Eficiencia Energética en Transformadores de Distribución ESPAÑOL PDF

International Copper Association - Procobre
EFICIENCIA ENERGTICA EN
TRANSFORMADORES DE
DISTRIBUCIN
Julio 2009
Preparado por: Procobre Instituto Brasileo del Cobre

Editado por: Eduardo Gradiz
Tabla de Contenidos
1. La Motivacin de la Realizacin de los Estudios ..................................... 3

2. ICA International Copper Association / Procobre Instituto Brasileo del
Cobre ................................................................................................. 4
3. O LAT-EFEI - Laboratrio de Alta Tensin de la Universidad Federal de
Itajub ............................................................................................... 5
4. Objectivo Principal del Estudio ............................................................ 6
5. Perdidas Tcnicas en Transformadores en Sistemas de Distribucin ......... 7
6. Eficiencia en Transformadores de Distribucin....................................... 8
7. Estudios de Caso .............................................................................. 9
8. Normas y Etiquetado........................................................................10
9. Proyectos en Curso ..........................................................................11
Bibliografa .........................................................................................12
ANEXO I.............................................................................................13
ANEXO II ...........................................................................................14
ANEXO III ..........................................................................................15
ANEXO IV...........................................................................................16
ANEXO V ............................................................................................17
ANEXO VI...........................................................................................18
ANEXO VII .........................................................................................19
ANEXO VIII ........................................................................................20
EFICIENCIA ENERGTICA EN TRANSFORMADORES DE DISTRIBUCIN
1. Motivacin de la realizacin de los estudios

La principal y real motivacin que nos anim a efectuar este trabajo surgi despus
de un anlisis ms detallado de algunos valores de las prdidas tcnicas en los
sistemas elctricos brasileos e internacionales.
De un total estimado 9.484 TWh de consumo mundial de electricidad, se observa
que las prdidas en transmisin y distribucin en Europa, Estados Unidos, China,
India y Brasil, alcanz en 2.000, 815 TWh, lo que representa un porcentaje promedio
de las prdidas del 8,6%. Estos van desde un promedio mnimo de 7,1% en los
Estados Unidos a una media mxima de 26,7% en India.
De la Unin Europea, se destacan las mejores situaciones en los Pases Bajos,
Blgica y Alemania, con prdidas en las redes de transmisin y distribucin de
electricidad, respectivamente, el 4,2%, 4,8% y 5,1%. Mientras tanto, entre las
naciones con la mayor prdida figuran Portugal, Irlanda y Espaa con un 9,4%,
9,6% y el 10,6%, respectivamente. [1]
Se estima que en Brasil, histricamente, las prdidas elctricas en la red de
distribucin de electricidad es responsable por prdidas totales de alrededor del 15%
de la energa. [2]
En la distribucin de energa, los transformadores de media tensin son responsables
de aproximadamente un tercio de las prdidas totales en los sistemas de distribucin
de electricidad, slo superada por las prdidas en cables y circuitos. Mejorar la
eficiencia de los transformadores de distribucin tiene importantes ventajas
econmicas debido a que son los componentes del sistema ms sencillos para ser
sustituidos, en comparacin con las lneas de cables, adems de que su eficiencia
puede ser clasificada, cualificada y estandarizada.
La ventaja de mejorar la eficiencia en la transformacin es an ms evidente cuando
se analiza en sus aspectos tecnolgicos, ya que el aumento de la eficiencia puede ser
obtenida mediante la reduccin de las prdidas en dos partes: el ncleo y los
devanados. [3]
La magnitud de estas prdidas muestra que existe un gran potencial para ser
explorado, sea a travs del uso de las nuevas tecnologas, o a travs de las medidas
reglamentarias que llevan a la calidad y la eficiencia en los transformadores de
distribucin. Cabe destacar que acciones eficaces en el aprovechamiento del
potencial de ahorro energtico, adems del beneficio econmico, tienen expresin en
la mitigacin del impacto ambiental debido a la reduccin del consumo de energa.
La prdida tcnica total, por da, en los transformadores del sistema de distribucin
de Brasil, es del orden de 22.169,30 MWh, lo que corresponde a un costo de US$
3.520.000,00 por da, teniendo en cuenta que la tarifa media de electricidad pagados
por los consumidores brasileos en 2009, de acuerdo con ANEEL (Agncia Nacional
de Energia Eltrica), en el valor de 1 MWh = US$ 159,00 [4].
El (Anexo I) muestra el porqu del uso de transformadores de distribucin eficientes,
los programas ya existentes en algunos pases y las acciones recomendadas en
relacin a la sustitucin, los regmenes de reglamentacin y adecuacin de normas.
2. ICA International Copper Association / Procobre

Instituto Brasileo del Cobre
International Copper Association, Ltd. ICA, es una organizacin que tiene como
objetivo promover internacionalmente el uso de cobre. ICA contribuye a la expansin
del conocimiento de la utilidad y funcionalidad de cobre, un elemento sostenible,
esencial para la formacin de la vida. Alienta a la ciencia y la tecnologa en el
desarrollo de nuevas aplicaciones para el cobre con el fin de mejorar la calidad de
vida de la sociedad.
La asociacin tiene 38 miembros que representan a la mayora de los productores de
cobre de todo el mundo.
ICA es responsable de apoyar y desarrollar polticas, estrategias, iniciativas
internacionales y actividades de promocin para ampliar el uso de cobre. Con sede
en Nueva York, ICA tiene oficinas regionales en Bruselas, Santiago de Chile, Nueva
York y Singapur. Los programas y las iniciativas promovidas por la ICA estn
presentes en ms de 50 pases a travs de sus oficinas regionales y 31 centros para
la promocin.
En Brasil, ICA est representada por PROCOBRE - Instituto Brasileiro do Cobre,
organizacin sin fines de lucro que desarrolla programas locales junto con las
empresas lderes en este sector.
La misin de la ICA de promover el uso y atributos del cobre est estrechamente
relacionada con la bsqueda de soluciones sostenibles, impulsar la investigacin y el
desarrollo de nuevas aplicaciones y la difusin de su contribucin a la mejora de la
calidad de vida y progreso de la sociedad, adems de fomentar la utilizacin eficiente
de la energa.
3. O LAT-EFEI - Laboratrio de Alta Tensin de la Universidad

Federal de Itajub
Con la finalidad de un trabajo con carcter tcnico y cientfico, hemos establecido
una alianza con la Universidad Federal de Itajub, que tiene por objetivo aplicar un
conjunto de actividades de apoyo tcnico y cientfico en el campo de los
transformadores eficientes, desarrollando, tcnica y econmicamente, el uso de
transformadores para los sistemas de distribucin de media tensin. Estas
actividades implican el desarrollo de algoritmos computacionales para el anlisis de
las cargas de los transformadores y el diseo bsico simplificado, entre otros. En
paralelo, el seguimiento de reuniones con los fabricantes, empresas pblicas de
distribucin de energa e industrias a fin de promover la tcnica y sus beneficios, as
como la prestacin de apoyo tcnico para el desarrollo de actividades vinculadas a la
reduccin de las prdidas en los sistemas mediante la aplicacin de los
transformadores eficientes.
O LAT-EFEI Laboratrio de Alta Tenso da Universidade Federal de Itajub en su
vocacin de formar en tcnicas de alta tensin a estudiantes de la Universidad
Federal de Itajub, realiza pesquisas para empresas del sector elctrico en el campo
de desempeo de los equipos y componentes para redes de media y alta tensin,
mantiene pesquisas de Maestra y Doctorado en reas relacionadas con la alta
tensin, as como ofrecer al sector privado la posibilidad de ejecutar las pruebas a
peticin de terceros.
Desarrollo de proyectos de investigacin en conjunto con las empresas de energia
elctrica, segn las instrucciones del organismo regulador nacional de electricidad,
ANEEL (Agencia Nacional de Energa Elctrica) y presentacin de informes y
asesoramiento tcnico requerido por leyes nacionales e internacionales.
El grupo tcnico est compuesto de personal de apoyo, ingenieros elctricos,
maestros en ciencias en ingeniera elctrica, doctores en ciencias en ingeniera
elctrica, as como los estudiantes de ingeniera elctrica de la Universidad Federal
Itajub.
4. Objetivo principal del estudio

El objetivo principal de este trabajo fue recopilar informaciones, estudios, encuestas
y resultados de proyectos piloto, envolvendo transformadores de distribucin de
energia y realizados en el perodo de julio de 2007 a diciembre de 2008.
Los resultados obtenidos en este trabajo se basaron en la colaboracin de los
ingenieros de la Universidad Federal de Itajub, empresas de distribucin de energa
elctrica y fabricantes de transformadores.
Con estos estudios y a travs del seguimiento de los programas de mejora de la
eficiencia energtica, desarrollados por las compaas de energa elctrica en Brasil,
podemos contribuir en algunos aspectos de esos programas, a travs de incentivo en
la sustitucin gradual de los equipos por otros ms eficientes; tal es el caso de los
transformadores de distribucin.
5. Prdidas tcnicas de los transformadores en los

sistemas de distribucin
A travs de un convenio firmado en 2005 entre Eletrobrs (Centrais Eltricas
Brasileiras S.A.), Cepel (Centro de Pesquisas de Energia Eltrica), CNI (Confederaco
Nacional da Indstria) e IEL (Instituto Euvaldo Lodi), para la Promocin de la Calidad
y de la Eficiencia de los Transformadores de Distribucin y destinado a levantar el
estado de los transformadores de distribucin instalados en las redes de distribucin
de Brasil, se llev a cabo en 2006, un estudio con las empresas de servicios pblicos
de distribucin de electricidad en Brasil con el fin de obtener informacin sobre el
desempeo de los transformadores.
En funcin de los resultados obtenidos, el Cepel - Centro de Pesquisas de Energia
Eltrica, prepar un estudio que determina la cuanta total de las prdidas tcnicas
de los transformadores de distribucin instalados en las redes de distribucin en
Brasil.
Se aade el Informe Tcnico DIE - 6454/08, con el objetivo de evaluar el total de
prdidas tcnicas de energia en los transformadores instalados en las redes
distribucin de empresas de servicios pblicos en Brasil en 2007, por tipo
aplicacin y el impacto financiero que representa una reduccin porcentual
prdidas tcnicas de esos transformadores.
las
de
de
de
Determinacin de las Prdidas Tcnicas de los Transformadores de Distribucin,

con Dielctrico Lquido, instalados en las empresas de distribucin de energa en
Brasil Cepel Relatrio Tcnico (Anexo II).
6. Eficiencia en transformadores de distribucin

Los factores econmicos y ambientales asociados con las prdidas de energa han
provocado un renovado inters en los transformadores de distribucin eficientes. Los
transformadores eficientes pueden ser una gran decisin para la conservacin de las
fuentes preciosas de energa as como para la reduccin de los costos operacionales
de la industria y de las prdidas en las redes de distribucin. Por tal razn, en
muchas partes del mundo, las agencias reguladoras promueven activamente los
transformadores eficientes y las industrias han descubierto los beneficios financieros
de incorporarlos a sus sistemas.
Para una planta con 2,5 millones de transformadores de 30 kVA, por ejemplo, puede
tener una economa, al utilizar transformadores eficientes, en la orden de 46,95
millones de dlares por ao y 502.750 MWh/ao.
Se adjuntan los siguientes documentos en materia de estudios y publicaciones
relativos a los transformadores de distribucin eficientes:
o
Desempeo de transformadores de distribucin. Muestra el desempeo

del transformador de distribucin operando en sobrecarga y el impacto que
causa en los costos de la empresa de distribucin de energa. (Anexo III);
Evaluacin econmica de transformadores de distribucin basada en

el cargamento y eficiencia energtica. Muestra el aspecto econmico en el
clculo de transformadores eficientes, a travs de la herramienta
computacional desarrollada a partir de una demanda tpica de carga de una
empresa de distribucin. (Anexo IV);
Proyecto de transformadores de distribucin basado en la carga. El

transformador es responsable de, aproximadamente, un tercio de las prdidas
totales en la red de distribucin. Este trabajo muestra la metodologa para
describir las prdidas de los transformadores en funcin de los costos y las
perspectivas del fabricante y de la empresa de distribucin. (Anexo V);
Calidad y eficiencia en transformadores de distribucin. Artculo

publicado por el Ing. Geraldo Magela Martins en la revista El Sector Elctrico,
que relata los principales desafos que la industria brasilea de
transformadores experimentarn debido al aumento del desempeo de los
equipos, reduccin de las prdidas, mayor seguridad en el sistema de
distribucin y mejor servicio al consumidor final. (Anexo VI);
Eficiencia energtica, transformadores de distribucin (Anexo VII).
7. Estudio de caso
Al reconocer que un nmero importante y creciente de residentes en las zonas
pobres no tienen acceso legal y sostenible a los servicios de electricidad en los pases
en desarrollo, ICA (International Copper Association), en cooperacin con la USAID
(United States Agency for International Development), puso en marcha en octubre
de 2005, el Programa de Electrificacin y la Reduccin de Prdidas (SELR). Los
gestores del programa seleccionaron, entre otras, la ciudad de Sao Paulo, para
implementar el SELR.
En Brasil, AES Eletropaulo, ICA, USAID, Indstria de Transformadores Itaip y
Nexans do Brasil han trabajado juntos para regularizar el suministro de electricidad
a travs de un nuevo modelo de negocio en la comunidad de Paraispolis, la segunda
ms grande favela en la ciudad de So Paulo, visando a transformar estos
consumidores de energa en clientes y, al mismo tiempo, promover la concienciacin
de la ciudadana.
En este proyecto, la industria de transformadores Itaip, en colaboracin con la
Universidad Federal de Itajub, asumi la responsabilidad desde la concepcin hasta
la fabricacin de los transformadores de alta eficiencia.
Se adjunta el documento tcnico "Reporte final del proyecto piloto - Transformador
de distribucin eficiente (Anexo VIII), que proporciona los resultados tcnicoeconmicos en uno de los transformadores eficientes, dentre los 12 instalados en el
Programa.
8. Normas y Etiquetado
En paralelo a la publicacin de los resultados obtenidos en los estudios y pesquisas
con los transformadores de distribucin, actividades coordinadas a travs de nuestro
representante Procobre, los trabajos en la Comisin de Estudios de la ABNT
(Associao Brasileira de Normas Tcnicas), en la revisin de la Norma NBR 5440,
donde es significativa la presencia de los principales fabricantes de transformadores
y de los representantes de las empresas de distribucin de energa elctrica de
Brasil, existe consenso de que el tema de las "prdidas" es una prioridad y debe
haber una mejora en los niveles de eficiencia de los transformadores de distribucin.
El objetivo es reducir los valores actualmente establecidos en la norma.
En lo concerniente al etiquetado, estamos participando, tambin a travs de nuestro
representante, en las reuniones del Grupo de Trabajo - Transformadores, con el
propsito de apoyar la accin para que los fabricantes comiencen a etiquetar sus
productos, dando el primer paso en el Programa de Etiquetado.
10
9. Proyectos en curso
Para consolidar el objetivo de fomentar y participar de proyectos en reas de
eficiencia energtica de equipos transformadores de distribucin, por caso, junto
a las empresas de distribucin de electricidad se ha procurado sensibilizar a los
programas de eficiencia energtica y sustentabilidad. Por extensin, est en curso
junto con la empresa de distribucin de energa en Ro de Janeiro, AMPLA Energia
e Servios S/A, un proyecto piloto consistente en instalar 12 transformadores
eficientes en una de las redes de distribucin y consistir en el levantamiento de
datos de las cargas ligadas en la red, anlisis y compilacin de las informacines de
esta base de datos a travs de un software especfico, que establece las posibles
opciones para el diseo de los transformadores eficientes, los que sustituirn los
actualmente en uso y que sern objeto de seguimiento durante un perodo
predeterminado en que se recoger informacin tcnica que determinar el grado de
eficiencia obtenido con la sustitucin de los mismos.
11
Bibliografa
[1] Leonardo Energy Institute, 2004
[2] ARAUJO, 2007
[3] Leonardo Energy Institute, 2004
[4] Estudio de Cepel, sobre Perdidas Tcnicas en Transformadores de Distribucin en
Brasil, 2008 Anexo II
12
ANEXO I
The Potential for Global Energy Savings from High Efficiency Distribution
Transformers
13
The Potential for Global Energy Savings from

High Efficiency Distribution Transformers
February, 2005
Roman Targosz, Editor
Main authors and reviewers:
Ronnie Belmans1
Jan Declercq2
Hans De Keulenaer3
Katsuaki Furuya 4
Mayur Karmarkar5
Manuel Martinez6
Mike McDermott7
Ivo Pinkiewicz8
KUleuven ESAT/Electa
Pauwels
3
European Copper Institute
4
Hitachi Electrical Steels
5
International Copper Promotion Council India
6
Federal University of Itajuba
7
M J McDermott & Associates
8
IENOT Power Institute Transformer Division
2
About the European Copper Institute

The European Copper Institute is a joint venture between the worlds mining companies,
represented by the International Copper Association, and the European copper industry.
Its mission is to promote coppers benefits to modern society across Europe, through its
Brussels office and a network of eleven Copper Development Associations.
In fulfilling its mission, ECI manages a broad range of information and education
activities. Dissemination to target audiences is carried out through the national Copper
Development Associations located in the Benelux, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary,
Italy, Poland, Russia, Scandinavia, Spain and the UK.
About LEONARDO Energy

LEONARDO Energy (LE) is a programme managed by ECI, involving over 100
partners in various projects related to electrical energy. LE focusses on Quality of
Supply, Electrical Safety and Sustainable Electrical Energy. The programme targets
professionals, press and regulators involved in the electrical energy sector. It promotes
best practice in electrical engineering and energy regulation.
Copyright
c European Copper Institute. Reproduction is allowed provided that the material is
unabridged, and the source acknowledged. After publication, please send a copy to ECI
for the attention of the Publications Office.
Disclaimer
While this document has been prepared with care, ECI and any other contributing
institutions give no warranty in regards to the contents and shall not be liable for any
direct, incidental or consequential damages arising out of its use.
European Copper Institute

Tervurenlaan 168 b10
B-1150 Brussels
Belgium
+32-2-7777070
Email: eci@eurocopper.org
Website: www.eurocopper.org
Contents
1 Introduction
9
1.1 Electricity networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Network losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Losses in distribution transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 Technical aspects
2.1 Basic principles of distribution transformers . . . . .
2.1.1 Oil cooled versus air cooled transformers . . .
2.1.2 Industrial versus public distribution networks
2.2 Losses in transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Improving efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 No-load losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Load losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Transformer efficiency standards . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
15
15
15
16
17
17
17
19
19
3 Economic aspects
3.1 Life-cycle costing . . . .
3.2 Economic analysis of loss
3.3 Externalities . . . . . . .
3.4 Non-technical losses . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
23
23
24
25
26
.
.
.
.
.
27
27
27
29
31
32
.
.
.
.
34
34
35
35
35
. . . . . .
reduction
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
4 Business aspects
4.1 Impact of purchasing energy efficient transformers
4.1.1 Pay-back time on a single transformer . .
4.1.2 Business model for a transformer park . .
4.2 Asset management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Demand-side considerations . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 Policy
5.1 Liberalisation . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Labelling . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Minimum efficiency performance
5.4 Voluntary schemes . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
standards
. . . . . .
6 Ongoing initiatives
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
36
www.leonardo-energy.org
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
Australia and New Zealand

China . . . . . . . . . . . .
Europe . . . . . . . . . . . .
India . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Japan . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . .
USA . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Canada . . . . . . . . . . .
Overview . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
36
36
37
37
37
38
38
38
39
7 Conclusions and Recommendations

40
7.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7.2 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
A Other technical issues
A.1 Size & Weight . . . . . . . . . .
A.2 Reliability & Harmonics . . . .
A.3 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A.4 50 versus 60 Hz . . . . . . . . .
A.5 Amorphous core transformers .
A.5.1 AM-Ribbon . . . . . . .
A.5.2 AMT-core . . . . . . . .
A.5.3 AMT . . . . . . . . . . .
A.5.4 Comparison of efficiency
B Transformer partnership
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
42
42
43
43
44
44
44
44
45
45
47
February, 2005 Page 4 of 50
List of Figures
1.1
Overview of the electricity distribution system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1
2.2
2.3
Diagram of a distribution transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Different types of magnetic steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Comparison of international standard efficiencies at 50% load . . . . . . . . 20
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
Business case stable situation .

Business case restricted supply .
Business case peak load . . . .
Business case transformer park
Case study Lodz . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
28
28
29
30
31
A.1 Efficiency comparison for various load conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
List of Tables
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Estimated network losses in the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Transmission and distribution losses in selected countries [1] . .
Breakdown T&D losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Energy savings potential from high efficiency transformers in the
Estimated transformer population in the world . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
world
. . . .
2.1
2.2
2.3
Main transformer efficiency standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

No-load loss standard Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Load loss standard Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Return on investment for 100 kVA high efficiency transformers .

Return on investment for 400 kVA high efficiency transformers .
Return on investment for 1600 kVA high efficiency transformers
External cost of electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1
Overview of transformer programs in the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
11
11
12
13
14
24
24
24
25
A.1 Selected parameters for standard and efficient transformer designs . . . . . 42
Executive Summary
Improving the efficiency of distribution transformers in electricity networks around the
world can be achieved and will yield substantial net gains for the worlds economy.
Why focusing on distribution transformers?

