PROJECT

ON
EARTHS MAGNETIC FIELD




BY
KOUSHALI BANERJEE
XII (SCIENCE)
ACKOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere thanks to my Physics teacher Mr.
Bijoy Jacob for his assistance provided to me during the conduction
of my project. I would also like to thank my parents for their useful
ideas towards the project.

KOUSHALI BANERJEE
XII











CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION
2. HISTORY
3. MAGNETIC FIELD
4. MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
5. EARTHS MAGNETIC FIELD
6. IMPORTANCE
7. DESCRIPTION
8. DIPOLAR APPROXIMATION
9. MAGNETIC POLES
10. MAGNETOSPHERE
11. TIME DEPENDENCE
12. PHYSICAL ORIGIN
13. MEASUREMENT AND ANNALYSIS
14. BIOMAGNETISM
15. ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORIES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
16. CONCLUSION
17. BIBLIOGRAPHY





INTRODUCTION

Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that includes forces exerted by magnets on other magnets.
It has its origin in electric currents and the fundamental magnetic moments of elementary particles.
These give rise to a magnetic field that acts on other currents and moments. All materials are influenced
to some extent by a magnetic field. The strongest effect is on permanent magnets, which have persistent
magnetic moments caused by ferromagnetism. Most materials do not have permanent moments. Some
are attracted to a magnetic field (Para magnetism); others are repulsed by a magnetic field
(diamagnetism); others have a much more complex relationship with an applied magnetic field (spin
glass behavior and anti-ferromagnetism). Substances that are negligibly affected by magnetic fields are
known as non-magnetic substances. They include copper, aluminum, gases, and plastic. Pure oxygen
exhibits magnetic properties when cooled to a liquid state.
The magnetic state (or phase) of a material depends on temperature (and other variables such as
pressure and the applied magnetic field) so that a material may exhibit more than one form of
magnetism depending on its temperature, etc.

HISTORY


Aristotle attributed the first of what could be called a scientific discussion on magnetism to Thales of
Miletus. Around the same time, in ancient India, the Indian surgeon, Sushruta, was the first to make use
of the magnet for surgical purposes.
Although magnets and magnetism were known much earlier, the study of magnetic fields began in 1269
when French scholar Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt mapped out the magnetic field on the surface of a
spherical magnet using iron needles. Noting that the resulting field lines crossed at two points he named
those points 'poles' in analogy to Earth's poles. Almost three centuries later, William Gilbert of
Colchester replicated Petrus Peregrinus' work and was the first to state explicitly that Earth is a magnet.
Published in 1600, Gilbert's work, De Magnete, helped to establish magnetism as a science.
In 1750, John Michell stated that magnetic poles attract and repel in accordance with an inverse square
law. Charles-Augustin de Coulomb experimentally verified this in 1785 and stated explicitly that the
North and South poles cannot be separated. Building on this force between poles, Simon-Denis Poisson
(17811840) created the first successful model of the magnetic field, which he presented in 1824. In this
model, a magnetic H-field is produced by 'magnetic poles' and magnetism is due to small pairs of
north/south magnetic poles.
Three discoveries challenged this foundation of magnetism, though. First, in 1819, Hans Christian
Oersted discovered that an electric current generates a magnetic field encircling it. Extending these
experiments, Ampre published his own successful model of magnetism in 1825. In it, he showed the
equivalence of electrical currents to magnets and proposed that magnetism is due to perpetually flowing
loops of current instead of the dipoles of magnetic charge in Poisson's model. In 1831, Michael Faraday
discovered electromagnetic induction when he found that a changing magnetic field generates an
encircling electric field. He described this phenomenon in what is known as Faraday's law of induction.
In 1850, Lord Kelvin, then known as William Thomson, distinguished between two magnetic fields now
denoted H and B. The former applied to Poisson's model and the latter to Ampre's model and
induction. Further, he derived how H and B relate to each other.



MAGNETIC FIELD


Definition:-
The magnetic field can be defined in several equivalent ways based on the effects it has on its
environment.
Often the magnetic field is defined by the force it exerts on a moving charged particle. It is known from
experiments in electrostatics that a particle of charge q in an electric field E experiences a force
F = qE.
However, in other situations, such as when a charged particle moves in the vicinity of a current-carrying
wire, the force also depends on the velocity of that particle. Fortunately, the velocity dependent portion
can be separated out such that the force on the particle satisfies the Lorentz force law,
F = q [E +(v x B) ]
Here v is the particle's velocity and denotes the cross product. The vector B is termed the magnetic
field, and it is defined as the vector field necessary to make the Lorentz force law correctly describe the
motion of a charged particle.
Alternatively, the magnetic field can be defined in terms of the torque it produces on a magnetic dipole.
In addition to B, there is a quantity H which is also sometimes called the "magnetic field". In a vacuum,
B and H are proportional to each other, with the multiplicative constant depending on the physical
units. Inside a material they are different (see H and B inside and outside of magnetic materials). The
term magnetic field is historically reserved for H while using other terms for B.

