developments within high shear have led to
more sanitary equipment, which now meet the require-
ments of pharmaceutical facilities.They are a much-wel-
comed addition with the ability to process ingredi-
ents for ointments, antibiotics, stomach medicine,
coatings, etc. Pharmaceutical processing applications
using Aluminum Hydroxide and Zinc Oxide can be
mixed smoothly.
Not only can colloid mills and low speed agitators
be replaced for faster mixing times and less power, but
also homogenizers and other, less effective high shear
mixers.A major pharmaceutical manufacturer was able
to go from having a high shear and low speed agitator
in a vessel, to just one fixed rotor and stator high speed
mixer.This head has such excellent pumping capabili-
ties that it can mix even the thickest fluids by itself.
Other Applications
High shear equipment can also be used for non-sanitary
applications. Rotor-stator units have been successfully
applied in the addition of high viscosity, difficult-to-dis-
perse polymer additives, used to enhance the elasticity of
asphalt and rubber compounds.
Rotor-stator units are also being used within the
petroleum industry when difficult-to-wet-out polymers
are added into invert mud for improved drilling of oil
wells. In addition, dramatic results have been reported in
tertiary oil recovery operations where high shear tech-
nology is employed to disperse additives into oil fields.
The new high shear devices can be applied in any pro-
cessing area desiring lower power requirements, faster
mix times, less maintenance, and product consistency.
Article written by Gretchen Ames, Applications Engineer,
Admix, Inc.
How it works
March 2001 PROCESSINGs 2001 Mixing, Blending & Size Reduction Handbook 5
S
cale-up of mixing machin-
ery has become a key issue
with sanitary processors as
development times have been
reduced and new products are
brought to market at very quick
speeds. Testing formulations in
small beakers or 5 gallon pails is
often the only testing done on
some products, and a leap of
faith is taken that a process will
scale-up to large tanks with sim-
ilar results. A technical report
detailing how to succeed with
the scale-up of mixers from a 3
liter beaker up to a 1000 gallon
(or larger) production vessel has
been released.
This is an excerpt of the full article and focuses on
scaling of high shear mixers only. Scale-up of high shear
mixers is a particularly challenging issue as many of the
variables typically observed with low speed agitators do
not apply.The most critical parameters that may be used
for conducting small-scale tests and resizing similar
machinery for the full-scale application are discussed in
order of their importance.
1. Intensity
This parameter is related to bulk fluid velocity as
practiced by some agitation companies, and is expressed
in feet per second (fps). Intensity takes into account the
process fluid velocity, pumping rate, volume of the ves-
sel, and the distance traveled by particles or molecules in
the batch. Intensity values can range from a low of 3 to
a high of 30 or more, with an average value from 8 to
12.These average values roughly equate to bulk veloc-
ities in the 40 to 60 fps range, considered quite vigorous
for low speed agitation.
Helpful Hint: If no other parameter is avail-
able, scaling the Intensity would provide a bet-
ter than 90% success in the full scale.
2. Tip Speed
Tip speed is the peripheral
velocity of the mixing head, as
opposed to the bulk fluid veloci-
ty. Most high speed mixing appli-
cations can be completed with a
tip speed of 35 to 60 fps. Tip
speed only considers the speed of
the mixer and the rotor diameter,
and ignores the impact of viscosi-
ty, volume and specific gravity on
fluid behavior. For this reason, tip
speed is a useful tool, but is not
sufficient by itself to ensure 100%
scale-up success.
Helpful Hint: High tip
speeds are critical for maxi-
mum particle and droplet size reduction.
3. Tank Turnovers
Tank turnover is a measure of how effective a mixers
pumping rate is relative to turning a batch over a particu-
lar number of times a minute. In order to make this cal-
culation, the pumping rate of the mixer is divided by the
volume of the batch. Tank turnover is a widely used
parameter for scaling low speed turbine agitators, but has
not been sufficiently used by most high shear mixer sup-
pliers.This is understandable as the geometry of most high
shear mixers is not designed to provide high flow or
pumping rates, but instead focuses on shear capabilities.
For small vessels (under 30 gallons) where the shearhead
can provide enough flow, as limited as it may be, it is still
adequate to circulate the fluid volume to eventually pro-
duce the desired mix. The difficulty in scaling becomes
Sanitary in-line high shear mixers help move products to market.
A leap of faith is taken
that a process will scale-up
to large tanks with similar results.
Mixing scale-up speeds
new products to market
Four helpful hints to scale-up high shear batch and in-line mixers
dramatically evident as these same low flow high shear
mixers are placed into much larger vessels where lack of
pumping and product turnover eventually causes the
process material to freeze up whereby there is little vis-
ible motion. This is especially problematic with high vis-
cosity, thixotropic or other non-Newtonian materials
using gums, thickeners, or stabilizers. Look for a high shear
mixing device that features an upper or lower high flow
impeller to help drive the process fluid through the mix-
ing head many times a minute, ensuring quicker homo-
geneity and more predictable scale-up.
Helpful Hint: While Intensity and Tip Speed
should be scaled completely proportional, the
number of Tank Turnovers is going to be far
greater with the lab mixer than with the pro-
duction mixer. The objective, therefore, is to
reach the minimum required turnover value
in the large tank rather than try to match the
lab mixer.