Energy losses throughout the worlds electrical distribution networks amount to 1 279
TWh. They vary from country to country between 3.7% and 26.7% of the electricity use,
which implies that there is a large potential for improvement.
After lines, distribution transformers are the second largest loss-making component in
electricity networks. Transformers are relatively easy to replace, certainly in comparison with lines or cables, and their efficiency can fairly easily be classified, labeled and
standardized. Moreover, modern technology exists to reduce losses by up to 80%.
The worldwide electricity savings potential of switching to high efficiency transformers
is estimated to be at least 200 TWh, equivalent to the Benelux electricity consumption.
This savings potential is not only technically advantageous, but also brings economic and
environmental benefits. Taking the full life cycle cost into account, selecting high efficiency
transformers is normally an economically sound investment decision despite their higher
purchase price. As a result, high efficiency transformers yield a net economic gain for
global society. A reduction of energy consumption is also an important advantage for
the worlds environment not least because of the resulting reduction in greenhouse gas
emissions.
Existing Programmes
With this savings potential available, seven of the largest economies in the world have
been taking actions to improve transformer efficiency: Australia, China, Europe, Japan,
Canada and the USA. They have set up programs mandatory or voluntary based on
minimum standards or efficiency labels. Up to now, the programs in Australia, China,
India and Japan are the most advanced.
LIST OF TABLES
Recommended actions
Based on the above data and experiences, this report recommends:
setting the global objective of removing transformers of the lowest efficiency category
from the market
identifying and implementing a worldwide benchmark on efficiency standards, in
order to raise all countries to a similar level
designing regulatory regimes that encourage the use of high efficiency transformers
setting up programs combining mandatory minimum efficiency standards with a
voluntary scheme to promote best of class transformer designs.
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1
Electricity networks
Transformers convert electrical energy from one voltage level to another. They are an
essential part of the electricity network. After generation in power stations, electrical
energy needs to be transported to the areas where it is consumed. This transport is more
efficient at higher voltage, which is why power generated at 10 30 kV is converted by
transformers into typical voltages of 220 kV up to 400 kV, or even higher.
Since the majority of electrical installations operate at lower voltages, the high voltage
needs to be converted back close to the point of use. The first step down is transformation
to 33 150 kV. It is often the level at which power is supplied to major industrial
customers. Distribution companies then transform power further down to the consumer
mains voltage.
In this way, electrical energy passes through an average of four transformation stages
before being consumed. A large number of transformers of different classes and sizes
are needed in the transmission and distribution network, with a wide range of operating
voltages. Large transformers for high voltages are called system transformers (see figure
1.1). The last transformation step into the consumer mains voltage (in Europe 400/230
V) is done by the distribution transformer.
Industrial
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Electricit
Electricity
ty Distribution Syst
ty
System
Pole mounted
Distribution transformer
Rural
System transformer
Commercial
Ground mounted
Distribution transformer
Figure 1.1: Overview of the electricity distribution system
1.2
Network losses
According to table 1.1, losses of the electricity network world-wide can be estimated at
1 279 TWh, or 9.2% of electricity use 1 2 . While some level of losses is inevitable, tables
1.1 and 1.2 show a variation in losses from less than 4% to more than 20%. This variation
cannot be explained alone by size of country, size of the electricity system or population.
According to table 1.2 network losses in certain countries have decreased steadily over the
past decades. The data shows that there remains a large potential for improvement.
1
Network losses are difficult to assess for a variety of reasons. At any given moment, a utility knows
how much power goes into the network, but it does not know how much is consumed at the user side.
Meters are read on annual basis, but not all at once, and not all on the 1st of January. So a distribution
company has to assign billed consumption over the years. The difference between billed consumption and
power entered into the system is the system loss. Sudden drops in losses from one year to the next can
be an accounting artifact, to come back the next year, with a vengeance.
2
These are technical losses, including losses in power cables and lines, power and distribution transformers, metering losses. Non-technical losses, such as electricity theft (see section 3.4), or revenue loss
due to poor bill collection is not included.
Country
Europe
Western Europe
FSU
North America
Latin America
Brazil
Asia
Japan
Aus, NZ
China
India
Africa / ME
Total
Network
Electricity
Network
[2] losses
use (TWh)
losses (%)
(TWh)
3 046
222
2 540
185
1 135
133
4 293
305
721
131
336
61
3 913
381
964
[4] 98
219
21
1 312
94
497
133
826
83
13 934
1 279
[1, 3]
7.3
11.7
7.1
18.3
9.1
9.5
7.2
26.7
10.0
9.2
Table 1.1: Estimated network losses in the world

Country
Finland
Netherlands
Belgium
Germany
Italy
Denmark
United States
Switzerland
France
Austria
Sweden
Australia
United Kingdom
Portugal
Norway
Ireland
Canada
Spain
New Zealand
Average
European Union
1980 1990
6.2
4.8
4.7
4.2
6.5
6.0
5.3
5.2
10.4
7.5
9.3
8.8
10.5 10.5
9.1
7.0
6.9
9.0
7.9
6.9
9.8
7.6
11.6
8.4
9.2
8.9
13.3
9.8
9.5
7.1
12.8 10.9
10.6
8.2
11.1 11.1
14.4 13.3
9.5
9.1
7.9
7.3
1999
3.6
4.2
5.5
5.0
7.1
5.9
7.1
7.5
8.0
7.9
8.4
9.2
9.2
10.0
8.2
9.6
9.2
11.2
13.1
7.5
7.3
2000
3.7
4.2
4.8
5.1
7.0
7.1
7.1
7.4
7.8
7.8
9.1
9.1
9.4
9.4
9.8
9.9
9.9
10.6
11.5
7.5
7.3
Table 1.2: Transmission and distribution losses in selected countries [1]
Network losses are important for several reasons. They represent a global economic loss
of US$ 61 billion3 , adding unnecessarily to the cost of electricity. Especially in developing
countries, losses use scarce generating capacity. Over 700 million tonne of greenhouse gas
emissions can be associated with these losses.
Table 1.3 shows an indicative breakdown of transmission and distribution losses, based
on a limited number of case studies:
Typically, a third of losses occur in transformers, and two thirds in the rest of the
system.
Approximately 70% of losses occur in the distribution system.
The remainder of this paper addresses the potential for high efficiency distribution transformers, as a technology to improve network losses. There are several good reasons for
such a focus:
Distribution transformers represent the 2nd largest loss component in the network
Replacing transformers is easier than changing cables or lines
Transformers have a large potential for loss reduction. Technologies exist to reduce
losses by up to 80%4 .
% of total
Transformers
Case
T
D
USA - example 1 [5]
4.0
16.2
2.2
36.5
USA - example 2 [5]
Australia - example [6] 2.0
40.0
UK - example 1 [1]
8.0
24.0
UK - example 2 [1]
10.0
32.0
Market assessment [7] 10.0
35.0
Average
6.0
30.6
Lines
T
D
32.3 45.5
10.5 43.0
20.0 38.0
21.0 45.0
15.0 43.0
15.0 35.0
19.0 41.6
Other
2.0
7.8
2.0
5
2.8
Table 1.3: Breakdown of Transmission (T) & Distribution (D) losses
1.3
Losses in distribution transformers
Losses in distribution transformers are listed in table 1.4. A total of 285 TWh of losses occurs in the 6 economies for which transformer losses have been studied. These 6 economies
represent 70% of world consumption, with network efficiencies above the world average.
The electricity savings potential from higher efficiency transformers in these 6 economies
can be estimated at 161 TWh per year. Extrapolating to the global economy, the savings
3
4
In this paper, one billion is used as 109 , i.e. 1 000 million

This is an economic potential from a lifecycle costing viewpoint.
potential in distribution transformers can be estimated as more than 200 TWh/year5 .

This figure may even be conservative for several reasons:
The estimates are based on the current situation. Load growth and network expansion are not yet fully taken into account, except for the studies in the US and
China.
The assumption is made that current efficiency levels are maintained in a liberalised
market. In practice, a strong tendency towards lowest-first-cost can be observed,
i.e., losses tend to increase.
Additional losses from non-linear loads are not taken into account6 .
Additional losses in the electricity network, induced by the reactive component of
the no-load current, have not been taken into account7 .
Country
EU-25 [9]
USA [10]
Australia [6]
India [11]
China
Japan
Total
Annual
losses
in transformers
(TWh)
Annual savings
potential (TWh)
55
141
6
6
33
44
285
22
84
3+
3
18
[4] 31
161
Annual reduction in
greenhouse gas emissions (million tonne
CO2 eq)
9
60
3
3
13
12
100
Table 1.4: Energy savings potential from high efficiency transformers in the world
According to table 1.5, these six economies have 83 million transformers installed, with a
combined capacity of 5 850 GVA. Various parts of the world have adopted very different
approaches to distributing power. Europe has about 1 transformer per 80 citizens, whereas
USA & Japan have 1 unit per 5 10 citizens, due to power being transformed much closer
to the final user, with implications on average unit size and loading. There is a trend to
evaluate transformer efficiency at 50% load ([11, 12, 13]).
230 = 161
0.7 or 19% reduction in network losses in table 1.1.
Non-linear loads are for example computers, energy saving lights, office equipment, variable speed
drives. Nowadays, over 50% of load is non-linear, adding substantially to transformer losses[8].
7
We can assume that 1 kVar of reactive power, drawn from the electricity network generates a loss
of about 0.1 kW of active power. The transformer no-load current induces additional network losses.
These losses are relatively higher in older and smaller units. Typically, no-load losses are 80% higher for
transformer sizes between 100 and 630 kVA. Load losses for the same range are 50% higher.
5
Transformers Transformers Annual

Annual
installed
installed
market
market
(000s)
(GVA)
(000s)
(M$)
EU-15 [9]
4 000
600
125
700
USA [10]
56 000
3 000
2 000
1 550
Australia [14]
600
100
19
125
Japan [4]
15 000
900
China [15]
5 000
1 000
300
India [11]
2 100
250
200
Total
83 000
5 850
Country
Table 1.5: Estimated transformer population in the world
Chapter 2
Technical aspects
2.1
Basic principles of distribution transformers
A distribution transformer consists of an iron core with a limb for each of the phases
(figure 2.1).
Around each limb, there are two windings: one with a large number of turns connected to
the higher voltage side, and another with a lower number connected to the low voltage.
The windings are separated by insulating material. A change in voltage in one winding
induces a change in the other. The result is that an alternating voltage applied to one
windings produces a voltage with the same frequency at the terminals of the other one,
with the voltage ratio equal to the ratio of the number of turns (Faradays law).
2.1.1
Oil cooled versus air cooled transformers
One of the main subdivisions in distribution transformers is the way they are cooled.
Most transformers are placed in an oil-filled tank. The oil cools the coils and at the same
time functions as electrical insulation.
In the past, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) was regarded as one of the most convenient
insulation liquids for transformers, because of its high fire resistance and its excellent
electrical qualities. PCBs are however very difficult to decompose, they can accumulate
in the food chain and may be a danger for public health. In addition, when burning
PCBs, emissions might contain dioxins. Therefore, most countries imposed a program to
take all PCB-filled transformers out of use1 . Today, nearly all of the PCB insulation oil
has been replaced by mineral or silicon oil, if no dry transformers are used.
Oil-cooled transformers have the highest efficiency, but are not allowed in environments
with a high fire risk. In those places, air-cooled (or dry) transformers are used. Air
cooling can be combined with an epoxy resin or impregnated paper for electrical insulation.
1
PCB can only be safely destroyed by very high temperature incineration - usually at sea.
15
CHAPTER 2. TECHNICAL ASPECTS
LV winding
(400/230V)
HV winding
(10kV)
Iron Core
Insulating
Separator
Figure 2.1: Schematic diagram of the inside of a three-phase distribution transformer

If a dry transformer is installed in a building, the heat must be dissipated. Natural
convection may have to be supplemented by forced cooling, e.g. a fan.
2.1.2
Industrial versus public distribution networks
There are some major differences between distribution transformers in local, public distribution networks compared to private industrial networks:
industrial transformers have a higher capacity; typically 1 000 - 4 000 kVA, while
public transformers generally range from 15 to 1 000 kVA;
in general, the average load of an industrial distribution transformer is higher than
for a public network distribution transformer;
in industry, dry transformers are far more common than in public distribution networks;
in industry, high levels of harmonic pollution of the load frequently occur;
the transformer population in industry is younger;
load fluctuations are lower with industrial transformers.
2.2
Losses in transformers
There are three different types of losses:

1. No-load loss (also called iron loss or core loss): Caused by the hysteresis and eddy
currents in the core. It is present whenever the transformer is connected, and
independent of the load. It represents a constant, and therefore significant, energy
drain.
2. Load loss (or copper loss or short circuit loss): Caused by the resistive losses in
the windings and leads, and by eddy currents in the structural steelwork and the
windings. It varies with the square of the load current.
3. Cooling loss (only in transformers with fan cooling): Caused by the energy consumption of a fan. The bigger the other losses, the more cooling is needed and the
higher the cooling loss. These losses can be avoided if operational temperature is
kept low by different loss reduction measures discussed in section 2.3.
An estimation of the total energy loss can be calculated from:
Eloss [kW ] = (P0 + Pk I 2 ) 8760
(2.1)
In which:
P0 is the no-load loss [kW].
Pk is the load loss [kW].
I is the rms-average load of the transformer2 .
8 760 is the number of hours in a year
2.3
Improving efficiency
To reduce losses in transformers, two elements can be adapted: core and windings. Transformer design is complex, with many of the characteristics of distribution transformers
specified in national or international standards.
2.3.1
No-load losses
The no-load losses can be reduced by selecting a high performance steel for the core
(Figure 2.2). Over the years, better steels for transformer cores have been developed.
2
I is the root-mean-square of the instantaneous loads, accumulated over a period of time. It is typically
about 10% higher than the arithmetic average of the instantaneous load.
Core loss W17/50 (W/kg)
Start of CGO production

3.0
C
2.0
0.
35
CG
O0
.30
1.0
Start of HiB productionHiB
CGO 0.23
HiB 0.23
0.30
Start of domain refining
Laser irradiated HiB 0.23
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Year
Figure 2.2: Different types of magnetic steel

1. Around 1900, hot-rolled steel became the basic material for the core, made up of
individual sheets separated by insulating layers to reduce no-load losses. Cold-rolled
steel and more sophisticated insulation techniques were progressively developed for
improving the performance.
2. Cold-rolled grain oriented silicon steels (CGO) became available in the 1950s and
were the first big leap forward in the reduction of no-load losses.
3. Various processing and coating techniques and a reduced silicon content led to the
creation of high permeability grain oriented steels (HiB). They remain the current
standard material for manufacturing distribution transformers in Europe.
4. During the 80s, techniques were introduced to refine the domains of the iron crystals
by laser etching.
5. More recently, the development of amorphous iron introduced a significant new
evolution for reducing iron losses.
Next to the choice of the steel, the way in which distribution transformer cores are designed, cut, fabricated and assembled, plays an important role in energy efficiency. Increasing the size of the core reduces the density of the magnetic field, and in this way
improves energy efficiency.
Amorphous iron deserves a special mention. Distribution transformers built with amorphous iron cores can have more than 70% lower no-load losses compared to the best
conventional designs, and achieving up to 99.7% efficiency for 1000 kVA units. Amorphous iron became commercially available in the early 1980s. These transformers have
cores wound with amorphous ribbon made from a ferric metal alloy produced by very
rapid quenching to avoid crystallisation. This technology has been used in several hun-
dred thousand distribution transformers in the US, Japan, India and China. Amorphous
technology has been demonstrated for transformer sizes up to 10 MVA, and its application
range is expanding.
2.3.2
Load losses
Load losses are proportional to the square of the load current, so one should always
consider how the unit will be loaded over time. Load losses can be reduced by increasing
the cross section of the windings. This reduces the current density and consequently the
loss, although at a higher construction cost.
The materials for windings have not experienced the same significant improvements in
recent years as the core steels. However, the continuous cold rolling process that is now
being introduced for strip production, can lead to more consistent quality.
The process of winding the conductor coils and then fitting them into the assembled core
has a very large influence on the energy efficiency of a transformer. It is a labour-intensive
process that requires skilled workers. Mechanised winding, under operator control, is
increasingly used, especially for smaller sizes.
Another interesting technology in terms of efficiency is the transformer with superconducting windings, cooled with nitrogen. A number of such distribution transformers have
been built. They remain much more expensive than conventional types however, and
seem to be only promising for specialized applications.
2.4
Transformer efficiency standards
In addition to the main division in transformers is between oil-immersed and air-cooled

(or dry) types, further subdivisions can be made according to location pole or ground
mounted; single or three phase or ownership utility or privately owned transformers.
Among these, different energy efficiency standards apply. They can be expressed in terms
of electrical efficiency, at a certain load level, or in terms of maximum values for no load
and load loss. Most standards are voluntary. Table 2.1 presents overview of international
standards.
Standards are not limited to efficiency, or loss levels, but may also include total cost of
ownership or cost capitalisation formulae. Separate documents define testing procedures
and conditions. Reference standards on testing are NEMA TP-2 and IEC 60076, acting
as the basis for national equivalents.
Country
Region
USA
International
Standard
Subject
Guide for Determining Energy Efficiency for Distribution Transformers (TP1- 1996). National Electrical
Manufacturers Association. 1996.
Standard Test Method for Measuring the Energy Consumption of Distribution Transformers (TP2-1998).
National Electrical Manufacturers
Association. 1998.
Power transformers - Application
guide, 60076-8, IEC:1997
Efficiency standards
TOC formula
Europe
and
Efficiency testing methodology
Design, calculation aspects

including measurement of
losses
Efficiency standards and
cost capitalisation formula
Cenelec 1992, Harmonisation documents HD 428, HD538 oil and dry

type transformers
Variety of country standards defining efficiency levels; MEPS in Australia, Canada,
China, Japan, Mexico, proposed in India and New Zealand, non mandatory in Europe
Table 2.1: Main transformer efficiency standards
100.00%
efficiency at 50% load
99.50%
99.00%
98.50%
98.00%
NEMA TP-1 [60 Hz] USA, Can

HD 428 CC''
Japan top runner [50 Hz, 40 % load]

HD 428 CAmdt
75
0
10
00
15
00
16
00
20
00
25
00
63
0
50
0
40
0
30
0
25
0
22
5
20
0
16
0
15
0
75
10
0
11
2,
5
50
45
30
25
15
97.50%
kVA
HD 428 BA'
India proposed MEPS (3 star)
Figure 2.3: Comparison of international standard efficiencies at 50% of load. C-AMDT

refers to an amorphous-core transformer with HD 428 C-class of load losses
In figure 2.3 international standard efficiencies at 50% of load are compared. Some important highlights are:
In 1997, Oak Ridge National Laboratory [10, 16] performed extensive studies to determine whether energy conservation standards for distribution transformers would
offer significant energy savings, be technically achievable and economically justified.
This has led to the definition of the NEMA TP-1 standard, which became the basis
for the rule making process on minimum standards. NEMA TP-1 has been used as
a guideline by Canada, Australia, New Zealand and (partially) Mexico3 .
In Europe, CENELEC Technical Committee 14 has published standards HD 428
and HD 538 classifying losses for oil (428) and dry type (538) transformers (Tables
2.2 & 2.3). Country standards should be in line with CENELEC documents but,
since the standard allows many possibilities, national approaches in Europe widely
differ. Efficiency standards are high in Benelux, Germany, Austria and Switzerland,
but low in France, Italy and Spain. Utilities in certain European countries have
policies exceeding national standards, e.g. Endesa in Spain purchases HD 428 CClevel distribution transformers, while the country standard is equivalent to HD 428
AA. Swiss utilities have been commissioning transformers with efficiencies in excess
of the HD428 classification scheme for already many years.
Rated power
kVA
50
100
160
250
400
630 (4%)
630 (6%)
1000
1600
2500
Oil-filled (HD428) up to 24 kV
List A
List B
List C
W
190
320
460
650
930
1 300
1 200
1 700
2 600
3 800
W
145
260
375
530
750
1 030
940
1 400
2 200
3 200
W
125
210
300
425
610
860
800
1 100
1 700
2 500
Dry type
(HD538)
12 kV
primary
W
n/a
440
610
820
1 150
1 500
1 370
2 000
2 800
4 300
Table 2.2: No-Load losses for distribution transformers according to CENELEC HD428
and HD538
3
Canada follows TP-1 strictly but the mandatory levels apply only for dry type transformers; Mexico
sets the minimum efficiencies at slightly less stringent levels 0.1% to 0.2% below TP-1 efficiency;
Australia recalculated the American 60 Hz efficiency standard to Australias 50 Hz frequency and also
interpolated linearly the efficiencies at the size ratings which are different from USA.
Rated power
kVA
50
100
160
250
400
630 (4%)
630 (6%)
1000
1600
2500

Oil-filled (HD428) up to 24 kV
List A
List B
List C
W
1 100
1 750
2 350
3 250
4 600
6 500
6 750
10 500
17 000
26 500
W
1 350
2 150
3 100
4 200
6 000
8 400
8 700
13 000
20 000
32 000
W
875
1 475
2 000
2 750
3 850
5 400
5 600
9 500
14 000
22 000
Dry type
(HD538)
12 kV
primary
W
n/a
2 000
2 700
3 500
4 900
7 300
7 600
10 000
14 000
21 000
Table 2.3: Load losses for distribution transformers according to CENELEC HD428 and
HD538
In China, the current standard is S9, and a new standard (S11) is being introduced,
which has losses slightly below Europes AC level. The standard defines allowable
levels for no-load and load losses.
The Indian Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), acting under a mandate from the
Indian Ministry of Power, has analyzed the feasibility of a distribution transformer
minimum efficiency standard. BEE classifies distribution transformers up to 200
kVA into 5 categories from 1 Star (high loss) to 5 Stars (low loss). 5 Stars represents world-class performance. 3 Stars is being proposed as a minimum efficiency
standard, and is being widely followed by utilities.
Japan has a different type of distribution system, with the last step of voltage
transformation much closer to the consumer. The majority of units are pole mounted
single phase transformers. The driver for setting up minimum efficiency standards
was the Kyoto commitment. Transformers, together with 17 categories of electrical
equipment, should meet minimum efficiencies. In the case of transformers, the
efficiency is defined at 40% load4 . Target average efficiency has been defined for
the year 2006 (oil) or 2007 (dry type), based on the best products on the market in
2003. This Japanese standard is currently the most demanding compared to other
regulated standards.
Other technical aspects include size & weight, reliability & harmonics, testing and frequency 50 versus 60 Hz. These are discussed in appendix A.
4
different to the most commonly used 50% load factor
Chapter 3
Economic and environmental aspects
3.1
Life-cycle costing
Most company structures separate the purchasing function from operations. This results
in a situation where the purchase of a transformer is often based on the delivery price
only. In most cases however, transformers with the lowest purchase price are also the ones
with the highest losses. Since transformers have a long life span, these extra losses can
add up to a considerable amount, exceeding the initial price by several times.
When comparing two different types of transformers, one should take into account the
total cost during the lifespan of the transformer, in other words, the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO).
TCO consists of several components: purchase price, installation cost, value of the energy
losses and maintenance costs over its life, and decommissioning costs. Except for PCB
cooled transformers, the last two elements are relatively insensitive to the type and design
of the transformer, and are consequently seldom taken into account. Purchase price and
energy losses are the two key factors. When different technologies are compared, e.g.
dry-type or oil-immersed, installation costs can be considerably different, and should be
taken into account.
To evaluate the total cost of losses, their Net Present Value at the moment of purchase
needs to be calculated, to put them into the same perspective as the purchase price. This
is done by calculating the Total Capitalized Cost of the losses, T CCloss , calculated from
the estimated average cost per kWh (C), the cost of capital (r) and the life time of the
transformer in years (n), where Eloss was defined in section 2.2.
T CCloss = Eloss C
(1 + r)n 1
r (1 + r)n
(3.1)
While the load profile over time and the future price evolution of energy is not known in
exactly, the use of trend line values can give good estimates of the total cost of the losses.
23
3.2
CHAPTER 3. ECONOMIC ASPECTS
Economic analysis of loss reduction
Tables 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 show that the energy efficiencies of distribution transformers range
from around 94% for a small A-A transformer, to more than 99% for an amorphous-core
distribution transformer with HD 428 C-level losses (C-AMDT), the most efficient type
available.
On average, the loss in a distribution transformer is around 1.5 2.0% of the energy
transferred. Considering that transformers are working continuously, significant losses
can build up. By choosing the right technology, these losses can be reduced by up to 80%.
Efficiency class
A-A
C-C
A-AMDT
C-AMDT
Efficiency(%)
94.71
96.46
98.71
98.77
Energy
saved
(kWh / year)
996
2 277
2 310
Payback
5.0
7.7
8.6
IRR (% 25 years)
20
12
11
Table 3.1: Energy saving & return for a high efficiency 100 kVA transformer[9]
Efficiency class
A-A
C-C
A-AMDT
C-AMDT
Efficiency(%)
98.04
98.64
99.35
99.40
Energy
saved
(kWh / year)
3 143
6 833
7 085
Payback
2.8
5.7
6.6
IRR (% 25 years)
36
17
15
Table 3.2: Energy saving & return for high efficiency 400 kVA transformer[9]
Efficiency class
A-A
C-C
A-AMDT
C-AMDT
Efficiency(%)
98.51
98.99
99.38
99.45
Energy
saved
(kWh / year)
9 759
19 447
20 972
Payback
1.4
5.5
5.5
IRR (% 25 years)
71
18
18
Table 3.3: Energy saving & return for high efficiency 1600 kVA transformer[9]
As the tables show, the pay-back period for investing in high efficiency transformers is
relatively short, certainly regarding their long life span (25 - 30 years)1 . Changing an
industrial 1600 kVA transformer from a A-A type to a C-C type will pay back in 1.4
1
Tables 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 are based on 1999 market conditions for Belgium. Prices may vary considerably
between markets, and from year to year.
years. The Internal Rate of Return (IRR) for investments in efficient transformers is
consistently above 10% and sometimes as high as 70%2 . Considering the low risk of the
investment, this should make efficient transformers attractive to both industrial companies
and grid operators. But in the case of grid operators, there is at present no incentive to
invest. Loss reduction then remains the only factor, as they have to be covered by the
grid operators, as is the case in most countries.
3.3
Externalities
As shown in the previous section, a higher efficiency benefits the owner of the transformer,
reducing TCO. On a larger scale, those cost savings are beneficial for the whole economy,
enabling the lower cost of production to result in lower tariffs to customers.
Each kWh also has an external cost, i.e. the environmental and health costs to society
that are not fully reflected in the price of electricity. These externalities originate from
the various types of emissions resulting from the combustion of fossil fuel. Apart from
CO2 , the main offenders are SO2 and N Ox which contribute to the acidification of the
environment. These pollutants have long range transborder effects and have therefore
become a major concern for most European countries.
Fuel
External cost [17]

US$ / kWh
Coal
8.3
Oil
11.6
Gas
3.8
Nuclear
1.0
Hydro
0.3
Renewable
0.3 2.9
Total
Part of generation [18]

%
39
8
17
17
17
2
100
Contribution
US$ / kWh
3.2
0.9
0.6
0.2
0.1
0.0
5.0
Table 3.4: The external cost of electricity for the world generation mix, based on 63
studies[17]
From table 3.4, the average external cost for the worlds generation mix can be estimated
at 5 US Cents / kWh3 . A saving of 200 TWh/year represents, in monetary equivalent, a
reduction of 10 billion US$ in environmental cost.
2
IRR is defined as the discount factor at which present value of loss reduction over 25 years equals
the investment premium in high efficiency transformers.
3
There is a very wide range in estimates for external costs reflecting, for example, political preferences,
or the use of different technologies for power generation. For this reason, the use of external costs for
energy policy making has been limited so far.
3.4
Non-technical losses
Distribution losses are calculated as the difference between electricity paid by clients and
energy supplied by a medium voltage transformer to the distribution network. Losses can
be technical, or non-technical. Non-technical losses can be:
Electricity theft
Invoicing errors
Bankruptcies of clients
Measurement errors
Electricity theft is a social problem, and hard to solve, since it addresses a large portion
of the population in certain countries. It is not the subject of this paper, which addresses
technological solutions to increase efficiency. But care should be taken in interpreting loss
figures to distinguish between technical and non-technical losses.
Chapter 4
Business aspects
This section presents a number of case studies, real or hypothetical, on the financial
impact of purchasing high efficiency transformers.
4.1
4.1.1
Impact of purchasing energy efficient transformers

Pay-back time on a single transformer
A first case is the isolated purchase of a single 400 kVA transformer1 . Three different
calculations are made.
1. A stable business situation in which there is a steady demand from the consumers
and none of the parameters are changing in time. This models the most common
case. The electrical energy lost in the transformer can be quantified according
to the purchase price of the electricity (0.045e/kWh). Figure 4.1 shows that the
investment in a high-efficiency transformer is paid back after three years and from
that moment on, energy savings start to make profit. Over a period of 10 years, the
net cash gain to the investor would be almost 1 000 e.
1
The assumptions in the business

http://transformers.leonardo-energy.org.
case
27
are
documented
in
[19],
available
from
1000
750
500
e
250
0
250
CHAPTER 4. BUSINESS ASPECTS
..
.......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
.......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.......
.......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
.......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
.......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
.......
.......
.......
......
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
.......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
.......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
.......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
.......
.......
......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.......
.......
.......
.......
......
10
Year
500
Figure 4.1: Calculated in the common case of a stable business situation, a high efficiency
transformer makes profit three years after the investment
2. Restricted supply would apply when the network is fully loaded, and supply is
restricted. In such a case, every kWh lost in the transformer is a kWh that is not
available for sale. It should thus be evaluated at retail price (0.15e/kWh). As a
result, the investment in high-efficiency transformers is paid back already after one
year (figure 4.2). The cash gain to the investor more than doubles to 2500 e.
2500
2000
1500
e
1000
500
0
500
.
......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
......
......
.......
.......
......
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.......
.......
.......
......
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.......
.......
......
......
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
......
......
.......
.......
......
.
.
.
.
.
.......
......
.......
......
......
.
.
.
.
.
......
.......
......
.......
......
.
.
.
.
.
..
......
......
......
.......
......
.
.
.
.
.
.......
......
.......
......
......
.
.
.
.
.
......
......
.......
.......
......
.
.
.
.
.
.......
.......
......
......
......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.......
......
10
Year
Figure 4.2: Calculated in the situation of a restricted supply, the pay-back period of a
high-efficient transformer is only one year
3. Variable electricity purchasing prices. If a utility company is purchasing electrical

energy on the free market, the impact of energy efficiency becomes much larger.
Suppose the company has a day, night & peak contract. Since transformer losses
are the highest at peak load (in absolute terms), the investment in efficiency becomes
even more attractive. In such a case, as figure 4.3 shows, a high efficient transformer
will pay itself back within the year of investment, and contribute over 10 years almost
10 000 e net cash to the investor2 .
9500
8500
7500
6500
5500
4500
3500
2500
1500
500
..
.......
.......
.......
......
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
.......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.......
.......
.......
......
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
.......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.......
.......
.......
......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.......
......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.......
.......
.......
......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.......
......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.......
.......
.......
......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.......
......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.......
.......
.......
......
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
......
.......
.......
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
500 1
10
Year
Figure 4.3: When electricity prices fluctuate according to the demand, the calculation of
the pay-back period of a high efficiency transformer becomes very complex. In this case,
the high efficiency transformer already makes a profit in the year it was installed
4.1.2
Business model for a transformer park
A second case broadens the study to a transformer park of 20 000 units, roughly the
number of transformers of a municipal utility serving a city of 1 million inhabitants.
The result shows that if the company starts to purchase energy-efficient transformers,
it will need to invest the first two years, but from the third year, energy savings cover
the additional capital required. Break-even is reached after 5 to 6 years (figure 4.4).
Accumulated over a period of 10 years, the utility would gain 3 million e cash from
adopting a purchase policy in high efficiency transformers.
2
In practice, no real-time pricing presently occurs for network losses. Grid operators buy the losses in
one overall contract, averaged over the year.
3000
2500
2000
1500
ke
1000
500
0
500
.
...
...
...
..
.
.
...
...
..
..
.
.
.
...
...
..
..
.
.
.
...
...
...
...
.
...
...
...
...
.
.
.
...
...
...
...
.
.
.
...
...
...
...
.
.
.
...
...
...
...
.
.
..
...
...
...
...
.
.
..
...
.........
...
............
...
............
............
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...........
...
............
...
............
...
...........
... .......................
.
.
.
.
.
.
.................
.............
................
............ .........
............
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
............
.....
...........
.....
............
............
.....
....
............
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
............
.....
...........
......
............
............
......
............
.....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.....
............
.....
............
......
............
......
............
.....
............
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...............
........
.........
........
........
........
.........
........
.........
........
.
.
.
.
.
..............
.
.
........................
................
..........................................
10
Year
1000
Figure 4.4: The decision to buy from now on only high efficiency transformers will already
result in a favorable balance after three years (transformer park of 20.000 units).
4.2
Asset management
High efficiency transformers are usually only attractive as an alternative when a decision
to invest has been made. Sometimes, it can be an option for replacing old transformers
that still use high loss steels before end-of-life. The Lodz distribution company in Poland
has investigated whether it could replace such transformers. The company serves 512 000
consumers by 3 189 distribution transformers. The study concluded that 862 transformers
had very high losses. It would make sense to replace them by higher efficiency types before
their end of life. Those transformers were all built before 1970 and had relatively high
no-load losses.
Another interesting conclusion of this study is that the rise of the load during the life
span of a transformer is an important factor, though seldom considered while making the
purchasing decision. In a distribution network, the load of a transformer increases by
an average 2% a year. This extra load leads to an increase in losses, which should be
taken into account when calculating the pay-back ratio of an investment in high efficiency
transformers.
A'
A
C
C'
Po
1999
1997
1995
1993
1991
1989
1987
1985
1983
1981
1979
1977
1975
1973
1971
1969
1967
1965
1963
1961
1959
1957
1955
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Load Losses Pk [W]
1953
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1951
No-load Losses Po [W]
400 kVA
Pk
Figure 4.5: Case study Lodz

Figure 4.5 shows transformers losses purchased by the Lodz utility from 1951 to 1999.
Area 1 hot rolled electrical steel
Area 2 cold rolled electrical steel, first, low grade steel
Area 3 cold rolled electrical steel, higher grade steel and improved construction of cores
Area 4 cold rolled electrical steel, laser grade steel and improved construction of cores
Lodz utility replaced all old transformers in Area 1 with cores made from hot rolled
electrical steel and subsequently started gradual replacement of old transformers in
Area 2.
4.3
Demand-side considerations
The electricity demand of users varies considerably with time. Distribution transformers serving residential customers may be only 15 20% loaded, with pronounced peak
demands in morning and evening. Commercial customers use typically 30 50% of transformer capacity, but only during daytime. Industrial transformers are often even more
heavily loaded, and during more hours of the day.
JEMA (Japan Electrical Manufacturers Association) made a study on the load ratio of
the transformers by collecting the questionnaire from 290 users in Japan. The result is
shown in the table below. The load ratio is much smaller than normally expected.
Industry
Services
Public sector
Electric
Food
Metal
Chemical
Machinery
Fabrication
Pulp
Transport
Other
Offices
Stores
Hospitals
Libraries
Rail roads
Government
Other
Valid
responses
#
55
33
31
29
15
14
5
4
56
15
1
7
6
6
4
9
Daytime
Nighttime
%
49.8
47.4
41.5
47.5
39.7
56.4
34.8
25.2
49.7
25.0
61.0
30.1
22.8
20.0
40.0
36.5
%
35.8
32.2
31.2
25.9
14.5
57.7
35.4
0
27.3
5.7
5
9.1
5.3
14.1
10.0
34.4
Day
Average
%
43.4
40.5
36.7
38.3
29.9
57.1
35.1
17.8
40.1
18.1
43.3
22.2
16.6
17.3
29.2
35.5
A first issue is load versus no-load loss. A 400 kVA CC transformer, loaded at 20%, has
764W losses, i.e., 610W no-load, and 154W load loss3 . Hence, almost 80% of loss is at
no-load. This however does not mean that load loss is negligible. At peak load e.g.,
60% loading, the same transformers will have 1996W losses, i.e., still 610W no-load loss,
1386W load loss4 . Hence, losses are the highest when they are the least affordable.
A pronounced peak in the load adds to losses, compared to a flat demand profile. Load
losses increase with the square of the (instantaneous) load. Hence, average load need to
be calculated as the root-mean-square of the instantaneous load. Experience with load
profiles shows that load losses in a distribution transformer will be approximately 10%
lower if the demand profile is flat rather than peaked [10].
3
4
764 = 610 + 3850 0.22 see table 2.2 and 2.3

1996 = 610 + 3850 0.62
Finally, (3.1) does not take into account annual load growth, which can have a dramatic
impact on lifetime load losses. A growth of 2%/year in the load over 30 years will have an
impact of 35% on the loss-factor. If the growth were 5%/year, typical in some developing
countries, this will have 121% impact. Load growth needs to be taken into account,
not only because of its impact on lifetime losses, but also because it may cause early
transformer failure.
Chapter 5
Policy
5.1
Liberalisation
The costs and profits of network companies in a liberalized electricity market are in most
countries limited by regulation or regulated tariffs. This may inhibit investments in energy
efficiency measures, for instance high efficiency transformers. The risk is that companies
are more focussed on short term cost savings and fail to invest in systems that would save
more in the long run.
If the correct regulatory framework is developed, investments in improving the efficiency
of a network can also be stimulated under market regulation. The following is a short
description of the 4 main barriers and possible remedies.
1. Most models of regulation rely on a partial redistribution of savings to consumers.
This discourages companies from making investments for efficiency improvements,
since cost reduction from the investment are shared with the consumers.
Allow some carryover of measurable efficiency gains, so that investing in energy
efficiency becomes more attractive for the network companies.
2. Capital-intensive investments are very sensitive to future changes, e.g. in the regulatory regime. This discourages investments in efficiency improvements.
Give special incentives to promote capital-intensive energy efficiency measures.
Create a stable, long term system of regulation.
3. The regulatory framework tends to concentrate on cost savings in the short term.
These do not encourage companies to take the life cycle costs of equipment into
account.
Give incentives to network operators to take into account the life cycle cost of
equipment.
4. Energy losses are calculated without consideration of external costs.
34
CHAPTER 5. POLICY
Take the true cost of network losses into account.
5.2
Labelling
Labeling is an effective way of bringing transparency to the market. A clear definition

of efficiency, a transparent measurement procedure and a labeling system should be the
start of every mandatory or voluntary program to increase transformer efficiency.
5.3
Minimum efficiency performance standards
Mandatory Minimum Efficiency Performance Standards (MEPS) have the advantage that
they achieve immediate effect. From the moment of adopting such standards, the efficiency
of the average unit sold increases. Their success has been proven already in a few countries,
with China as the most striking example.
However, minimum standards will in most cases be set as a compromise between the
requirements of all parties involved. As a consequence, standards are normally not set
high enough to achieve the full economic and environmental benefits.
Another disadvantage of minimum efficiency standards, established in a consultative structure, is that reviewing the standard is difficult. Carrying out a new consultation process
is time-consuming. Because of that, minimum efficiency standards are rarely adjusted to
the economics of the market or to a new technology developments.
5.4
Voluntary schemes
Voluntary schemes do not have the disadvantages of a mandatory minimum standard.

The targets can often be set at a more ambitious level and reviewing them is less difficult
and less time consuming. Consequently, it is a much more flexible system.
The main difficulty to overcome in voluntary programs is reaching a reasonable degree of
participation often taking a few years.
The goal of a voluntary program should be to make the incentives and the image so important that it becomes difficult for companies to ignore. High image value, a meaningful
brand presence, and a strong policy context for instance make the Japanese Toprunner
program a good example of an effective scheme.
Chapter 6
Ongoing initiatives
6.1
Australia and New Zealand
The Australian program for energy efficiency in distribution transformers, executed by

the National Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Committee (NAEEEC), works
on two levels.
First, there is the Minimum Energy Performance Standard (MEPS), a regulation that
bans transformers which do not meet minimum efficiency levels. The standards are defined for oil-filled distribution transformers between 10 and 2 500 kVA and for dry-type
distribution transformers between 15 and 2 500 kVA, both at 50% load. The MEPS are
mandated by legislation, effective 1 October 2004. Under the stimulus of the National
Greenhouse Strategy and thanks to the strong will of the parties involved, the creation
of the MEPS passed smoothly. The field study to define the scope was started in 2000,
with the minimum standards written in 2002.
The second track, currently under development, is the creation of further energy efficiency
performance standards resulting in a scheme for voluntary high efficiency labeling.
New Zealand follows the Australian regulation for distribution transformers.
6.2
China
In 1999, China has created mandatory minimum efficiency standards for transformers.
The S9 standard, approved by the State Bureau of Quality and Technology Supervision,
is defined for distribution and power transformers. It stipulates maximum load and noload losses for oil immersed types ranging from 30 to 31 500 kVA and for dry types in
the range from 30 to 10 000 kVA. This regulation has quickly changed the market to high
efficiency units.
36
6.3
CHAPTER 6. ONGOING INITIATIVES
Europe
CENELEC has defined efficiency standards for distribution transformers in the range
from 50 to 2500 kVA. HD428 stipulates A, B and C categories for load and no-load losses.
HD538 advises a maximum for the load and no-load losses of dry type transformers. The
efficiency ranges defined by these standards are relatively wide. The minimum efficiency in
the highest category (CC) is still far below the efficiency of the best in class and far below
the 5-star transformer defined by the Indian Bureau of Energy Efficiency. CENELEC is
currently defining new efficiency categories with lower losses.
In 1999, a Thermie project of the European Union assessed the total energy losses in distribution transformers. The savings potential in the 15 countries of the EU was estimated
to be 22 TWh.
A mandatory minimum efficiency standard for distribution transformers is not expected
to be introduced in the near future. This is disappointing, given the availability of worldclass transformer technology in Europe.
6.4
India
In India, the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) has developed a 5-star classification
scheme for distribution transformers in the range from 25 to 200 kVA. The scheme is a
co-operative venture between public and private organizations that issues rules and recommendations under the statutory powers vested with it. The 5-star program stipulates a
lower and a higher limit for the total losses in transformers, at 50% load. The scheme recommends replacing transformers with higher star rated units. The 5-star unit represents
world class technology, while 3-stars is recommended as a minimum, and already followed
by many utilities. India historically has a rather poor performance in transformer energy
efficiency, but this 5-star program could become an important driver for change.
6.5
Japan
In Japan, transformers are a part of the Toprunner Program which either defines the
efficiency for various categories of a product type, or uses a formula to calculate minimum efficiency. This program, which covers 18 different categories of appliances, has
some major differences compared to other minimum efficiency performance programs.
The minimum standard is not based on the average efficiency level of products currently
available, but on the highest efficiency level achievable. However, the program does not
impose this level immediately, but sets a target date by which this efficiency level must
be reached. A manufacturers product range must, on average, meet the requirement. It
is not applied to individual products.
Labeling of the products is mandatory. A green label signifies a product that meets the
minimum standard, while other products receive an orange label.
6.6
Mexico
As in Australia, the Mexican standard includes voluntary and mandatory elements. The
Normas Oficiales Mexicanas (NOM) define minimum efficiency performance standards
for transformers in the range from 5 to 500 kVA, and a compulsory test procedure for
determining this performance. For each power category, maximum load and no-load losses
are imposed.
6.7
USA
The energy savings potential in the USA from switching to high efficient transformers is
high. In 1997, the National Laboratory of Oak Ridge estimated it to be 141 TWh. One
of the reasons for this high figure is the high number of distribution transformers on the
utility networks in the US.
To reduce these losses, the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) created the TP1 standard. TP1 defines a minimum efficiency for dry and oil-filled type
transformers in the range from 10 to 2500 kVA. The TP1 standard is likely to become
the mandatory minimum efficiency level in the near future1 .
Next to this standard, transformers also are part of the broader EnergyStar labelling
program. EnergyStar is a voluntary program that encourages the participating utilities
to calculate the total cost of ownership of their transformers and to buy the type if it is
cost-effective to do. EnergyStar is based on TP1 because EPA2 was looking to set an easy
standard that did not cause protracted arguments, so it may be tightened in the future.
The third program in the US, set up by the Consortium for Energy Efficiency (CEE),
aims to increase the awareness of the potential of efficient transformers in industry. It
consists of a campaign to measure the efficiency of industrial transformers and to stimulate
companies to upgrade their transformer park to the best available in the market.
6.8
Canada
In Canada the Office of Energy Efficiency (OEE) of Natural Resources Canada (NRCan) has amended Canadas Energy Efficiency Regulations (the Regulations) to require
1
The following states have, or will soon have NEMA TP-1 requirements: Massachusets, Minnesota,
Wisconsin, New York, Vermont, California and Oregon.
2
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Canadian dealers to comply with minimum energy performance standards for dry-type
transformers imported or shipped accress state borders for sale or lease in Canada. The
standards are harmonized with NEMA TP-1 and TP-2 standards.
Amendment 6 to Canadas Energy Efficiency Regulations was published on April 23,
2003. The regulation of dry-type transformers is included in this amendment with a
completion date of January 1, 2005. This requires all dry-type transformers, as defined in
this document, manufactured after this date to meet the minimum efficiency performance
standards.
As far as oil transformers are concerned Canada has conducted analysis of MEPS implementation potential and found that the great majority of Canadian oil distribution
transformers already comply with NEMA TP-1 so the standard would almost have no
influence on the market. The yearly MEPS standard impact would only be 0.98 GWh for
liquid filled transformers compared to saving potential at 132 GWh expected for dry-type
transformers.
Also Energy Star products are very actively promoted in Canada.
6.9
Overview
Table 6.1 provides an overview of transformer programs around the world.