4. Geometric Similarity (D/T)
It is desirable to match the ratio of mixing head
diameter to tank diameter as you progress from the lab
vessel to the full size production vessel.This ensures that
the flow control profile observed is similar in both
vessels, such that there are no obvious dead zones or
unmixed areas of the larger vessel.
Helpful Hint: A minimum D/T of 0.1 is
desirable for most high speed applications, i.e.,
a 6" mix head within a 60" tank diameter.
What Batch Sizes Are Best for Scale-Up?
Most lower viscosity mixing applications, scaling from
a 1 gallon (2 liter) beaker to a larger 100 to 200 gallon pro-
duction vessel, can be safely and accurately accomplished
using the above methods. For moderate to high viscosity
fluids, or where production batches exceed 250 gallons,
the manufacturer highly recommends an intermediate
step in the scale-up process.Typically, this would be a 5 to
10 gallon batch size, available as a pilot plant model
either at the mixing
companys lab or at
the users location.
When working with
both a high viscosity
product and a produc-
tion volume greater
than 750 gallons, an
additional scale-up
test as large as 100 to
150 gallons is recom-
mended. While three
smaller scale tests may
seem excessive and
time consuming, it is a
small price to pay for
ensuring 100% accu-
racy and scalability in the larger, substantially more expen-
sive full scale production vessel.
Scale-Up of In-Line Mixers
Closed loop continuous flow in-line mixers, as well as
those used to recirculate through a batch process, are
6 PROCESSINGs 2001 Mixing, Blending & Size Reduction Handbook March 2001
One-gallon benchtop for initial scale
Tip Speed
N Low Shear 10-30 fps
N High Shear 40-60 fps
Geometric Similarity (D/T)
N Low Speed/Shear 0.25-0.60
N High Speed/Shear 0.10-0.20
Tank Turnovers (minimum)
N Low Viscosity (1-100 cps),
under 250 gallons 4-6 turns/min
N High Viscosity (500-5000 cps),
under 250 gallons 2-4 turns/min
N Low Viscosity (1-100 cps),
from 250-500 gallons 2-4 turns/min
N High Viscosity (500-5000 cps),
from 250-500 gallons 1-2 turns/min
Bulk Fluid Velocity / Intensity
BFV Intensity
N Very slow to mild flow, relatively mixable components, or high viscosity 24-35 ft/min 5-7
N Fairly vigorous mixing, sufficient for most applications 35-47 ft/min 7-9
N Vigorous mixing, for difficult applications 47-59 ft/min 9-12
N Extremely violent mixing, for very difficult applications 59-88 ft/min 12-17
Summary of typical operating conditions
becoming successful in sanitary processing. In-line high
shear mixers are fast, provide consistent results, and are easy
to add on to an existing process or production line.While
scale-up of these mixing devices is not as difficult as with
batch mixers, it still needs to be considered. Selection of a
high shear in-line mixer is primarily based on the required
flow or transfer rate dictated by the production line. Most
in-line mixers are offered in various sizes to cover the typ-
ical flow rates (from 10 to 300 gpm) utilized by most
plants. Tip speed must also be considered, and here again,
most in-line mixers provide tip speeds ranging from 40 to
90 fps or higher.There is a challenge in scaling in-line high
shear mixer surfaces when process viscosities are greater
than 5000 cps, or where the application requires the addi-
tion of powders for in-line wetting out, dispersion and
hydration.With higher viscosity process streams, flow rate
through the mixer can be drastically reduced, thus reduc-
ing the flow velocity and probably affecting the outcome
of the mixture. Higher flows can be generated with the
addition of an upstream pump to feed the process fluid
at a higher velocity into the in-line mixer.Therefore, flow
velocity presents a third parameter which needs checking
while scaling up, as the hydraulic shear provided by high
velocities will improve both particle and droplet size
reduction and distribution.To ensure consistency of parti-
cle analysis in varying flow and velocity ranges, a scale-up
program that incorporates flow velocity, pumping capaci-
ty, tip speed, viscosity and density is necessary.
These hints on successful scale-up were supplied by Admix, Inc.
Further information is available at www. admix.com or
800.466.2369.
March 2001 PROCESSINGs 2001 Mixing, Blending & Size Reduction Handbook 7
Bench-top studies are conducted with assurance of scale-up results.
Admixture
The Newsletter of Mixing
Technology for Sanitary Processors
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while increasing yield, quality and shelf life. Learn how
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Processors!
DYNASHEAR
Sanitary In-Line High Shear Mixer
Admix, Inc. recently introduced the DynaShear

Sanitary In-Line High Shear Mixer. The DynaShear

represents the latest technology for sanitary in-line
continuous processing. The DynaShear will blend,
dissolve, disperse and emulsify both miscible and
immiscible fluids. It is the first in-line mixer featuring
a dual stage, tandem head design combining the ben-
efits of both axial and radial rotor-stator technolo-
gy...creating excellent shear and flow capability. A sin-
gle pass through the DynaShear provides product
quality typical of multiple passes within conventional
mixers. The result is a processing unit with droplet
and particle size reduction capability of 2-3 microns
or less while providing flow capabilities that are sub-
stantially higher than existing in-line mixers and shear
pumps.
N e w P r o d u c t s