Country
Australia
Canada
China
EU
India
Japan
Mexico
Taiwan
USA
Labeling
BAT
x
x
x
x
Efficiency standard
Test standard
Mandatory Voluntary
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Table 6.1: Overview of transformer programs in the world (BAT = Best Available Technology)
Chapter 7
Conclusions and Recommendations
7.1
Conclusions
Replacing all distribution transformers by energy efficient types could save 200 TWh a
year, equivalent to 130 million tonnes of CO2 emissions (table 1.4). An advantage large
enough to justify the effort.
High-efficiency transformers are a mature technology with their economic and environmental benefits clearly demonstrated. While their higher initial cost can be more than
recovered by reduced running costs, many distribution transformers are still chosen on
the basis of the purchasing price. The report suggests that a new regulatory framework
is required to stimulate change to allow the capture of the available benefits.
While utilities, in general, address energy efficiency in their purchasing decisions, they lack
sufficient incentives to make sound long term decisions. Energy efficiency levels are low
since the cost of energy losses is passed on to their customers, while price cap regulations
make it difficult for utilities to benefit from investment in high efficiency transformers. In
such a system, investments in energy efficiency are not appropriately rewarded.
In the industrial transformer market, high efficiency transformers seem to be more attractive, since the transformer purchasers have to pay for the energy losses themselves.
However, transformers in industry are usually purchased by contractors or third parties,
who in most cases evaluate the equipment on the basis of immediate cost, and who are
seldom asked to focus on energy efficiency by their industrial clients.
Examples of both mandatory and voluntary initiatives prove that the above barriers can
be overcome. In particular the programs in Australia and Japan, which are strongly linked
to achieving the goals of the Kyoto protocol, deserve attention.
40
www.leonardo-energy.orgCHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.2
Recommendations
The principle of Total Cost of Ownership will, in most cases, lead to the purchase of
high efficiency transformers. The steps to promote this principle depend largely on existing local practices and policies. While there are some successful cases of voluntary
programs promoting transformer efficiency, regulation is required to realise the economic
and environmental benefits available.
The following recommendations for policy makers can be made:
Set minimum efficiency performance standards to remove the worst products from
the market. International benchmarking can help to define adequate performance
levels. Build a periodic review process into the regulation.
Set up a voluntary scheme to define premium levels of efficiency, preferrably in
the context of a broader programme for energy conservation. If such a programme
already exists, include distribution transformers in it.
Whatever program is chose, ensure it contains a clear product labeling requirement.
Design regulatory schemes to ensure that investment can be made at minimum
life-cycle cost.
Appendix A
Other technical issues
A.1
Size & Weight
An increase in transformer efficiency goes hand in hand with an increase in weight and
volume, due to an increase in the cross-section and number of windings for reducing
load loss. So when switching from a standard to a high efficiency transformer, one should
investigate if there is enough space and whether the foundation can support the additional
weight.
Reducing the no-load loss is mainly done by enlarging the core and by changing the
steel type of the core, and has another impact on the weight and size of the transformer.
Amorphous transformers have about 50% bigger cores.
The following examples illustrate these changes (table A.1). It is the increase in length
and height that increases the total volume of the highly efficient transformer, even though
its depth is in general slightly lower.
100 kVA
Standard
Low no-load loss
Low losses
400 kVA
Standard
Low no-load loss
Low losses
No-load
loss [W]
240
180
200
No-load
loss [W]
720
530
460
Load
[W]
1680
1720
1200
Load
[W]
4100
4100
3200
loss
loss
Weight
[kg]
585
585
800
Weight
[kg]
1355
1520
2000
Width
[mm]
870
870
1000
Width
[mm]
1085
1210
1200
Depth
[mm]
670
670
650
Depth
[mm]
900
850
750
Height
[mm]
1200
1200
1400
Height
[mm]
1445
1480
1780
Table A.1: Selected parameters for standard and efficient transformer designs (source:
ABB Global Website)
42
A.2
APPENDIX A. OTHER TECHNICAL ISSUES
Reliability & Harmonics
The reliability and lifetime of a transformer is affected by the operating temperature.

Above a particular design value, any increase in temperature can seriously shorten the
service life. Designers need to take care to avoid the occurrence of hot-spots within the
operating transformer. Particular care has to be taken when transformers supply nonlinear loads.
Loads such as variable speed motor drives, computers and uninterruptable power supplies
draw non-linear currents from the supply, resulting in substantial currents at harmonic
frequencies. Harmonic currents have a significant effect on transformer load losses. About
5% of load loss is due to eddy currents in the windings and these losses are proportional
to the square of the frequency. As a result, the losses arising from a current at the third
harmonic is nine times that due to a fundamental of the same magnitude. Consequently,
the load losses in a transformer supplying non-linear loads can easily be twice the rated
(fundamental frequency) losses.
Distribution transformers, operating close to the load are most affected by harmonics.
Some of the harmonics are cancelled as the effects of thousands of independent loads
aggregate, mitigating the effects of harmonics upstream in the system.
In reality, there are two strategies for dealing with this: either use a larger transformer
than necessary to allow for the extra losses, or use a transformer especially designed to
minimise losses with non-linear loads. Obviously, from the energy-efficiency point of view,
the latter approach is preferable.
With non-linear loads, the potential energy savings from high efficiency transformers can
be up to 80% higher than under linear load conditions.
A.3
Testing
While suppliers have standard procedures for transformer quality testing, sometimes customers have special requirements regarding testing, if transformers are to be installed at
high altitude, in a high ambient temperature, in dusty or high humidity environments
or where there is an increased fire hazard. Acoustic noise levels may be of concern in
some installations. For the measurement of losses and efficiency the most commonly used
procedures are those derived from either IEC60076 or TP-2. Both standards are almost
equivalent they require testing at ambient temperature (usually 20 C) and temperature
correction to operating conditions.
There are however some differences between these standards:
Copper temperature correction factor in TP-2 is slightly lower than in IEC60076
(234,5 compared to 235)
The acceptable tolerances for losses according to IEC60076 are much higher compared to TP-2. IEC defines +10% total loss tolerance, or 15% of each loss component, provided the total losses with tolerance are not exceeded while TP-2 tolerances
are 3%.
The temperature correction factor difference is insignificant, but the higher tolerances in
IEC give the impression that losses are considered a secondary issue.
When establishing a minimum efficiency regulation it will be necessary to establish unit
as well as type test procedures to eliminate higher loss units resulting from manufacturing
variations.
A.4
50 versus 60 Hz
Whether transformers are operated at the European 50 Hz or at the North American 60

Hz frequency, is not really a relevant issue for energy efficiency. Transformers for 60 Hz
tend to have higher no-load and lower load losses, if all the other parameters are kept
the same. However the resulting differences are very small (0.1 0.2%) compared to the
range in which iron and copper losses can be varied by changing main design parameters.
A.5
Amorphous core transformers
An amorphous transformer uses amorphous metal alloy strip for its magnetic circuit.
This alloy allows to build transformers with very low no-load loss. Currently the rating
is limited to 10 MVA, because of the flexible structure of the core.
A.5.1
AM-Ribbon
AM-Ribbon or amorphous ribbon is made from a ferric metal alloy. It is produced by

a rapid quench system with quenching speed of minus one million degree per minute
(106 degree/minute). This speed of quenching is fast enough to avoid crystallisation of
this ferric alloy with a specific chemical composition.
Its thickness is about 25 micron and the normal width, which is commercially available,
is up to 210 mm.
A.5.2
AMT-core
AMT-core for a transformer uses AM-Ribbon as magnetic material. The AMT-core is a

wound core, which reduces iron loss compared to a stacked core. Its best characteristic
is a low iron loss, exploiting the low hysteresis loss and the low eddy current loss of the
AM-Ribbon. Its disadvantages are its larger size because of the low saturated magnetic
density and the low lamination factor of the material, its flexibility because of the thin
ribbon used, and its higher sensitivity to stress.
A.5.3
AMT
AMT is a transformer using AMT-core. It is also called AMDT when it is used in a

distribution grid and AMIT when it is used in industry, i.e. in factories and buildings.
The best feature of the AMT is its low no-load loss, because of the low iron loss of the
AMT-core. One of the disadvantages is the larger mass of the transformer.
The foot print area of the AMT will be the same as for a silicon steel transformers in
most cases. The biggest disadvantage might be the price difference, although the TOC
(total owning cost) will be smaller because of high efficiency.
The actual load ratio of the industrial transformers is typically 15-35% in developed
countries except for industries operating 24-hours. AMIT fits well to these low load
conditions, because because of its low no-load loss.
A.5.4
Comparison of efficiency
A comparison of distribution transformers is made in the figure below. The horizontal axis is the amount of electricity in kW. The vertical axis is efficiency (= electricity
demand/electricity supplied to the transformer) described in %.
The figure shows that large differences between transformer efficiencies exist, and confirm
the improvement potential.
100%
Oil immersed 3 phase; 50 Hz (60 Hz for NEMA TP-1)
A
A
uuss -o
o
h
h
p
moorrp
A
Am
99%
Japanese TopRunner
40%
50%
NEMA TP 1
15%
1
SS111
a
a
n
hhii n
CC
CC
BBAA 9
8
C
C
8
88
4422 ---11199999999
422
D
D
4
H
H 4330044
DD
H
H
98%
CC 4
S
S
I
I
J
J
10 kW
100 kW
50%
60%
Efficiency (%)
E
rphhoouuss -- E
A
Am
moorp
1000 kW
15%
Ele c t ric it y Consume d (k W)

Figure A.1: Efficiency comparison for various load conditions
Appendix B
Promotion Partnership for High
Efficiency Transformers
On September 17, 2002, 50 participants from 20 countries met in Treviso, Italy for the 3rd
International Workshop on Distribution Transformer Efficiency . A large global electricity
savings potential was identified through the adoption of higher efficiency standards for
transformers, equivalent to the annual electricity use of 30 million families.
Therefore, the workshop participants agreed that further action is needed to improve
transformer efficiency and decided to establish a global forum to work on this issue.
The forum, called Promotion Partnership for High Efficiency Transformers received a
mandate from the participants to work out this position paper on transformer efficiency.
Following individuals and organisations have contributed to the process:
47
APPENDIX B. TRANSFORMER PARTNERSHIP
Name
Dennis Allan, Merlin Design
Angelo Baggini, ECD
Andrzej Bagginski, LZE
Ronnie Belmans, KULeuven
Paolo Bertoldi, JRC
Sergio Bittencourt, ICA
Antonio Bossi
Pablo Botteselle, ICA
David Brender, CDA Inc
David Chapman, CDA UK
Jan Declercq, Pauwels
Hans De Keulenaer, ECI
Jan Desmet, Lemcko
Mark Ellis
Andre Even, LABORELEC
Derek Foster, Olsun
Katsuaki Furuya, Hitachi
Ryusuke Hasegawa, Metglas
Shane Holt, AGO
Li Jun Yi
Seydina Kane
Mayur Karmarkar, ICPCI
Tony Marker, AGO
Manuel Martinez, University Itajuba
Mike McDermott
Alan Meier, IEA
John Mollet, ICA
Pietro Parodi, Europacable - EWWG
Ivo Pinkiewicz, IENOT
Eiken Shibata, Metglas
Jerzy Szkutnik, TU Czestochowa
Yvan Tits, Electrabel
Roman Targosz, ECI
Hiroyuki Uchida, Mizuho
Salam Zagha, Nablus
Yuejin Zhao, CNIS
Victor Zhou, ICA
Country
UK
Italy
Poland
Belgium
Italy
India
Italy
Chile
USA
UK
Belgium
Belgium
Belgium
Australia
Belgium
USA
Japan
USA
Australia
China
Senegal
India
Australia
Brazil
UK
France
USA
Italy
Poland
Japan
Poland
Belgium
Poland
Japan
Palestine
China
China
Email
dennis@merlindesign.freeserve.co.uk
angelo.baggini@ecd.it
andrzej.baginski@lze.lodz.pl
ronnie.belmans@esat.kuleuven.ac.be
Paolo.Bertoldi@cec.eu.int
sbittencourt@copper.org
antboss@tin.it
pbotteselle@copper.org
dbrender@cda.copper.org
david.chapman@copperdev.co.uk
J.Declercq@pauwels.com
hdk@eurocopper.org
jan.desmet@howest.be
ellism@ozemail.com.au
andre.even@laborelec.be
dfoster@olsun.com
furuya-katsuaki@hitachi-ies.co.jp
ryusuke.hasegawa@metglas.com
shane.holt@greenhouse.gov.au
lijunyi@atmcn.com
skane@senelec.sn
mayur karmarkar@icpci.org
Tony.Marker@ea.gov.au
martinez@iee.efei.br
MJMcDermott@dial.pipex.com
alan.meier@iea.org
jmollet@copper.org
antonio.martinengo@pirelli.com
ienot@rubikon.net.pl
shibata@metglas.jp
szkutnik@el.pcz.czest.pl
Yvan.Tits@electrabel.be
cem@miedz.com.pl
hiroyuki.uchida@gene.mizuho-ir.co.jp
sszagha@nablus.org
zhaoyj@cnis.gov.cn
vzhou@public.bta.net.cn
Bibliography
[1] Electricity distribution losses - a consultation document. Technical report, Office of
Gas and Electricity Markets, 2003.
[2] International Energy Outlook. Energy Information Administration, 2003.
[3] World Energy Investment Outlook. International Energy Agency, 2003.
[4] E Shibata. Amorphous transformers in japan. Production and Electricity, September
2003.
[5] B Kennedy. Energy efficient transformers. Mc Graw - Hill, 1998.
[6] G Wilkenfield. Regulatory impact statement - meps and alternative strategies for
electricity distribution transformers. Technical report, Prepared for the Australian
Greenhouse Office, 2002.
[7] M McDermott.
Energy efficient distribution transformers utility initiatives.
Technical report, European Copper Institute, 2000.
Available from
http://transformers.copperwire.org.
[8] P J A Ling. Overcoming transformer losses. Electrical Construction and Maintenance, August 2003.
[9] M McDermott. The scope for energy saving in the eu through the use of energyefficient electricity distribution transformers. Technical report, European Commission - THERMIE Programme, 1999.
[10] P Barnes et al. Determination analysis of energy conservation standards for distribution transformers. Technical Report ORNL/6847, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
1996.
[11] Determination analysis of standards & labeling program for distribution transformers. Technical report, Bureau of Energy Efficiency (India), 2003.
[12] Guide for determining energy efficiency for distribution transformers. NEMA Standards Publication TP 1-2002, 2002.
[13] Minimum energy performance standards distribution transformers. National Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency Program - Australia, March 2001.
49
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[14] M Ellis. Analysis of potential for minimum energy performance standards for distribution transformers. Technical report, Prepared for the Australian Greenhouse
Office, 2000.
[15] Y Zhao. The current situation of distribution transformers in china. Report prepared
for the Promotion Partnership for High Efficiency Transformers, 2003.
[16] P Barnes et al. Supplement to the determination analysis and analysis of the nema efficiency standard for distribution transformers. Technical report, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory.
[17] T Sundqvist. What causes the disparity of electricity externality estimates? Energy
Policy, 32:1753 1766, 2004.
[18] World Energy Outlook. International Energy Agency, 2002.
[19] M McDermott. Impact of purchasing energy efficient transformers. Technical report,
European Copper Institute, 2001. website: http://transformers.copperwire.org.
ANEXO II
Determinacin de las prdidas tcnicas en transformadores de distribucin con
dielctrico lquido, instalados en las Empresas de Energa Elctrica en Brasil Cepel.
14
DIE 9402/07 PROJETO 1774

GRUPO ELETROBRS
Determinao das perdas

tcnicas dos transformadores
de distribuio, com dieltrico
lquido, instalados nas
empresas concessionrias de
energia no Brasil
RELATRIO TCNICO DIE - 6454/08
Autores:
Carlos Azevedo Sanguedo - CEPEL
Ana Anglica da Silva Oliveira - CEPEL
Carmem Polycarpo Medeiros - CEPEL
II

GRUPO ELETROBRS
NDICE
1.
HISTRICO _____________________________________________________ 1
2.
OBJETIVO ______________________________________________________ 1
3.
METODOLOGIA PARA DETERMINAO DAS PERDAS _________________ 1
4.
TRANSFORMADORES INSTALADOS AT 2006 POR REGIO____________ 2
5.
CONSUMIDORES DE ENERGIA AT 2006 POR TIPO DE CONSUMIDOR ___ 3
6.
ENERGIA CONSUMIDA POR TIPO DE CONSUMIDOR NO ANO DE 2006 ___ 3
7.
CONSUMIDORES DE ENERGIA POR REGIO AT 2006 ________________ 4
8.
ENERGIA CONSUMIDA EM 2006 POR REGIO________________________ 5
9.
DISTRIBUIO MONOFSICA POR REGIO__________________________ 6
10.
DISTRIBUIO TRIFSICA POR REGIO ____________________________ 6
11.
CARGA TPICA POR PERFIL DE CONSUMO E PERDA POR DIA ASSOCIADA7
12.
PERDAS TCNICAS _____________________________________________ 10
13.
IMPACTO FINANCEIRO COM AUMENTO DA EFICINCIA DOS

TRANSFORMADORES DE DISTRIBUIO___________________________ 12
14.
BIBLIOGRAFIA _________________________________________________ 13
III

GRUPO ELETROBRS
1. HISTRICO
Em dezembro de 2005 foi assinado um convnio para a Promoo da Qualidade e Eficincia
Energtica de Transformadores de Distribuio, que entre si celebraram, de um lado, a Centrais
Eltricas Brasileiras S.A. ELETROBRS, o Centro de Pesquisas de Energia Eltrica CEPEL,
como interveniente, e de outro, a Confederao Nacional da Indstria CNI e o Instituto Euvaldo
Lodi IEL, com o objetivo principal, dentre outros, levantar o estado da arte dos Transformadores
de Distribuio de produo nacional, com o propsito de averiguar e melhorar seu desempenho.
Em abril de 2006 foi realizada uma pesquisa com as Concessionrias de Distribuio no Brasil,
com o objetivo de levantar as informaes sobre estes equipamentos no ano de 2005.
Durante as reunies do grupo de trabalho formado por representantes dos agentes potencialmente
envolvidos no programa, a empresa International Copper Association Ltd., demonstrou interesse
para que o CEPEL, baseado neste levantamento, elaborasse um estudo visando a determinao
das perdas tcnicas de transformadores, instalados nas redes areas de distribuio das
empresas concessionrias no Brasil.
2. OBJETIVO
O objetivo deste relatrio tcnico determinar a perda tcnica de energia nos transformadores
instalados nas redes de distribuio das empresas concessionrias no Brasil no ano de 2007, por
tipo de aplicao e o impacto financeiro que ir representar uma reduo percentual das perdas
tcnicas destes transformadores.
3. METODOLOGIA PARA DETERMINAO DAS PERDAS

A metodologia adotada para a determinao dessa perda de energia, que nada mais do que a
potncia ativa dissipada no tempo pelos circuitos eltricos e magnticos das unidades de
transformao sob carga no sistema de distribuio brasileiro foi a seguinte:
a) determinar inicialmente o quantitativo de transformadores de distribuio, monofsico e trifsico,
por regio para o ano de 2006 e de 2007, baseado na pesquisa realizada pelo CEPEL, relativa aos
transformadores de distribuio instalados nos sistemas de distribuio nacionais no ano de 2005,
descrita no trabalho tcnico intitulado Qualidade e Eficincia Energtica de Transformadores de
Distribuio. Este trabalho foi divulgado no XVII SENDI - Seminrio Nacional de Distribuio de
Energia Eltrica de 21 a 25 de agosto de 2006, em Belo Horizonte, que reuniu empresas de
distribuio de todo pas. Foi aplicada uma atualizao do quantitativo obtido em 2005 para 2006 e
2007, adotando o crescimento anual distribudo por regio;
b) efetuar a classificao dos transformadores por: tipo de transformador (1 ou 3), potncia do
transformador (kVA), por regio e perfil de consumo do usurio (curva de carga) que utiliza
transformadores de distribuio. Foram considerados como perfis de consumo significativos os
seguintes tipos de usurios*; comercial, residencial, rural e pblico**;
c) calcular a potncia trifsica e a monofsica total instalada por regio;
*
O consumo industrial no foi considerado como consumidor representativo do sistema de redes areas de distribuio em funo de
estar normalmente ligado distribuio com transformador de fora.
** O consumo pblico considerado engloba iluminao pblica, servios pblicos e poder pblico.
Determinao das perdas tcnicas dos transformadores de distribuio com dieltrico lquido instalados nas empresas
concessionrias de energia no Brasil.

GRUPO ELETROBRS
d) determinar o nmero e o perfil dos consumidores de energia at dez de 2007 atravs dos
valores obtidos tambm no stio da ABRADEE em - Dados de Mercado das Empresas
Distribuidoras Associadas;
e) determinar o consumo de energia em GWh no ano de 2006, a ser utilizado no clculo das
perdas anuais, atravs do stio da ABRADEE em - Dados de Mercado das Empresas
Distribuidoras Associadas;
f) estabelecer as curvas de carga tpicas para as aplicaes residenciais, comerciais, rurais e
pblicas para determinar o carregamento dos transformadores e conseqente perda diria como
funo de sua aplicao;
g) totalizar a perda de energia no sistema em kWh/dia e MWh/ano, e seus respectivos valores em
reais, a partir do carregamento dos transformadores, em funo da sua aplicao e depois de
conhecida a perda por potncia e tipo de transformador com base na NBR 5440:1990, utilizando
os dados dos itens b), c) e d);
h) simular o caso de melhoria do rendimento dos transformadores em 1%, estabelecer a
equivalente reduo percentual de perdas e conseqente reduo da perda anual do sistema em
MWh.
4. TRANSFORMADORES INSTALADOS AT 2006 POR REGIO

A quantidade dos transformadores de distribuio instalada nos sistemas brasileiros at o ano de
2007, foi obtida aplicando um multiplicador aos dados levantados em 2005, baseado na evoluo
anual das unidades pesquisadas por regio, tanto para unidades monofsicas quanto para as
unidades trifsicas.
A Tabela 1 apresenta o resultado final desta evoluo para os transformadores monofsicos
instalados no sistema de distribuio e a Tabela 2 para os transformadores trifsicos.
Tabela 1: Transformadores de distribuio 1 instalados no ano de 2006 e de 2007
Transformadores de distribuio 1 instalados no ano de 2006 e 2007
Regio
Nordeste
Norte
Sul
Sudeste
Centro Oeste
Total
Quantidade no ano 2006
Quantidade no ano de 2007
190.228
67.263
364.000
759.325
53.678
1.434.494
216.617
105.173
389.782
774.259
66.277
1.552.107
Tabela 2: Transformadores de distribuio 3 instalados at o ano de 2006 e de 2007

Transformadores de distribuio 3 instalados no ano de 2006
Regio
Nordeste
Norte
Sul
Sudeste
Centro Oeste
Total
170.951
52.197
252.511
539.971
48.916
1.063.546
180.598
65.746
264.613
542.301
50.937
1.104.195

GRUPO ELETROBRS
5. CONSUMIDORES DE ENERGIA AT 2006 POR TIPO DE CONSUMIDOR

A determinao da quantidade de consumidores de energia no Brasil foi obtida manipulando os
dados da tabela da ABRADEE - Dados de Mercado das Empresas Distribuidoras Associadas
disponibilizada no stio da ABRADEE para o ano de 2006.
A Tabela 3 apresenta o nmero de consumidores no Brasil, at o ano de 2006 e o respectivo
percentual por tipo de consumidor, se residencial, comercial, rural e pblico.
Tabela 3: Quantidade de consumidores por tipo de consumidor no ano de 2006
Nmero de consumidores
Tipo de usurio
Residencial
Comercial
Rural
Pblico
Total
N de Consumidores
% Consumidor
49.188.466
4.315.311
3.115.496
529.382
57.148.65
86,08
7,55
5,45
0,92
100,00
O Grfico 1 apresenta o percentual de consumidor brasileiro por tipo de usurio de energia

referente ao ano de 2006.
Percentual de consumidor x tipo de consumidor
Com.
8%
Rural
5%
Pb.
1%
Res.
Com.
Rural
Pb.
Res.
86%
Grfico 1: Nmero de Consumidores por tipo de consumidor
6. ENERGIA CONSUMIDA POR TIPO DE CONSUMIDOR NO ANO DE 2006

Para obtermos a perda diria de energia por tipo de carga, foi necessrio determinar a Energia
consumida no ano de 2006 por tipo de usurio no estado brasileiro, tais como Residencial, rural,
pblico e comercial.
Estes dados foram obtidos da tabela Dados de Mercado disponibilizada no stio da ABRADEE.

GRUPO ELETROBRS
A Tabela 4 apresenta o valor da energia em GWh consumida no ano de 2006 e o respectivo

percentual por tipo de usurio.
Tabela 4: Energia consumida em GWh por tipo de consumidor
Energia consumida (GWh) por tipo de consumidor
Tipo de Usurio
Energia consumida (GWh)
% de Energia consumida
85.277
53.801
1.562
31.452
186.153
45,81
28,90
28,90
16,90
100,00
Residencial
Comercial
Rural
Pblico
Total
O Grfico 2 apresenta o percentual de energia consumida em GWh em 2006 por tipo de

consumidor de energia.
Energia Consumida x Tipo de Consumidor
Pb.
17%
Rural
8%
Res.
46%
Res.
Com.
Rural
Pb.
Com.
29%
Grfico 2: Energia consumida por tipo de consumidor
7. CONSUMIDORES DE ENERGIA POR REGIO AT 2006

A quantidade de consumidores de energia no ano de 2006 por regio brasileira foi obtida na tabela
de DADOS de MERCADO encontrada no stio da ABRADEE.
A Tabela 5 apresenta o nmero de consumidores de energia no ano de 2006 e o seu respectivo
percentual por regio do Brasil.
Tabela 5: Nmero de consumidores no ano de 2006 por regio do Brasil
N de Consumidores por regio
Regio
Norte
Sul
Sudeste
Centro Oeste
Nordeste
Total
N de Consumidores
% de Consumidores
2.602.895
8.885.65
27.110.522
4.585.592
13.963.98
57.148.655
4,55
15,55
44,47
8,02
24,44
100,00

GRUPO ELETROBRS
O Grfico 3 apresenta o nmero de consumidores de energia no ano de 2006 por regio.

N Consum idores x Regio
N
5%
NE
24%
S
16%
N
S
SE
CO
8%
CO
NE
SE
47%
Grfico 3: N de consumidores de energia em 2006 por regio do Brasil
8. ENERGIA CONSUMIDA EM 2006 POR REGIO

A energia consumida em GWh por regio brasileira foi obtida no stio da ABRADEE em - Dados de
Mercado das Empresas Distribuidoras Associadas
A Tabela 6 apresenta a energia consumida em GWh no ano de 2006 e o respectivo percentual por
regio do Brasil.
Tabela 6: Energia consumida em GWh no ano de 2006 por regio do Brasil
Energia consumida (GWh) por regio
Regio
Energia Consumida (GWh) % de Energia Consumida

8.123
34.625
95.855
15.924
31.626
186.153
Norte
Sul
Sudeste
Centro Oeste
Nordeste
Total
4,36
18,60
51,50
8,02
19,98
100,00
O Grfico 4 apresenta o percentual da energia consumida em GWh no ano de 2006 por regio do
Brasil.
Energia Consumida GWh x Regio
NE
17%
N
4%
S
19%
CO
9%
S
SE
CO
NE
SE
51%
Grfico 4: Energia consumida em GWh no ano de 2006 por regio

GRUPO ELETROBRS
9. DISTRIBUIO MONOFSICA POR REGIO

A Tabela 1 apresentada no item 4 desse relatrio, mostra a quantidade de novos transformadores
de distribuio monofsicos instalada no ano de 2007, obtida atravs da estimativa de um
crescimento proporcional ao universo existente em 2005 para os anos de 2006 e 2007, e que
desta forma foram extrapolados para o transformador monofsico. Estes resultados so validados
pela comparao com os resultados nos DADOS de MERCADO encontrado no stio da
ABRADEE.
Conforme levantamento apresentado no Relatrio Tcnico CEPEL N 9402/07 - Anlise das
informaes fornecidas pelas Concessionrias de Energia Eltrica, relativas aos transformadores
instalados nos seus sistemas de distribuio - Ano 2007, foi possvel, mantendo a mesma
proporo extrapolar a distribuio dessas unidades monofsicas para o ano de 2007 com a
representao do volume de transformadores de distribuio monofsicos instalados no parque
das concessionrias de energia eltrica por regio no ano de 2005.
A Tabela 7 apresenta o nmero de transformadores monofsicos por potncia e por regio para o
ano de 2007.
Tabela 7 Nmero de transformadores 1 por potncia por regio - 2007
Regio
3
kVA
5
kVA
10
kVA
15
kVA
20
kVA
25
kVA
37,5
kVA
50
kVA
100
kVA
Total
kVA
NE
N
S
SE
CO
0
22.473
1.811 5.596
0
0
0
255.932
0
39.586
178.968
70.932
227.923
406.686
20.154
11.669
25.532
105.752
89.540
5.108
0
103
0
0
0
3.437
1.190
56.106
13.378
1.398
70
9
0
0
32
0
0
0
7.329
0
0
0
0
1.394
0
216.617
105.173
389.782
774.259
66.277
TOTAL
1.811 323.587
904.663
237.600
103
75.509
111
7.329
1.394
1.552.107
58,3
15,3
0,0
4,9
0,0
0,5
0,1
100,0
0,1
20,8
10. DISTRIBUIO TRIFSICA POR REGIO

A Tabela 2 tambm apresentada no item 4 desse relatrio, mostra a quantidade de
transformadores trifsicos instalada no ano de 2007, obtida atravs da estimativa de um
crescimento proporcional ao universo existente em 2005 para os anos de 2006 e 2007, e que
desta forma foram extrapolados para o transformador trifsico. Os resultados tambm so
validados pela comparao com os resultados encontrado no stio da ABRADEE - Dados de
Mercado das Empresas Distribuidoras Associadas.
Da mesma forma, o levantamento apresentado no Relatrio Tcnico CEPEL N 9402/07 - Anlise
das informaes fornecidas pelas Concessionrias de Energia Eltrica, relativas aos
transformadores instalados nos seus sistemas de distribuio - Ano 2007, foi possvel, mantendo a
mesma proporo extrapolar a distribuio dessas unidades trifsicas para o ano de 2007 com a
representao do volume de transformadores de distribuio trifsicos instalados no parque das
concessionrias de energia eltrica por regio no ano de 2005.
A Tabela 8 apresenta o nmero de transformadores trifsicos por potncia e por regio para o ano
de 2007.

GRUPO ELETROBRS
Tabela 8 Nmero de transformadores 3 por potncia por regio - 2007

10
kVA
15
kVA
30
kVA
45
kVA
75
kVA
112,5
kVA
150
kVA
225
kVA
55.241
48227
29.156
24.870
15.999
4.516
35
4.077
18.069
23.078
12.196
6.910
1.780
40.752
96.389
81.775
40.381
343
111.881
133.345
93.259
91.200
6.942
5.214
19.252
12.680
TOTAL
343
175.878
231.614 256.125
0,03
15,93
Regio
NE
N
S
SE
CO
20,98
23,20
300
kVA
500
kVA
Total
kVA
2.269
321
180.598
1.036
345
65.746
3.042
495
264.613
39.156
38.862
11.320
18.573
4.362
542.301
5.276
1.388
185
50.937
233.604
113.007
54.717
15.306
18.919
4.682
1.104.195
21,16
10,23
4,96
1,39
1,71
0,42
100
11. CARGA TPICA POR PERFIL DE CONSUMO E PERDA POR DIA ASSOCIADA
O perfil de consumo determinado pelas cargas tpicas dos diversos usurios; o residencial, o
comercial, o rural e o pblico, que so diretamente alimentados pelos transformadores de
distribuio monofsicos e trifsicos. O perfil do consumo pblico foi considerado como similar ao
comercial e assim a curva de carga tpica adotada a mesma.
As curvas apresentadas nos grficos 5, 6 e 7 foram fornecidas pela International Cooper
Association a partir de informaes obtidas junto a concessionrias de energia da regio sudeste
e representam os perfis de consumo adotados para clculo. Os grficos representam a potncia
fornecida por uma fonte em PU em funo do tempo, desta forma a rea sob a curva equivale
energia consumida.
CURVA DE CARGA COMERCIAL E CONSUMO PBLICO

1,200
Carga (PU)
1,000
0,800
0,600
0,400
0,200
0,000
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
Tempo (h)
y = 2E-07x6 - 1E-05x5 + 0,0004x4 - 0,0057x3 + 0,0492x2 - 0,1578x + 0,3164
R2 = 0,849
Grfico 5 Curva de carga representativa do consumidor comercial e pblico


GRUPO ELETROBRS
CURVA DE CARGA RESIDENCIAL

1,200
Carga (PU)
1,000
0,800
0,600
0,400
0,200
0,000
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
Tempo (h)
y = 2E-07x 6 - 2E-05x 5 + 0,0008x 4 - 0,0145x 3 + 0,1121x 2 - 0,3284x +
0,5117
R2 = 0,8543
Grfico 6 Curva de carga representativa do consumidor residencial
CURVA DE CARGA RURAL

1,200
Carga P.U.
1,000
0,800
0,600
0,400
0,200
0,000
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
25,00
tempo (h)
6
y = -1E-07x - 2E-06x + 0,0003x - 0,0052x3 + 0,0303x2 + 0,0231x + 0,1003

R 2 = 0,8549
Grfico 7 Curva de carga representativa do consumidor residencial


GRUPO ELETROBRS
O clculo desta rea sob a curva equivalente energia consumida aproximado pela soluo da
integral prpria da curva de tendncia no intervalo de 00:00 hora 24:00 horas. O resultado
representa a energia drenada das fontes que alimentam as cargas com o respectivo perfil de
consumo.
Se considerarmos a perda a vazio como constante para cada transformador ligado na rede, como
a perda hmica proporcional ao quadrado da carga e desconsiderando as perdas
suplementares, podemos concluir que a perda em carga pode ser representada por uma curva de
mesmo perfil da curva de carga, porm considerando como percentual da perda mxima da fonte
o valor quadrtico da potncia em P.U.
Desta forma a integral das curvas de perda em carga, adicionada da constante de perda a vazio
no tempo, vai representar a perda tcnica por dia, ou seja, a energia diria perdida nos
transformadores de distribuio de acordo com, tipo de transformador, perfil de consumo e regio
do Brasil.
Calculando a perda de energia devido a carga, por dia para um determinado perfil de consumo
como a integral do percentual da perda mxima ao longo de 24 horas das respectivas fontes,
temos:
Logo, a perda por dia nos transformadores de alimentao dos consumidores, ser:
a) Para os consumidores comerciais:
24:00
carga comercial tot/dia
(%) =
0:00
(6E-07x - 4E-05x + 0,0011x - 0,0138x + 0,0866x - 0,21x + 0,1379) dx

6
(1)
24
b) Para os consumidores pblicos:

24:00
P carga publica
tot/dia
(%) =
0:00
(6E-07x - 4E-05x + 0,0011x - 0,0138x + 0,0866x - 0,21x + 0,1379) dx

6
(2)
24
c) Para os consumidores residenciais:

24:00
P carga residencial
tot/dia
(%) =
0:00
(2E-08x6 - 1E-05x5 + 0,0006x4 - 0,0117x3 + 0,0914x2 - 0,2622x + 0,2592) dx
(3)
24
d) Para os consumidores rurais:

24:00
P carga rural
tot/dia
(%) =
0:00
(1E-07x6 - 2E-05x5 + 0,0007x4 - 0,0118x3 + 0,0741x2 - 0,1174x + 0,0476) dx
(4)
24
A soluo das equaes acima nos leva ao seguinte resultado, assumindo que os valores de P0 e
de Pcarga dependem do tipo e da potncia do transformador.
(kWh) = (P0 * 24 h) + (Pcarga mx * 24 * 0,30055 (1))
(5)
(kWh) = (P0 * 24 h) + (Pcarga mx * 24 * 0,30055 (2))
(6)
(kWh) = (P0 * 24 h) + (Pcarga mx * 24 * 0,38708(3))
(7)
= (P0 * 24 h) + (Pcarga mx * 24 * 0,28764(4))
(8)
Perda
tcnica comercial tot/dia
Perda
tcnica publica tot/dia
Perda
tcnica residencial tot/dia
Perda tcnica rural
tot/dia
(kWh)
Nota Neste trabalho sero utilizados os valores da Norma NBR 5440:1999 apresentados na tabela de
valores garantidos de perdas.

GRUPO ELETROBRS
12. PERDAS TCNICAS

Para chegarmos ao valor da perda por dia nos transformadores do sistema de distribuio no
Brasil, utilizaremos os dados j apresentados na Tabela 4 - Energia consumida em GWh por tipo
de consumidor em conjunto com os dados apresentados nas Tabela 5 - Nmero de
consumidores por regio do Brasil, Tabela 7 Nmero de transformadores 1 por potncia por
regio 2007 e Tabela 8 Nmero de transformadores 3 por potncia por regio 2007.
Sobre o resultado desta composio aplicamos as equaes de (1) a (4) de acordo com o perfil de
consumo, cujos resultados so apresentados nas Tabelas 9 a 16.
Tabela 9 Perfil de consumo por regio nmero de consumidores
Perfil do
N total de
Cons
Consumidor consumidores (%)
49.188.466
4.315.311
3.115.496
529.382
Residencial
Comercial
Rural
Pblico
N
(Qt)
S
(Qt)
SE
(Qt)
CO
(Qt)
NE
(Qt)
86,08 2.212.451 7.205.231 23.891.147 3.822.869 12.056.768

7,55 219.304
732.016 2.047.200 387.132
929.659
5,45 144.054
859.138
992.149
330.779
789.376
0,92
27.086
89.272
180.026
44.812
188.186
Tabela 10 Perfil de consumo por regio distribuio percentual

Perfil do
consumidor
N total de
consumidores
Cons
SE
CO
NE
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
Residencial
Comercial
Rural
Pblico
49.188.466
4.315.311
3.115.496
529.382
86,08
7,55
5,45
0,92
85,00
8,43
5,53
1,04
81,09
8,24
9,67
1,00
88,12
7,55
3,66
0,66
83,37
8,44
7,21
0,98
86,34
6,66
5,65
1,35
Tabela 11 - Perda em carga 1 por dia proporcional por perfil por regio em MWh
Regio
NE
SE
S
N
CO
Residencial
Comercial
Rural
Pblico
Total
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
343,5
1148,2
727,5
183,0
80,1
20,6
88,4
57,4
12,2
6,3
16,7
55,6
64,5
5,6
5,1
4,2
10,9
7,0
1,1
0,7
385,0
1303,0
856,4
201,9
92,3
2838,5
Tabela 12 - Perda a vazio 1 por dia por perfil por regio em MWh
Regio
NE
SE
S
N
CO
Residencial
Comercial
Rural
Pblico
Total
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
278,8
1.019,4
572,1
141,4
75,9
21,5
87,4
58,1
14,0
7,7
18,3
42,3
68,2
9,2
6,6
4,4
7,7
7,1
1,73
0,89
322,9
1156,7
705,5
166,4
91,1
2.442,5
10

GRUPO ELETROBRS
Tabela 13 Perda tcnica 1 por dia por perfil de consumo por regio em MWh
Regio
NE
SE
S
N
CO
Residencial Comercial
Rural
Pblico
Total
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
622,3
2167,6
1299,6
324,4
156,0
86,53%
42,1
175,7
115,5
26,2
14,0
7,07%
35,0
97,9
132,7
14,9
11,7
5,53%
8,5
18,6
14,1
2,8
1,6
0,86%
707,8
2459,8
1561,9
368,2
183,4
5281,1
13,37
46,37
29,89
6,93
3,44
100,00
Tabela 14 - Perda em carga 3 por dia proporcional por perfil por regio em MWh
Regio
NE
SE
S
N
CO
Residencial
Comercial
Rural
Pblico
Total
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
1110,2
4413,6
1973,5
622,2
357,3
66,5
293,6
155,7
47,9
28,1
54,0
136,2
174,9
30,1
23,0
13,5
25,8
19,0
5,9
3,3
1244,2
4869,2
2323,0
706,1
411,6
9554,2
Tabela 15 - Perda a vazio 3 por dia por perfil por regio em MWh
Regio
NE
SE
S
N
CO
Residencial
Comercial
Rural
Pblico
Total
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
828,5
3.273,9
1.461,3
459,1
264,4
63,9
280,5
148,5
45,5
26,8
54,2
136,0
174,2
29,9
22,9
12,9
24,7
18,1
5,6
3,1
959,6
3.715,1
1.802,1
540,1
317,1
7.334,0
Tabela 16 Perda tcnica 3 por dia por perfil de consumo por regio em MWh
Regio
NE
SE
S
N
CO
Residencial Comercial
Rural
Pblico
Total
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
1938,8
7687,5
3434,7
1081,3
621,7
87,42%
130,4
574,2
304,1
93,4
54,9
6,85%
108,3
272,2
349,1
60,0
45,8
4,95%
26,4
50,5
37,1
11,5
6,4
0,78%
2203,8
8584,4
4125,0
1246,3
728,7
16.888,2
13,05%
50,83%
24,43%
7,38%
4,32%
100%
Compondo os resultados das Tabelas 14 e 16, somando a perda tcnica monofsica mais a perda
tcnica trifsica por dia nos transformadores, obtemos uma perda tcnica total de 22.169,3 MWh
por dia nos transformadores de sistema de distribuio. O que corresponde a um custo de
R$ 6.847.206,08 por dia, considerando a tarifa mdia de energia eltrica paga pelo consumidor
brasileiro em 2007, fornecida pela ANEEL, Agncia nacional de Energia Eltrica, no valor de
1 MWh = R$ 308,86.
11

GRUPO ELETROBRS
13. IMPACTO
FINANCEIRO
COM
AUMENTO
TRANSFORMADORES DE DISTRIBUIO
DA
EFICINCIA
DOS
Um aumento da eficincia ou rendimento nominal dos transformadores de distribuio obtido por

uma reduo das perdas a vazio e/ou das perdas em carga.
De uma forma geral o aumento da eficincia reflete em uma reduo diretamente proporcional ao
valor da perda tcnica considerada e conseqentemente em uma reduo tambm direta do MWh
e valores em reais perdidos.
O impacto financeiro da utilizao de transformadores monofsicos com uma eficincia em mdia
0,5% maior do que os transformadores considerados neste trabalho e tambm da utilizao de
transformadores trifsicos com uma eficincia em mdia 0,38% maior, equivaleria a uma economia
anual de cerca de R$ 600 milhes, correspondendo a uma economia de energia de cerca de
2.000 GWh.
A Tabela 17 apresenta os valores de potncia monofsica, das perdas a vazio, em carga e total e
o rendimento nominal dos transformadores monofsicos considerados neste trabalho e
encontrados na norma NBR 5440.
So apresentados tambm na Tabela 17 os respectivos valores de rendimento quando
consideramos uma reduo de 20% das perdas totais e os aumentos de rendimento nominal para
os transformadores monofsicos.
O aumento mdio de rendimento encontrado nos transformadores monofsicos de 0,51%.
Tabela 17 Aumento do rendimento dos transformadores monofsicos
Potncia
monofsica
(kVA)
3
5
10
15
20
25
37,5
50
75
100
Perda
vazio
(W)
40
50
60
85
120
120
160
190
230
280
Perda
carga
(W)
75
110
200
270
355
400
540
640
930
1220
Perda
total
(W)
115
160
260
355
475
520
700
830
1160
1500
Rendimento
%
96,17%
96,80%
97,40%
97,63%
97,63%
97,92%
98,13%
98,34%
98,45%
98,50%
Reduo
de 20%
perdas
92
128
208
284
380
416
560
664
928
1200
Rendimento
com perda
reduzida
96,93%
97,44%
97,92%
98,11%
98,10%
98,34%
98,51%
98,67%
98,76%
98,80%
Aumento do
rendimento
nominal
0,77%
0,64%
0,52%
0,47%
0,48%
0,42%
0,37%
0,33%
0,31%
0,30%
A Tabela 18 apresenta os valores de potncia trifsica, das perdas a vazio, em carga e total e o
rendimento nominal dos transformadores trifsicos considerados neste trabalho e encontrados na
norma NBR 5440 -1999.
So apresentados tambm na Tabela 18 os respectivos valores de rendimento quando
consideramos uma reduo de 20% das perdas totais e os aumentos de rendimento nominal para
os transformadores trifsicos.
O aumento mdio de rendimento encontrado nos transformadores trifsicos de 0,38%.
12

GRUPO ELETROBRS
Tabela 18 Aumento do rendimento dos transformadores trifsicos

Potncia
trifsica
(kVA)
15
30
45
75
112,5
150
225
300
500
Perda
vazio
(W)
100
170
220
330
440
540
765
950
1325
Perda
carga (W)
340
570
780
1140
1550
1910
2700
3360
4675
Perda
total
(W)
440
740
1000
1470
1990
2450
3465
4310
6000
Rendimento
%
97,07%
97,53%
97,78%
98,04%
98,23%
98,37%
98,46%
98,56%
98,80%
Reduo
de 20%
perdas
352
592
800
1176
1592
1960
2772
3448
4800
Rendimento
com perda
reduzida
97,65%
98,03%
98,22%
98,43%
98,58%
98,69%
98,77%
98,85%
99,04%
Aumento
rendimento
nominal
0,59%
0,49%
0,44%
0,39%
0,35%
0,33%
0,31%
0,29%
0,24%
14. BIBLIOGRAFIA
[1] Dados de Mercado das Empresas Distribuidoras Associadas a ABRADEE Disponvel na Internet
<http://abradee.org.br > Acesso em: Dez/2007
[2] Relatrio Tcnico CEPEL N 9402/07 - Anlise das informaes fornecidas pelas Concessionrias
de Energia Eltrica, relativas aos transformadores instalados nos seus sistemas de distribuio. Ano
2007.
[3] Tarifa mdia de energia eltrica paga pelo consumidor brasileiro em 2007, fornecida pela
ANEEL(Agncia
nacional
de
Energia
Eltrica)
Disponvel
na
Internet
<http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/folha/dinheiro/utl91u363178.shtml> Acesso em: Fev/2008.
[4] Norma Brasileira NBR 5440 Transformadores para redes areas de distribuio Padronizao
Julho 1999.
[5] CODI - Mtodo para Determinao, Anlise e Otimizao das Perdas Tcnicas em Sistemas de
Distribuio. Relatrio CODI 3.2.19.34.0.
13
ANEXO III
Desempeo de transformadores de distribucin
15
International Copper Association - Procobre
Desempeo de Transformadores de
Distribucin
Junio
2008
Editor:
Eduardo Gradiz
Principales autores y revisores:
Alessandra Freitas Picano(1)
Manuel Lus Barreira Martinez(1)
Credson de Salles(1)
(1) Universidad Federal de Itajub Itajub MG Brasil
NDICE
SUMARIO.................................................................................................... 3
PALABRAS-CLAVE ........................................................................................ 3
1.
INTRODUCCIN ..................................................................................... 3
2.
ECUACIONAMIENTO .............................................................................. 3
2.1 Prdidas .......................................................................................... 4
2.2 Costos............................................................................................. 4
3.
CURVAS DE EFICIENCIA......................................................................... 6
3.1 Eficiencia en el Estndar de Europa ..................................................... 7
4.
ANLISIS POR TIPO DE CONSUMIDOR ..................................................... 8

4.1 Demandas Residencial, Comercial, Industrial y Rural.............................. 9
5.
CONCLUSIN ..................................................................................... 11
BIBLIOGRAFIA........................................................................................... 11
Junio 2008 Pgina 2 de 11
SUMARIO
La finalidad de este trabajo es presentar el desempeo del transformador de
distribucin operando en sobrecarga y su impacto en los costos de la
concesionaria. En este contexto, se realiza un anlisis comparativo del
comportamiento y de los costos generados por transformadores que operan con
sobrecarga casi todo el tiempo, por lo que se observan variaciones de hasta un
20% cuanto a las prdidas de energa. Este anlisis considera curvas de eficiencia
levantadas con base en resultados de ensayos en muestras de fabricantes
nacionales. De este modo, los resultados presentados consideran el desempeo
promedio del transformador de distribucin de fabricacin nacional, permitiendo la
comparacin con los estndares europeos.
PALABRAS-CLAVE
Curvas de Eficiencia, Desempeo,
Transformadores de Distribucin.
1.
Ecuacin
de
las
Prdidas Capitalizadas,
INTRODUCCIN
El estudio de la eficiencia de transformadores de distribucin, que se ha difundido

ampliamente en Europa, se debe a las prdidas de energa que, en el sistema
elctrico mundial en general, es del orden de 1.279 TWh. Este valor vara para
cada pas entre 3,7% y 26,7% del consumo de energa y demuestra un gran
potencial de mejora tanto en el aspecto tcnico, cuanto en lo econmico [1].
El potencial de ahorro de energa anual para una planta con 2,5 millones de
transformadores de distribucin de 30 kVA, para una determinada demanda, segn
los estudios en [2], es en torno a 502.750 MWh/ao para concesionarias
resultando en un ahorro de R$ 46,95 millones al ao. En algunos pases de Europa,
por ejemplo, el potencial anual de ahorro de electricidad en transformadores de
distribucin, evaluado segn PROPHET Promotion Partnership for High Efficiency
Transformers [3], es: en torno a 22 TWh para concesionarias adems de la no
emisin de 9 Mt/ao de CO2.
Se estima que ms de 40% del total de las prdidas en la red de distribucin se
deben a los transformadores [4], cuyas prdidas generadas son las prdidas en
vaco y las prdidas bajo carga.
Este trabajo desarrolla un estudio comparativo de las prdidas con respecto a la
carga segn la potencia del transformador, a travs de las Curvas de Eficiencia. En
este contexto, estas curvas presentan el desempeo del transformador en funcin
de las prdidas relativas y de la potencia suministrada.
2.
ECUACIONAMIENTO
Las curvas de eficiencia de los transformadores cuantifican su nivel de prdidas con

respecto a la carga, o sea, relaciona directamente prdidas totales con la carga.
Definido el comportamiento de estos transformadores, el anlisis econmico
verifica el impacto de las prdidas en el costo operacional del transformador. A

seguir, presentamos un modelo en forma de ecuaciones de costos para ejecutar
este anlisis.
2.1
Prdidas
La prdida total relativa para un determinado nivel de carga se da segn (1).
WTR =
WT
PF
(1)
En que:
WTR es prdida total relativa;
WT es prdida total;
PF es la potencia activa suministrada.
La prdida total se puede obtener con (2).
WT = W0 + WL ( k )
(2)
En que:
W0 son las prdidas en vaco;
WL son las prdidas en carga;
k es el factor de carga, definido en (3).
k=
PF
SN
(3)
En que:
PF es la potencia activa suministrada;
SN es la potencia nominal del transformador.
La potencia activa suministrada se obtiene segn (4).
PF = k S N cos
(4)
En que cos = 0,92.
2.2
Costos
El costo total de un transformador de distribucin se puede definir segn (5).
Ct otal =Ca dquis icin +CW0+CWL

(5)
En que:
CTotal es el costo total del transformador en R$;
Cadquisicin es el costo de adquisicin del transformador en R$;
CW0 es la prdida en vaco capitalizada en R$;
CW0 es la prdida en carga capitalizada en R$;
La distribucin de los costos a lo lago del tiempo presenta an la ventaja de
considerar el costo por unidad de tiempo, de modo que una vida til mayor implica
en reduccin del costo anual. La amortizacin de un transformador, incluyendo o

no su costo de instalacin, se da en (6).
(1+j)PV . j
Camortizacin = Cadqui sicin
(1+j)PV - 1
(6)
En que:
Camortizacin es el costo de amortizacin del transformador en R$;
j es la tasa de inters anual;
PV es el perodo de vida del transformador en aos.
Las prdidas en vaco se contabilizan en el perodo de anlisis en (7).
(1 + j ) 1
n
(1 + j ) j
n
CW 0 = TW 0 W0
(7)
En que:
n es el perodo de anlisis;
TW0 es la tarifa para las prdidas en vaco;
La tarifa para las prdidas en vaco se calcula segn (8).
TW 0 = 8, 76 CE
(8)
Donde CE es el costo de compra de energa.

Las prdidas en carga se contabilizan en el perodo de anlisis segn (9).
(1 + j ) n 1
(1 + j )n j
CWL = TWL WL FE
(9)
En que:
TWL es la tarifa para las prdidas en carga;
FE es el factor de energa consumida.
El factor de energa consumida se obtiene por (10). Este factor considera la carga
en el costo de las prdidas y asume un valor distinto segn el nivel de carga y
puede junto con las curvas de permanencia de carga definir el grado de sobrecarga
de los transformadores.
S
FE = i
i =1 S N
24
(10)
Donde Si es la potencia suministrada en el perodo de una hora a lo largo de un da

comn.
La tarifa para prdidas en carga se define por (11).
TWL = 0, 365 CE
3.
(11)
CURVAS DE EFICIENCIA
Los Grficos del 1 al 7 representan las curvas de eficiencia en funcin de la

potencia activa suministrada. Para formar estas curvas, se utilizaron los datos
obtenidos en ensayos de rutina realizados en el LAT-EFEI Laboratorio de Alta
Tensin de la Universidade Federal de Itajub en 104 transformadores monofsicos
y trifsicos para los rangos de tensin de 15 kV y 25kV [1].
Las curvas de eficiencia presentadas en los Grficos 1 al 7 se forman a partir de las
curvas lmites para varios transformadores tipo 15 kV. Considerando que los datos
se lograron a partir de ensayos de unidades de diversos fabricantes nacionales,
estos resultados sugieren la tendencia nacional de manufactura de los
transformadores de distribucin.
Grfico 1 - Lmite de prdidas para los

transformadores nacionales de 10 kVA


transformadores nacionales de 50 y 100 kVA



Grfico 7 - Lmite de prdidas para los transformadores nacionales de 112,5 kVA
3.1
Eficiencia en el Estndar de Europa
Los documentos de harmonizacin (HD) que tratan de los niveles de eficiencia de

transformadores en la Unin Europea son HD 428 y HD 538 [3]. El HD 428 se
refiere al transformador de distribucin trifsico de aceite, para 50 Hz, de 50 a
2500 kVA, con rango de tensin que no superan los 36 kV. El HD 538 trata del
transformador trifsico en seco, para 50 Hz, de 100 a 2500 kVA, con rango de
tensin que tambin no superan los 36 kV.
El estndar del tipo HD determina los niveles de eficiencia a travs de las prdidas
en carga y de las prdidas en vaco. Para transformadores de distribucin de aceite
el estndar HD 428.1 establece tres niveles de prdidas en carga (A, B, y C) y tres
niveles de prdidas en vaco (A, B, y C). La combinacin entre esas prdidas
proporciona el nivel de eficiencia del transformador segn el Grfico 8. Vale
destacar que los lmites impuestos por este estndar son las mximas tolerancias
permitidas para estas prdidas.
Grfico 8 - Combinacin de las Prdidas Definida por el HD 428
[4]
El Grfico 9 presenta una comparacin de los lmites superiores e inferiores

definidos por los transformadores de 50 kVA estndar de Europa B-B, A-C, C-B y
C-C, y los lmites logrados para los transformadores de 45 kVA nacionales.
Grfico 9 Comparacin entre transformador de 45 kVA nacional y 50 kVA estndar de

Europa
Se puede observar que para condiciones de sobrecarga los transformadores

fabricados actualmente en Brasil estn cerca del lmite inferior de prdida relativa
del estndar europeo. En condiciones inferiores al 50% de la carga los
transformadores brasileos presentan mayores prdidas si se los compara a los
transformadores de estndar europeo.
4.
ANLISIS POR TIPO DE CONSUMIDOR
Con los datos de las curvas de eficiencia de los Grficos 1 al 7 se puede realizar el
anlisis da energa consumida al ao por unidad de transformador de distribucin,
considerando caractersticas especficas de carga.
El anlisis considera la curva de carga promedio de consumidores residenciales,
comerciales, industriales y rurales. Cada una de estas curvas de carga media fue
normalizada para ser la referencia de carga nominal. A partir de esta curva
normalizada se traza una curva de sobrecarga con valor mximo de 1,6 pu. La
energa en MWh/ao consumida por cada transformador se puede expresar segn
(12).
Energia = 352 WL FE + 8760 W0
(12)
4.1
Demandas Residencial, Comercial, Industrial y Rural
Para la demanda residencial, Grfico 10, y para la demanda comercial, Grfico 11,
hay un anlisis con tres comparaciones de transformadores trifsicos. Se realizaron
comparaciones entre los transformadores de distribucin trifsicos de 30 y 45 kVA,
45 y 75 kVA y 75 y 112,5 kVA segn los Diagramas 1 y 2.
Grfico 10 Curva de Demanda Residencial
Grfico 11 Curva de Demanda Comercial
El Diagrama 1 presenta la comparacin entre el transformador de 30 kVA operando

sobrecargado hasta el punto mximo de 1,6 p.u. con el transformador de 45 kVA
operando con carga mxima de 1,0 p.u, entre el transformador de 45 kVA
sobrecargado y el transformador de 75 kVA y entre el transformador de 75 kVA y
112,5 kVA. Las comparaciones realizadas estimaron un costo de energa de 100
US$/MWh.
La diferencia entre las energas consumidas por los transformadores que operan en
sobrecarga y bajo condiciones nominales se indica en el Diagrama 1 como
DeltaEnerga. Y la diferencia entre estos costos al ao por unidad de transformador
se indica como DeltaCostoEnerga y su tiempo de retorno de inversin en aos
como pay-back.
El Diagrama 2 presenta el anlisis de comparacin entre los transformadores
operando en sobrecarga para la demanda comercial. Como se puede ver, cuanto
mayor es la potencia del transformador operando en sobrecarga ms atractivo se
vuelve en tiempo de retorno de inversin para el reemplazo por otro transformador
con potencia nominal mayor.
Diagrama 1 Comparacin entre los transformadores para la demanda residencial
30kV
45kVA 45kVA 75kVA 75kVA 112,5kV
A
Comparaciones
1,0p.u 1,6p.u 1,0p.u 1,6p.u
A
1,6p.
.
.
.
.
1,0p.u.
u.
Energa
4,98
3,86
6,93
5,59
10,09
5,48
[MWh/ao]
Delta Energa
1,11
1,33
4,61
[MWh/ao]
DeltaCostoEner
111,44
133,46
461,29
ga [US$/ao]
Pay-Back
4,5
8
14
[aos]
Diagrama 2 Comparacin entre los transformadores para la demanda comercial
Comparaciones
Energa
[MWh/ao]
DeltaEnerga
[MWh/ao]
DeltaCostoEner
ga [US$/ao]
Pay-Back
[aos]
30kV
A
1,6p.
u.
45kVA
1,0p.u
.
45kVA
1,6p.u
.
75kVA
1,0p.u
.
75kVA
1,6p.u
.
112,5kV
A
1,0p.u.
5,92
4,33
8,24
6,25
11,80
6,59
1,59
1,99
5,20
159,55
199,38
520,49
5,6
8,6
3,4
Para la demanda industrial se realizaron comparaciones entre los transformadores

de distribucin trifsicos de 45 y 75 kVA, y 75 y 112,5 kVA en el Diagrama 3,
segn las curvas de cargas del Grfico 12. Y para la demanda rural la comparacin
se hace entre los transformadores monofsicos de 10 y 15 kVA en el Diagrama 4
segn las curvas de cargas del Grfico 13.
Grfico 12 Curva de Demanda Industrial
Grfico 13 Curva de Demanda Rural
Diagrama 3 Comparacin entre los

transformadores para la demanda industrial
Diagrama 4 Comparacin entre los

transformadores de 10 y 15 kVA
Comparacion
es
Energa
[MWh/ao]
DeltaEnerga
[MWh/ao]
DeltaCostoEner
ga [US$/ao]
Pay-Back
[aos]
45kVA
1,6p.u.
75kV
A
1,0p.
u.
75kVA
1,6p.u
.
112,5kVA
1,0p.u.
8,41
6,3
4
12,0
3
6,68
2,06
5,34
206,58
534,98
7,8
3,2
Comparaciones
10kVA
1,6p.u.
1,0p.u.
Energa [MWh/ao]
0,59
0,74
DeltaEnerga
[MWh/ao]
DeltaCostoEnerga
[US$/ao]
-0,14
-148,34
Segn lo observado, para el caso de las curvas de demanda rural no hay economa
en el reemplazo de un transformador de 10 kVA sobrecargado por un
transformador de 15 kVA con carga normal. Esto queda evidente por el factor de
energa consumida inferior a 0,8.
5.
CONCLUSIN
Las Curvas de Eficiencia demuestran los lmites de prdidas relativas segn la

carga de los transformadores ensayados. Se verifica una variacin en hasta 20%
de las prdidas de los lmites inferiores y superiores de estas curvas, lo que denota
diferencias constructivas entre los transformadores de igual potencia, siendo
dependientes del consumo de cobre y de acero-silicio.
La evaluacin de los diagramas de eficiencia, con detalles presentado en los
Grficos de 1 al 9, muestra que a excepcin de la curva de demanda rural, la
operacin en sobrecarga del transformador de distribucin resulta en mayores
prdidas en la red y, consecuentemente, en elevacin de los costos operacionales.
Conviene destacar que no fue considerada la reduccin de vida til en funcin del
recalentamiento en exceso del aislamiento debido a la sobrecarga. Sin embargo, se
puede inferir que la reduccin de vida til implica en un aumento del costo de
amortizacin y, por consiguiente, en una elevacin del costo total del
transformador.
Se recomienda que durante el proceso de sobrecarga de transformadores que se
evale el costo de las prdidas, la necesidad de potencia extra a ser instalada, bien
como el tiempo de retorno pay-back asociado al reemplazo de los
transformadores en sobrecarga. Slo tras este anlisis es que se debe hacer la
evaluacin de la prdida de vida til.
BIBLIOGRAFIA
[1] B. P. Cardoso. Eficincia de Transformadores de Distribuio. Disertacin de Master,
Universidade Federal de Itajub, Setiembre/2005.
[2] A. F. Picano. Avaliao Econmica de Transformadores de Distribuio com Base no
Carregamento e Eficincia Energtica. Disertacin de Master, Universidade Federal de Itajub,
Abril/2006.
[3]
Leonardo Energy. Global Energy Savings Potencial

Transformers. European Copper Institute, October/2004.
from
High
Efficiency
Distribution
[4] EUROPEAN COPPER INSTITUTE. The Scope for Energy Saving in the EU through the use of
energy-efficient electricity distribution transformers. European Communities/1999.
[5] B. P. Cardoso, C. de Salles, H. R.P.M. Oliveira, M. L. B. Martinez. Ensaio de desempenho em
transformadores novos e reformados, Pg. 134 149, vol. 33, Eletricidade Moderna,
Setiembre/2004
[6] B. P. Cardoso, C., de Salles, H. R. P. M. Oliveira, M. L. B Martinez. Distribution Transformers
Performance. San Petersburgo, Powertech/2005.
ANEXO IV
Evaluacin econmica de transformadores de distribucin con base en el cargamento
y eficiencia energtica
16
!
"# $
"#% "&# "#
!"#$ %% &
'
("#)*%!#
' ,-(*%!#-*%# &
+
%#-
/0
7 51
/1 1
:1 1 6
12
1
1
889 -
5/
0 3
4
0
70
0
4 61
12 6
0
"#
12 5
7:
1
0
0 2
1
/0
561
6
7:
65
7
0
1
0
0
;
6
<
/1 1
/0
1
7:
5
1
=5
1
7 1 12
0 6 3
/
/1 1
/0
(
61
7:
1;6 7:
10
/
20
1 7 > 12 7
11
1
*
1
? 6
0
1 7 17
0
/
/ 12
/1 1
/0
6
* 7
5
,0
1 3 * 7
<
4
>
12
6
:
4;
1 46
7:
1
1
@
7:
/1 1
1
1 07
7 51
0 5
7:
/1 1
0
1
1
1 4 (
6
0
0
6
1
5
0
>
A1
5
6
4
1 241
1
.
112
7:
1;
1
A1 6 3
7
0
/1
6
0
1
;
/
0 4:1 )
112
1 4
1
7 51
(
6 0
1
1
1
4
0
1
112
7:
1 4
1; 5
/0
, 7
12
/0
$
/1
!
!,
.,
7:
7
;
71
1 4
<
0
1 07
"
4
/0
<
1 20 1 0
1 07
1
"*-
.!,$#- .# ",$#- * ., -
$% &'
/*&'
.*&'
()
*
/)
,
,)
+
1
/0
.,% & $*("#)*%!# $* !", - #" ,$#"
'
% 1
1
3
7
0
'
(
(
,+%)
$$
-$)
,/
(.)
.%
*
*)
,
$)
*
,)
$
*
(
,- ) *
-*)
.%-)
+,
-.)
,%
,7
7 51
/0
12
<
<
0
1 07 1
17 >
/1
71
7 51
/0
:
1
7:
.
71
7 51
/0
12 7
0
7
16
0
0
6
1
/0
5
1
4;
/0
;
6
<
0
/
1
0
12
7 51 1
0
1
7 1
5
/1 1
4: 1
. 7 7
4
11
7 0
7 51
1
*7
1
1
, 1<
1
1
1$ 0
1
1
@
12
0
.
4
11
0
10
7
*
!
/0
7
0
=$ +
$*
/0
4;
1 I 1
+ 7
7
1
1
",
6
6
C
,!
0
/0
2 !0 1
10
12
112 B
! 1
! 1
,! 1
1
1
7
7 51
(
7 51
1
1
-DE
H45 7 1
/0
10
1< C
7
C
5 10 1
12
3
, $, "*- $* % ,.)%# *"% ,.
6
J6
<
/0
4A *1 12
07
12
>
10
-DE F<6 7 1
1
-DE
H4 ( 1
' E JE
4
/1
%7
07
G6
K
1
07 >
6
' 6+J 5 GJ H@,63
> 12
>
0
L
!,
.,
"*-
.!,$#- .# ",$#- (#" .#- %M.% .#- $*!", - #" ,$#"*- * % * !*- $*
'
N@,
./ '
0 4
5
64
5
2
7
:
.$()
*
8!9
4
8!9
"
4
;<=>
5 4
2
? @
>
<
"
5
64
8!9= >
!,
., '
"*-
:
*(*)
,
,)
-**+
4
7
:
*/()%
:
(%()
*%
:
$-*)
(%
:
-(%)
/%
:
*(*)
,
:
-(%)
/%
,)*,*
$)
/,(
()
* >
*)
, >
+%)
$$
-*)
.-
,)
/(+,
.!,$#- .# ",$#- (#" .#- %M.% .#- $*!", - #" ,$#"*- * % * !*- $*
+JN@,
01 '
0 4
5
64
5
2
8!9
4
8!9
"
4
;<=>
5 4
2
? @
>
<
"
5
64
8!9= >
!,
., +
"*-
7
,:
,+-)
$%
6
,:
%/,)
/%
4
7
,:
,+-)
$%
6
,:
%/,)
/%
:
- $)
%%
,:
,$/)
-%
:
- $)
%%
,:
,$/)
-%
$)
(/,-
,)
. %*
/)
,
/)//(
$)
%/(/
$)
*
-$)
,/
%-)
+,
.!,$#- .# ",$#- (#" .#- %M.% .#- $*!", - #" ,$#"*- * % * !*- $*
GJN@,
21 '
0 4
5
64
5
2
8!9
4
8!9
"
4
;<=>
5 4
2
? @
>
<
"
5
64
8!9= >
7
,:
,. )
.%
6
:
-* )
*%
4
7
,:*$)
,%
6
:
+ ()
(%
,:
/.+)
$%
,:
++,)
%%
,:
/.+)
$%
,:
++,)
%%
()
/*(
/)
..-
.)
/+,
*)
*%
,)
+
(.)
.
,)
$
-.)
,
*
7
7
07
1
0
/0
4A
1
12
1
/1
!
J
0
.
0
1 07
!,
(,",% & * !"*.#- (,"M *!"#- $*("#)*%!#
M
, 1<
%
1
%
A1
!
$ 0
%
1
,!
., J
%#
7 51
5
1
7
0
/0
3
0
7
7 51
/0
0
0
./ '
J 9 0 5
01 '
J 9 0 5
21 '
J 9 0 5
J 9 0 5
J 9 0 5
J 9 0 5
$0
$0
$0
J9 0 5
7
A1
45BOOO
J9 0 5
J9 0 5
45 4
ANEXO V
Proyecto de transformadores de distribucin basado en la carga
17
!
%& & ' %(
! "#
*
!"
%
#
#
+
,) %
-%& "%,.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
./
. ,0-1)
2,.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
./
. -13% 01.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.4
/.%
1, " %,01.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.4
/..
/..
5.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.4
0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.6
4."%01)1'1#+ .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.6
6.%&0 ) 1 )%
&1.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.7
8. 1, ' & 2,.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
-% %-%,
&.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
9(
=*
(
;
( <
5<
( 5
(
*<
>(
(
:
? .0
;
*@
<
= (
(
.%
( <
=
5 =
(;
:
5
9(
=
;
<
.
<
:
= ;
9(
<
@
9 (
(
5 .% (;
9
=
=
5
9
(
0
=
5B
.'
9
5 9
5 =
9
9
!
9(
.
5<
;
9
9(
=
(
A
&
!
9(
:
;
5
9
!
9
'
9
5 =
(
(
<<
( *
5 .&
*@
9(
5
(!:
(
*<
5<
E
FG (
5 =
( 5
( .
CCD.&
(
.
(
E
5 =
( .
"! 9
( (
(
%
FG (
(
*
<
( =
<
> <
9
(
( (
<
5 =
<
.
(! (
(
5
=
9(
:
@<
(
;
*@
9(
(
5
E
(
.
9
<(!
<
9(
;
9(
(
5
;
;
:
: <
*@
(
:
.)
(
.
9(
<
=
.
(!
<
(
0
9
(
(
/ HI
/ .
C.
9(
;
<(
(
!
=
9(
(
*@.
E
<
9(
9(
>
9
9(
.
9
9
5
.'
9
(!
(
.
"
9(
@
E
(
9
<
=
;
> <
=
,$- 644
;
9
=
*
M
(
F
/G
<9
=
=
.'
5
;
(
*@
5 =
9
9
< M
(
=9
(
( M
(
9
!
9(
'
9 5
( M
(
(
5
.'
*
*
=
(
9(
$
(
5 =
@=
;
(
(
,$- 644 . %
*.
=
(
#
G
'
:
9
5
!
,$-.%
@
(
*@
"JKL M F G.
'
9(
&
!
.
&
'
5
9
*@
;
=
5
5
<
9(
:
<
(
9(
9
9(
!
*?
(
9(
!
@=
9(
9
*
5 .%
E
(
9
*?
C fabricaci n = C fijo + C ncleo M ncleo + C cobre M cobre

% : N
Cfabricacin
Cfijo
C ncleo
C cobre
&OP
&OP
(
&OP
&OP
M ncleo
M cobre
Q*.
P
Q*.
#!
%
9(
( (
9(
;
!
*?
5
<
(
(
;
@=
<
.
C Total = C TR/Anlisi
+ C W0 + C WL
% : N
<
<
CTotal <
;
;
CW 0
CWL
C TR/Anlisi
9(
9(
<
(
%
=
&OP
&OP
&OP
&O.
) *+$
(
(
9(
!(
*@
<
!
:
!
.
9
(
(
=
< 9
( *;
(
5
9( N
5
@
*
<
9
(
!(
!
*
=
<K =
?
<
<
(
.
9
=
5
5
=
5
6 D
?
*
(
9
5
5
K <=
(!
9
.
M<
( M
K
9(
9(
<
<
<
( ;
=
!(
?
5
>
<=
.
.
=
(
?(
$.
0. =
! *
!
!(
<
5
9
=
<=
.
;
?(
>
(
>
*
* !9
(
.
0.
<
< K=
*
K
9
!(
?
(
!
!(
?
5
.
5
;
.
0.
.
(
9
5
5
!(
K
(!
;
;
5
.)
5
(
.
70
( =
<
@
9
5 (!>(
.%
.'
<
*
5
;
5
@
<:
<K =
(
:
<
(
5
(
(
5 =
N"
5
(
'
=
(
.
0.
<
5 (!
'
=
9(
$.
0.
< *?
# !9
;
@
9
# !9
.
0.
5
=
<
<
!(
'
K
.
!(
% ?(
!(
'
;
.
0.=
<
;
8 RE
<
<7 ((
<
8 JL
H*.
$.
0. 9 =
<(
9=
(
;
5 =
.
5
$.
0.
.
!(
K
*?
9
*
@
9
<
5
;
(
(
.
.
(
'
5
(
# !9
*?
# !9
N"
!
.
*?
(
# !9 /.
HI < *?
# !9
%
9(
!
(
.%
M .
<
/N ) (
9(
9
!
;< (
M =
!
(
=
!
& *?
9
<
(
* (
9(
!(
*
N
=
!
# !9
4N &
9
?
5 ( *;
*
<
4<6 =8
9
9(
9
.
6N &
9
=
!(
<
(
9
F > G(
(
!(
<
.
(
(
5
.
0.
= !(
# !9
!(
# !9
5
:
=
'
%
9(
!
9(
5
.
$.
0.
<
$.
0.
<
.
0.
.
% !
9
9
(
(!
9
=
.%
!(
*
%
!
%
$.
0.
!(
P
9(
6 D ( = :
$.
0.
8N &
<
9
5
(
!
&O
C<
/7.%
9(
9(
9(
*
(
(
5
.
0.
.
9
!
8
9(
.
(;
<
5 9
5 9
9(
9(
9(
$.
0.
9(
<
J
$.
0.
<=
*@ :
*
.
7 C/ "JKL M .
<
# !9 /<
( E
9(
5 9
:
5
9(
!
<
<
(
*
.
'
;
@
<CD 9
< D (!
.'
;
5
46<
86D
K=
(
C <6D
0
(
K
!(
K
*?
4</D
9(
6 D (
%
!
'
# !9
9(
9
9(
N
$.
0.
%
!
<
9(
9(
K
/<
8D
5
(
<
!
.%
:
(
74<
C/ J
?
<
<
K=
<
N
9(
P
%
%
!
K
!(
P
'
!
D (
9(
!
*
9(
.
<=
!
9(
9(
9(
=
&O 8/<
9(
.' ;
9(
/ D (
9(
K
.
;
(
D (!
(
67<6D
/ D ( = :
$.
0.
9
.
%
(
9
</D
'
$.
0.
5
5
66</ J
< <CD (!
( ;
(
?
< J
</ <
87D
(
.%
<K
(
%
=
9>
:
9(
*
9
:
(
5
*?
5
=
9(
(
(
.%
< =
5<
!(
9
<
<
@
<
.
' (
(
*@
!(
9
5
*<
%
M
9
@ =
9
E
:
!
(
(
K
%& & ')
(
5
# ?K
<
%
FG '
:
E (!>(
.&
= 9
*@ &. .
<
5<
;
*
9(
9
*.
'
FG
*.
'
9
*=
/ M .
$
%
*=.A
#
% *=&
<1 .
4.
S<A
ST % U(
% *; B
."&..)
..
%9 V
8.
F
/G ,$- 644 .A
0
9(
E ST B
< $,0<F
4G $..
<A
%9 V
*
0
5 <)
9 ( R *K %9
9
9(
. *.%;
;
)
L$
L CCC.
0
9(
)
!<$
<& .
6.
)
<
=)
ST
9(
( $
ST .
ST B
. "&.. )
B
.%
*(
!<$
<
%;
5<)
" W
.
*. %;
<
F
6G
..
S<
&
<".
'.
$."
0
9(
)
ST
$
< .
8.
E<R.
-..
".
1
%9 V
B
.&( 5
<,. .
$
&
.A
(
ST % U(
% *
&$&%<
ANEXO VI
Calidad y eficiencia en transformadores de distribucin
18
O uso consciente de energia eltrica determinante para a
racional deste recurso. Apesar de, para o perodo 2008-2009, os
capacidade competitiva da indstria. A preocupao com a
riscos de racionamento de energia serem baixos, certamente, as
eficincia energtica no Pas foi reforada aps a crise
incertezas do setor adiam decises de investimentos e
energtica em 2001. Naquele mesmo ano, foi promulgada a Lei
desarticulam processos produtivos, medidas contrrias aos
10.295, que tramitava durante uma dcada no Congresso
objetivos do Pas.
Nacional. Essa lei estabelece nveis mnimos de eficincia
Estima-se que, de 9.484 TWh do consumo mundial de energia
energtica ou nveis mximos de gastos para mquinas e
eltrica, as perdas em redes de transmisso e distribuio
equipamentos eltricos e a necessidade de um programa de
atingiram no ano 2000, 815 TWh, representando um percentual
metas para uma progressiva evoluo dos ndices.
mdio de perdas da ordem 8,5%. No Brasil, as perdas de
O processo de regulamentao comeou pelos motores
energia eltrica variam entre 16% e 18%, valor elevado
eltricos, que gastam 30% de toda a energia consumida no
considerando a mdia mundial. A tabela a seguir apresenta
Pas. Na ocasio, o Governo Federal criou o Selo Procel um
percentuais de perdas de energia eltrica em alguns pases.
produto desenvolvido e concedido pelo Programa Nacional de
Um dos grandes responsveis pelas perdas no sistema eltrico
Conservao de Energia Eltrica. A partir deste projeto vitorioso
so os transformadores de distribuio de mdia tenso, que
com os motores eltricos, o Governo tambm obteve sucesso
contribuem com praticamente um tero do total das perdas dos
com a regulamentao de produtos, como geladeiras e
sistemas de distribuio de energia eltrica, perdendo somente
lmpadas fluorescentes compactas e, atualmente, tem-se
para as perdas nos cabos e fios, motivo pelo qual se optou
buscado
direcionar esforos para o transformador de distribuio, no
regulamentao
para
transformadores
de
distribuio, dentre outros produtos.

O Pas est em franco processo de desenvolvimento e o
crescente consumo de energia eltrica pela indstria aponta
para a necessidade de adoo de medidas que estimulem o uso
intuito de minimizar a questo das perdas.
Os
transformadores
de
distribuio
so
equipamentos
relativamente simples, tanto do ponto de vista do princpio de

funcionamento como do ponto de vista construtivo. Sua funo
especfica a adequao da tenso de distribuio da rede
eltrica necessidade da carga a ser alimentada, garantindo a
qualidade da energia. Entretanto, quando em funcionamento,
quer a vazio ou em carga, parte da potncia absorvida
dissipada em forma de calor pelos enrolamentos primrios e
secundrios e pelo ncleo, o que tecnicamente se denomina por
perdas.
Perdas em transformadores de distribuio
Estima-se que perdas de energia com os transformadores de
distribuio no Brasil chegaram a 6.286 GWh, no ano de 2007.
Inicialmente, em 1977 foram estabelecidas questes referentes
a limites mximos para perdas totais e a vazio para todas as
classes de potncia de transformadores pela norma ABNT-NBR
5440 que teve sua ltima reviso em 1997. Algumas
concessionrias de energia eltrica utilizam o artifcio de
capitalizao de perdas h alguns anos para melhorar esta
questo na aquisio de transformadores. Para a indstria de
transformadores, h alternativas, como a utilizao de chapas
de ao silcio com menor perda especfica, ou a reduo da
A INDSTRIA NACIONAL DE
densidade de fluxo magntico no ncleo ou a reduo da

densidade de corrente nos enrolamentos. O grfico a seguir
TRANSFORMADORES DE DISTRIBUIO
apresenta, sob a tica dos fabricantes, o grau de importncia
A indstria nacional de transformadores de distribuio
para alguns desses itens.
composta por 32 fabricantes, destes, nove empresas so

responsveis por 90% do mercado interno. As regies sudeste e
sul, por abrigarem os principais mercados consumidores de
energia eltrica do Pas, concentram 76,2% dos fabricantes de
transformadores.
De acordo com a pesquisa realizada pelo Centro de Pesquisas

de energia Eltrica (CEPEL) e pelas Centrais Eltricas
Brasileiras (Eletrobrs) com as concessionrias de energia
eltrica,
verificou-se
que
parque
nacional
possui
aproximadamente trs milhes de transformadores, entre

equipamentos das concessionrias e particulares. Estima-se
A maioria da indstria nacional produz transformadores de
que existam equipamentos em operao com tempo de
qualidade que obedecem a padres internacionais, mas o seu
utilizao superior a 25 anos, com diferentes graus de
uso ainda no est disseminado. O aumento de desempenho
obsolescncia e nveis acentuados de perdas. Os grficos a
destes equipamentos e, conseqentemente, a reduo das
seguir apresentam a composio do parque nacional de
perdas de energia eltrica na rede de distribuio, maior
transformadores
segurana dos sistemas de distribuio e melhor atendimento
de
distribuio
transformadores instalados por fase.
percentual
de
ao consumidor final so os grandes desafios do setor.
Com o advento da globalizao, a distncia entre produtos
Ao final do primeiro perodo, os fabricantes que apresentarem os
industrializados e consumidor final foi reduzida drasticamente e
melhores ndices de eficincia sero premiados com um Selo de
a concorrncia aumentou significativamente. A busca excessiva
Qualidade Selo PDTI , que representar um diferencial de
pela maximizao de lucros no menor perodo de tempo tem
mercado e, porque no dizer, um estmulo para novos
contribudo para o desenvolvimento de mercados marginais em
investimentos na modernizao do seu parque industrial. A
que empresas trabalham com preos reduzidos em detrimento
figura a seguir apresenta um resumo das etapas do processo de
da qualidade e eficincia do produto. Entretanto, ainda
certificao.
possvel
verificar
fabricantes
bem estruturados
perdendo
mercado em detrimento de fabricantes menores. At pouco

tempo atrs isto era impensvel, porm, no cenrio atual, em
que o menor preo possvel fator primordial para aquisio de
um equipamento e o baixo rigor das normas privilegia
fabricantes no estruturados, precisam apenas atender s
exigncias da norma.
Em razo da necessidade de melhoria da eficincia das redes
de
distribuio,
da
relevncia
atual
do
mercado
de
transformadores de distribuio e dos diversos estmulos do

Governo Federal ao uso racional e eficiente de energia eltrica,
o Instituto Euvaldo Lodi Ncleo Central (IEL/NC), a Eletrobrs
e
Confederao
Nacional
da
Indstria
(CNI)
esto
desenvolvendo o projeto Qualidade e Eficincia Energtica em
Fonte: Pesquisa Eletrobrs / CEPEL sobre a situao dos transformadores

instalados nos sistemas de distribuio das concessionrias de energia eltrica.
(Mai/2006)
Transformadores de Distribuio, no mbito do Protocolo de

Cooperao Tcnica e Financeira, assinado em 2004. O projeto
importante ressaltar o alto ndice de adeso da indstria e de
visa promover as condies necessrias para um melhor
toda a cadeia produtiva ao projeto. O setor espera que a
desenvolvimento
demanda por transformadores de qualidade aumente a partir do
tecnolgico
dos
transformadores
de
distribuio fabricados no Pas.
momento em que a eficincia energtica se tornar compulsria,

como aconteceu com os motores eltricos.
Espera-se que, em um futuro bem prximo, no haja mercados
para equipamentos que no priorizem a eficincia energtica,
PROJETO QUALIDADE E EFICINCIA ENERGTICA

EM TRANSFORMADORES DE DISTRIBUIO
questo vital no desenvolvimento auto-sustentado.
REFERNCIAS BIBLIOGRFICAS
O trabalho, ora em desenvolvimento, busca levantar o atual

estgio tcnico da indstria nacional de transformadores de
distribuio e, por meio de uma maior integrao entre
indstrias, centros de pesquisas, universidades e laboratrios
particulares, pretende identificar solues capazes de elevar o
nvel
de
eficincia
energtica
dos
transformadores
de
distribuio. Alm disso, h a preocupao de que os

transformadores recondicionados obedeam a um nvel mnimo
de qualidade e eficincia energtica.
eltricos em transformadores, eliminando as distores nos
resultados. Dessa forma, espera-se que todas as informaes
disponibilizadas tenham a mesma base tcnica.
etiqueta, nos moldes do que feito com os produtos da linha
branca que recebem o selo Procel, dando informaes tcnicas
teis relativas aos produtos que os consumidores pretendam
adquirir. As informaes sero fornecidas pelos fabricantes aps
de seus
-Pesquisa Eletrobrs/CEPEL sobre a situao dos transformadores

instalados nos sistemas de distribuio das concessionrias de
energia eltrica (Mai/2006);
-Pesquisa IEL Relatrio de levantamento de dados de fabricantes
sistemas
-Relatrio sobre as vantagens econmicas e as dificuldades para

compra de transformadores de distribuio com menores perdas.
Elaborado pela MCPAR Engenharia Pesquisa IEL/CNI/Eletrobrs
(Jul/2008);
Com base em normas tcnicas brasileiras, ser criada uma
interlaboratorial
2007;
de transformadores de distribuio;
O projeto busca equiparar as tcnicas de medio nos ensaios
aferio
-Revista Interao Instituto Euvaldo Lodi Ano 16 / N. 181 Abril
de
-Web
site
da
Eletrobrs
www.eletrobras.gov
http://www.eletrobras.com.br/elb/portal/data/Pages/LUMIS0389BBA8
PTBRIE.Htm
-Regulamento Especfico de Utilizao da Etiqueta Nacional de
Qualidade Energtica (Enque).
medio,
controlada mediante ensaios de acompanhamento realizados

por laboratrio de referncia, avaliados e credenciados pelo
Cepel.
Geraldo Magela Martins engenheiro eletricista, coordenador de projetos de

eficincia energtica na federao das indstrias do estado de minas
Gerais, por meio do Instituto Euvaldo Lodi (IEL/NRMG).
ANEXO VII
Eficiencia energtica Transformadores de distribucin
19
Energy efficient
distribution transformers
Electricity network losses vary substantially between
countries worldwide. Figures range from less than 4%
to more than 20%. There is obviously significant room
for improvement in many if not most countries.
A major potential for reducing network losses lies in
distribution transformers.
Distribution transformers are used by utility companies
to transform the electricity from a voltage level of
1 to 50 kV the level at which the power is transported
locally and supplied to many industrial consumers
to a voltage level ranging between 120 V and
1 kV - typically used by residential consumers and the
tertiary sector.
Significant energy savings can be realized in industrial
distribution transformers as well as those on the
public grid.
Distribution transformers may seem to have relatively

high energy efficiency compared to other electrical
equipment. Efficiencies range between 90% and 99%.
However, they work in continuous operation and have
a long life span typically 30 to 40 years. As a result,
a small efficiency increase can add up to significant
energy savings over the lifetime of the transformer.
y Switching to energy efficient distribution transformers
can save Europe 18.5 TWh in annual electricity
consumption (EU-25). This is equivalent to the annual
production of 3 nuclear power stations (1,000 MW).
y These losses represent an annual operating cost to
industrial and residential users of 1 billion, as well
as 7 million t/yr of CO2eq emissions
y In the large majority of cases, energy efficient
distribution transformers have an attractive Life
Cycle Cost
Leonardo ENERGY - May 2009
A small efficiency
improvement = a large
energy gain
High Efficiency Motor Systems
How energy losses

can be minimised
Energy losses in
distribution transformers
Amorphous Core
transformers (AMT)
A distribution transformer consists of an iron core, with a

limb for each of the phases (see illustration). Around each
limb, there are two windings: one with a large number of
turns connected to the higher voltage side, and one with
a low number of turns connected to the low voltage.
An amorphous core transformer (AMT) uses amorphous

metal alloy strips for its magnetic circuit. This allows
building transformers with very low no-load losses
(up to 70% less than conventional types). Because
of the flexible structure of the core, the capacity of
amorphous core transformers is currently limited to
10 MVA. Amorphous core transformers are 5 to 20 %
heavier than conventional transformers of the same
capacity.
The energy losses fall into three distinct classes:

y No-load losses: caused by hysteresis and eddy
currents in the transformer core. It is a constant
energy loss that is present from the moment the
transformer is connected. In the average European
distribution grid, no-load losses represent about
70% of the total loss.
y Load losses: caused by resistive losses in the
windings and leads, and by eddy currents in the
structural steelwork and windings.
y Cooling losses: some transformers require fan
cooling leading to extra energy consumption.
The larger the intrinsic losses of the unit, the greater
the need for cooling and the higher the energy
consumption by the fan. Cooling losses are relatively
small compared to load and no-load losses.
Several proven technical

solutions exist to improve
the energy efficiency
of a distribution
transformer:
y No-load losses can be reduced by improved
design, assembling and selection of materials for
the core
y Load losses are proportional to the square of the
load current. They can be reduced by increasing
the cross section of the windings.
y The energy consumption for cooling needs can
be reduced by keeping the other types of energy
losses low.
By combining those techniques, a Best Available
Technology distribution transformer can be built which
also has in the large majority of cases the lowest Life
Cycle Cost (LCC).
Harmonic currents
increase losses
The energy efficiency of a transformer is also negatively
influenced by harmonic currents. Harmonic currents
are distortions that are inherent to the electrical power
of the grid, albeit grid operators try to keep them as
low as possible. On the average European public
grid, harmonic currents result in an extra energy loss
in distribution transformers of about 10 % (source:
SEEDT project). Apart from that, harmonic currents also
reduce a transformers lifespan.
Efficiency categories of
transformers
Endesa Effitrafo Project

proves profitability
The two main types of distribution transformers are

oil-immersed and air-cooledThe European voluntary
standard EN 50464-1 divides oil-filled transformers into
several categories of losses. The resulting efficiencies
range between 96% and 99%. Despite of this, the
average operating efficiency of distribution transformers
in the EU-27 is still only 93.38% (source: SEEDT project).
In the framework of the Effitrafo Project, grid

operator Endesa (Spain) exchanged transformers that
merely fulfilled national standards by high efficiency
transformers. The energy losses were reduced by 50 to
80%, while the pay-back period of the new transformers
was only 1-2 years. For each 400 kVA transformer on
their grid, this operation in resulted in an annual energy
saving of 5.5 MWh, which is equivalent to 30 washing
machines turning non-stop for one year.
Long life cycle and

continuous operation
Distribution transformers have a life cycle of 30 to
40 years and work in continuous operation mode.
Consequently, a small energy efficiency difference can
add up to significant savings.
In many companies and organisations however, the
purchasing budget is separated from the operational
budget. As a result, purchasing decisions are often
based solely on the delivery price, instead of taking the
TCO into account. Such decisions will result in a negative
impact lasting for decades.
Total Cost of
Ownership (TCO),
asset management,
externalities
ECI and energy

efficient distribution
transformers
In 2005, the European Copper Institute (ECI)
published a paper on the benefits of energy
efficient distribution transformers, targeting EU
policy makers. This paper was the result of years
of intensive intelligence gathering and analysis.
ECI also participates in SEEDT, a project within the
framework of the Intelligent Energy programme
of the European Union. SEEDT builds the business
case for development and diffusion of energy
efficient distribution transformers. For the SEEDT
project, ECI works in collaboration with the NTUA
(Greece), Wuppertal Institute (Germany), and
ENDESA (Spain).
Since 2006, the Leonardo ENERGY programme,
managed by ECI, regularly reports on the
latest developments in transformer efficiency
standards, regulation, and technology.
Operating losses typically represent 30% to 70% of the

TCO of distribution transformers. The pay-back periods
for investing in high-efficiency transformers are relatively
short, often less than two years. The Internal Rate of
Return in efficient transformers is consistently above 10%
and sometimes as high as 70%.
In addition to the TCO considerations, increasing the
efficiency of distribution transformers also results in
environmental benefits and in a reduction of externalities
(reduced CO2, NOx and SOx emissions).
Leonardo ENERGY: The Global Community for Sustainable Energy Professionals
Air-cooled types (or the so-called dry transformers)

are used in places with a high fire risk or specific
working conditions. In general they have lower energy
efficiency, but can reach higher efficiencies if they are
tailor-made.
High Efficiency Motor Systems
How to promote
energy efficient
transformers
Based on the realities of the market over the last 10
years, to ensure that all economic and environmental
benefits of high efficiency transformers are harvested,
ECI stresses that new regulation is required.
The following regulatory steps are recommended:
y Set Minimum Efficiency Performance Standards
(MEPS)
MEPS can phase out the lowest energy efficiency
levels. An international benchmark can help
to adequately define those levels. Strict and
enforceable minimum standards will stimulate
innovative manufacturers and ensure that they
profit from current and past R&D investments.
y A voluntary scheme for premium efficiency levels
Such a scheme is preferably established within the
context of a broader voluntary programme for
energy conservation.
y Promote Life Cycle Costing (LCC)

Promoting LCC as a best practice for equipment
purchasing will indirectly promote energy efficient
distribution transformers, since the latter have, in
most cases, the lowest LCC.

Electrical grid operators are often subjected to a
regulatory framework that prevents instead of
provides incentives to invest in equipment with a
low LCC but a high initial purchase price. Establishing
regulatory schemes that support investments in low
LCC equipment is required.

Environmental,
economical, and
geopolitical advantages
Fully implementing Best Available Technologies for

distribution transformers could save the EU 18.5 TWh
per year in electricity consumption. This corresponds
to a generating capacity of 4,000 MW, equivalent to:
y 3 nuclear power stations (1,000 MW)
y 11 fossil fuel power units (350 MW)
y One third of the EUs total 2007 wind capacity
(56.531 MW with an average capacity factor of
0.21%)
EU advantages are environmental, economic, and
geopolitical:
y A 7 million tonne annual reduction in CO2eq
emissions
y Significant reductions in NOx, SO2 and dust
emissions
y A 4.5 billion reduction in capital investments for
new generating capacity
y An annual 1 billion saving in operating costs
y A reduced dependency on fossil fuel imports
If you are interested in receiving ECIs report on Energy
Efficient Distribution Transformers, please contact
Roman Targosz
Project Manager Electricity & Energy
To spread life cycle thinking as a general policy

in private companies, it should be included in
the requirements for EMAS certification (EcoManagement and Audit Scheme). The LCC
practices of the company would then be verified
during the EMAS certification audit. Similarly, the
future ISO 50001 for Energy Management should
also include a chapter on LCC practices.
4
Leonardo ENERGY: The Global Community for Sustainable Energy Professionals
ANEXO VIII
Reporte final del proyecto piloto Transformador de distribucin eficiente
20
ICA - International Copper Association
PILOT PROJECT: EFFICIENT

DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER
CASE STUDY: THE PARAISPOLIS COMMUNITY - SO PAULO BRAZIL
Subject: To present the economic feasibility of the case study carried out with the
efficient distribution transformers and to carry out a comparison between the initial
design outline, undertaken before the installation of the efficient transformers.
Main authors, revisers and editor:

Phd Student Alessandra Picano LAT-EFEI
Msc Student Diego Lopes Coriolano LAT_EFEI
Professor Manuel Lus Barreira Martinez LAT-EFEI
Eng. Eduardo Gradiz - Procobre
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Associated Professor Head of HV Laboratory - Federal University of Itajub
Name: Manuel Lus Barreira Martinez
Phone: (35) 3622-3546
E-mail: martinez@lat-efei.org.br
___________________________________________________________
Management of Distribution Engineering and Automation - AES Eletropaulo
Name: Antonio Joo Monteiro
Phone: (11) 2195-7169
E-mail: antonio.monteiro@aes.com
_______________________________________________
Procobre Brazilian Copper Institute
Name: Glycon Garcia Jnior
Phone: (11) 3816-6383
E-mail: ggarcia@copper.org
1
ICA - International Copper Association
PILOT PROJECT: EFFICIENT

DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER
CASE STUDY: THE PARAISPOLIS COMMUNITY - SO PAULO BRAZIL
October 2008
Editor:
Eduardo Gradiz (1)
Main authors and revisers:
Alessandra Picano (2)
Diego Lopes Coriolano (2)
Manuel Lus Barreira Martinez(2)
(1) Procobre Brazilian Copper Institute

(2) Federal University of Itajub Itajub Minas Gerais State Brazil
Efficient Distribution Transformer Design

1. Introduction
Distribution transformers are highly efficient sets of equipment, and, when
properly designed and manufactured using high quality materials, possess yields
close to 99%. However, when installed in electrical networks under various load
curves (industrial, residential, commercial and rural) and subject to changing
voltage levels throughout the distribution network, the overall network losses
become relatively high. A study carried out by the Leonardo Energy Institute
reveals that one third of the losses in transmission and distribution systems
occur in transformers, and the other two thirds occur in the remaining system.
The economic and environmental factors associated to the energy losses
have draw much attention to efficient distribution transformers.
The efficient
transformers may be an excellent opportunity for a reduction in both industry

operational costs and electrical network distribution losses.
Due to this,
regulatory agencies throughout the world are actively encouraging energy

efficient transformers, and the industry is discovering the financial advantages
involved in incorporating this type of equipment to their systems.
Figure 1 presents an evaluation between the relative losses of an efficient
100 kVA single-phase distribution transformer and a standard 100 kVA singlephase distribution transformer.
Note that the efficient transformer presents
lower losses in the 30% to 160% load interval.

2.8
100 kVA Single-phase Transformer

Standard Transformer
Efficient Transformer
Percent Loss [%]
2.4
1.6
1.2
0.8
0
FIGURE 1
20
40
60
80
100
120
Active Power Supplied [%] - cos =0,92
140
160
EFFICIENCY CURVES FOR BOTH THE EFFICIENT AND STANDARD
100 KVA
SINGLE-PHASE
TRANSFORMERS.
2. Objective
The main objectives of this summary are:
To present the economic feasibility of the case study carried out with the
efficient distribution transformers installed in the electrical network at the
Paraispolis
community,
which
is
second
largest
slum
income
neighborhood in the city of So Paulo.
To carry out a comparison between the initial design outline, undertaken

before the installation of the efficient transformers, and the result
obtained post area analysis.
3. Design Method
The suggested demand for the Paraispolis community is shown in Figure
2. This curve is important for the design of the efficient transformer because it is
used to calculate the capitalized losses and ensures with a greater degree of
safety the typical area load, and also avoids economic losses due to equipment
oversizing.
Paraispolis Demand
1.6
Maximum Demand [p.u.]
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0
FIGURE 2
SUGGESTED DEMAND FOR THE
10
12
Hours
14
16
18
20
22
24
PARAISPOLIS COMMUNITY IN THE AES ELETROPAULO
CONCESSION AREA
The energy consumption factor (EF) calculated for the area, based on
Figure 2, is 22,66. Using the chart it is possible to design an efficient transformer
built to meet the required area demand.
One other important step is the use of manufacturing cost surfaces and total
cost surfaces which indicate the construction possibilities versus losses.
These
surfaces are created according to the quantity and market value of the materials
used for building the transformer, considering the operational losses of the
transformer, all submitted to economic parameters.
In order to design transformers, of either the efficient or the standard type,
equation (1) should be used, which indicates the equipment manufacturing cost,
considering the mass and cost of the materials used.
CManufacturing = C Fixed + C Iron M Core + CCopper M Copper
(1)
Where:
CManufacturing is the manufacturing cost in BRL;
CFixed is the fixed cost in BRL;
CIron is the core material cost in BRL;
CCopper is the average cost of copper (enameled or rectangular) in BRL/kg;
MCore is the total core mass in kg;
CCopper is the winding total copper mass in kg.
The total cost of the distribution transformer should be calculated through

equation (2), which considers both the no-load and load losses of the equipment.
CTotal = CTR / Analysis + CW 0 + CWL
(2)
Where:
CTotal is the total cost of the transformer in BRL;
CTR/Analysis is the transformer cost within the period of analysis, in BRL;
CW0 is the cost of the no-load losses, in BRL;
CWL is the cost of the load losses, in BRL.
4. Economic Analysis
The economic analysis is based on data supplied by AES - Eletropaulo. The
energy cost lies at 281,72 BRL/MWh, the analysis period is 10 years and the
yearly interest rate equals 10%.
The initial design outline resulted in an investment pay-back period of less
than one year, and a savings of BRL 460,78/year for the unit replacement.
The transformer presented no-load losses of 297 Watts and copper load
losses of 802 Watts. The calculated load loss reduction was 26,30%. The
standard unit presents no-load losses and load losses of 237 Watts and 1114
Watts, respectively.
The average load of the efficient transformer, taken during the readings,
considering a daily cycle of load and distribution for a Typical 7-day Week, is
represented in Figure 3.
FIGURE 3 AVERAGE LOAD OF THE READINGS TAKEN FROM THE EFFICIENT TRANSFORMER
Table 1, built from a model based on a normal distribution, presents the

average Energy Factor of the transformer, the total cost reduction, investment
pay-back period and energy and capital savings resulting from the replacement
of the standard unit by an efficient unit.
TABLE 1 RESULTS OBTAINED FROM THE READINGS IN A TRANSFORMER AT THE PARAISPOLIS

COMMUNITY.
Average
EF
21,83
Total Cost
Energy
Reduction,
Savings,
%
MWh/year
12,02
1,96
PayBack,
years
Savings due
to Unit
Replacement,
BRL/year
1,42
552,28
The Expended Energy Factor (EF) indicates the total time during one day
(24 hours), when the transformer operates at full load. The investment pay-back
period is approximately 1 year and 5 months. The yearly savings resulting from
the replacement of this transformer is obtained by multiplying the expended
energy cost by the savings of energy, which, for this particular study resulted in
BRL 552,28 (Five hundred and fifty two BRL and twenty eight cents).
5. Conclusion
As per Table 1, the replacement of standard transformers by efficient
transformers is economically feasible, considering a statistical study of the loads
is carried out.
Consequently, expended energy is reduced, contributing therefore to the
present global concern of reducing global warming.
The overall dimensions of the efficient transformers differ from the standard
units, due to the increased core and winding mass. Looking at equation (1) it is
possible to identify an increase in the manufacturing cost, which explains the
initial investment for replacement. However, this cost difference is offset by the
reduction of both the no-load and load losses, as shown in equation (2).
The estimated Energy Factor, EF, for the Paraispolis community was 22,66,
while the efficient transformer presented an EF of 21,83.
For this reason, the
transformer replacement presented a savings as foreseen in the initial design

outline.
As the actual EF was lower than foreseen, the investment pay-back
period resulted in 1,42 years.
LAT - EFEI
THE CHARTS REPRESENT THE STANDARD AND EFFICIENT TRANSFORMER COSTS IN
A TIME LINE FOR TRANSFORMER ET-67469 WITH A POSSIBLE VARIATION OF THE
Total Transformer Cost (R$)
ENERGY FACTOR.
19000
18000
17000
16000
15000
14000
13000
12000
11000
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Transformers
Standard
Efficient
FE = 21,83
FIGURE 1: TRANSFORMER COSTS
13000
4
5
6
Time (years)
FOR AN EF OF 21,83
10
(INVESTMENT PAY-BACK =1,42 YEARS)
Transformers
Standard
Efficient
12000
Total Transformer Cost (R$)
11000
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
FE = 12
0
0
FIGURE 2: TRANSFORMER COSTS
4
5
6
Time (years)
FOR AN EF OF 12
10
(INVESTMENT PAY-BACK =3,67 YEARS)

Eficiencia Energética en Transformadores de Distribución ESPAÑOL PDF

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Eficiencia Energética en Transformadores de Distribución ESPAÑOL PDF

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

International Copper Association - Procobre

Preparado por: Procobre Instituto Brasileo del Cobre

1. La Motivacin de la Realizacin de los Estudios ..................................... 3

EFICIENCIA ENERGTICA EN TRANSFORMADORES DE DISTRIBUCIN

1. Motivacin de la realizacin de los estudios

2. ICA International Copper Association / Procobre

EFICIENCIA ENERGTICA EN TRANSFORMADORES DE DISTRIBUCIN

3. O LAT-EFEI - Laboratrio de Alta Tensin de la Universidad

EFICIENCIA ENERGTICA EN TRANSFORMADORES DE DISTRIBUCIN

4. Objetivo principal del estudio

EFICIENCIA ENERGTICA EN TRANSFORMADORES DE DISTRIBUCIN

5. Prdidas tcnicas de los transformadores en los

Determinacin de las Prdidas Tcnicas de los Transformadores de Distribucin,

EFICIENCIA ENERGTICA EN TRANSFORMADORES DE DISTRIBUCIN

6. Eficiencia en transformadores de distribucin

Desempeo de transformadores de distribucin. Muestra el desempeo

Evaluacin econmica de transformadores de distribucin basada en

Proyecto de transformadores de distribucin basado en la carga. El

Calidad y eficiencia en transformadores de distribucin. Artculo

Eficiencia energtica, transformadores de distribucin (Anexo VII).

EFICIENCIA ENERGTICA EN TRANSFORMADORES DE DISTRIBUCIN

EFICIENCIA ENERGTICA EN TRANSFORMADORES DE DISTRIBUCIN

EFICIENCIA ENERGTICA EN TRANSFORMADORES DE DISTRIBUCIN

EFICIENCIA ENERGTICA EN TRANSFORMADORES DE DISTRIBUCIN

EFICIENCIA ENERGTICA EN TRANSFORMADORES DE DISTRIBUCIN

EFICIENCIA ENERGTICA EN TRANSFORMADORES DE DISTRIBUCIN

The Potential for Global Energy Savings from

About the European Copper Institute

About LEONARDO Energy

European Copper Institute

Australia and New Zealand

7 Conclusions and Recommendations

February, 2005 Page 4 of 50

Overview of the electricity distribution system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Diagram of a distribution transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Business case stable situation .

A.1 Efficiency comparison for various load conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Estimated network losses in the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Main transformer efficiency standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Return on investment for 100 kVA high efficiency transformers .

Overview of transformer programs in the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

A.1 Selected parameters for standard and efficient transformer designs . . . . . 42

Why focusing on distribution transformers?

February, 2005 Page 8 of 50

Figure 1.1: Overview of the electricity distribution system

February, 2005 Page 10 of 50

Table 1.1: Estimated network losses in the world

Table 1.2: Transmission and distribution losses in selected countries [1]

February, 2005 Page 11 of 50

Table 1.3: Breakdown of Transmission (T) & Distribution (D) losses

Losses in distribution transformers

In this paper, one billion is used as 109 , i.e. 1 000 million

February, 2005 Page 12 of 50

potential in distribution transformers can be estimated as more than 200 TWh/year5 .

February, 2005 Page 13 of 50

Transformers Transformers Annual

Table 1.5: Estimated transformer population in the world

February, 2005 Page 14 of 50

Basic principles of distribution transformers

Oil cooled versus air cooled transformers

CHAPTER 2. TECHNICAL ASPECTS

Figure 2.1: Schematic diagram of the inside of a three-phase distribution transformer

Industrial versus public distribution networks