Units:-
In SI units, B is measured in teslas (symbol: T) and correspondingly B (magnetic flux) is measured in
webers (symbol: Wb) so that a flux density of 1 Wb/m2 is 1 tesla.
The SI unit of tesla is equivalent to (newtonsecond)/(coulombmetre). In Gaussian-cgs units, B is
measured in gauss (symbol: G). (The conversion is 1 T = 10,000 G.) The H-field is measured in amperes
per metre (A/m) in SI units, and in oersteds (Oe) in cgs units.

Measurement:-
The smallest precision level for a magnetic field measurement is on the order of attoteslas (1018 teslas).
The magnetic field of some astronomical objects such as magnetars is much higher; magnetars range
from 0.1 to 100 GT (108 to 1011 T).
Devices used to measure the local magnetic field are called magnetometers. Important classes of
magnetometers include using a rotating coil, Hall Effect magnetometers, NMR magnetometers, SQUID
magnetometers, and fluxgate magnetometers. The magnetic fields of distant astronomical objects are
measured through their effects on local charged particles. For instance, electrons spiraling around a field
line produce synchrotron radiation that is detectable in radio waves.


MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
Mapping the magnetic field of an object is simple in principle.
First, measure the strength and direction of the magnetic field at a large number of locations (or at
every point in space).
Then, mark each location with an arrow (called a vector) pointing in the direction of the local magnetic
field with its magnitude proportional to the strength of the magnetic field.
An alternative method to map the magnetic field is to 'connect' the arrows to form magnetic field lines.
The direction of the magnetic field at any point is parallel to the direction of nearby field lines, and the
local density of field lines can be made proportional to its strength.
Magnetic field lines are like the contour lines (constant altitude) on a topographic map in that they
represent something continuous, and a different mapping scale would show more or fewer lines. An
advantage of using magnetic field lines as a representation is that many laws of magnetism (and
electromagnetism) can be stated completely and concisely using simple concepts such as the 'number' of
field lines through a surface. These concepts can be quickly 'translated' to their mathematical form.
The direction of magnetic field lines represented by the alignment of iron filings sprinkled on paper
placed above a bar magnet.
Various phenomena have the effect of "displaying" magnetic field lines as though the field lines are
physical phenomena. For example, iron filings placed in a magnetic field line up to form lines that
correspond to 'field lines. Magnetic fields' "lines" are also visually displayed in polar auroras, in which
plasma particle dipole interactions create visible streaks of light that line up with the local direction of
Earth's magnetic field.
Field lines can be used as a qualitative tool to visualize magnetic forces. In ferromagnetic substances like
iron and in plasmas, magnetic forces can be understood by imagining that the field lines exert a tension,
(like a rubber band) along their length, and a pressure perpendicular to their length on neighboring
field lines. 'Unlike' poles of magnets attract because they are linked by many field lines; 'like' poles repel
because their field lines do not meet, but run parallel, pushing on each other. The rigorous form of this
concept is the electromagnetic stressenergy tensor.



EARTHS MAGNETIC FIELD

Earth's magnetic field (also known as the geomagnetic field) is the magnetic field that extends from the
Earth's inner core to where it meets the solar wind, a stream of energetic particles emanating from the
Sun. Its magnitude at the Earth's surface ranges from 25 to 65 T (0.25 to 0.65 G). It is approximately
the field of a magnetic dipole tilted at an angle of 11 degrees with respect to the rotational axisas if
there were a bar magnet placed at that angle at the center of the Earth. However, unlike the field of a
bar magnet, Earth's field changes over time because it is generated by the motion of molten iron alloys
in the Earth's outer core (the geodynamo).
The Magnetic North Pole wanders, but slowly enough that a simple compass remains useful for
navigation. At random intervals (averaging several hundred thousand years) the Earth's field reverses
(the north and south geomagnetic protects the Earth from cosmic rays that would strip away the upper
atmosphere, including the ozone layer that protects the earth from harmful poles change places with
each other). These reversals leave a record in rocks that allow paleomagnetists to calculate past motions
of continents and ocean floors as a result of plate tectonics.
The region above the ionosphere, and extending several tens of thousands of kilometers into space, is
called the magnetosphere

IMPORTANCE
The Earth is largely protected from the solar wind, a stream of energetic charged particles emanating
from the Sun, by its magnetic field, which deflects most of the charged particles. These particles would
strip away the ozone layer, which protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet rays. Calculations of the
loss of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere of Mars, resulting from scavenging of ions by the solar
wind, are consistent with a near-total loss of its atmosphere since the magnetic field of Mars dissipated.
The polarity of the Earth's magnetic field is recorded in igneous rocks. Reversals of the field are
detectable as "stripes" centered on mid-ocean ridges where the sea floor is spreading, while the stability
of the geomagnetic poles between reversals allows paleomagnetists to track the past motion of
continents (the study of past magnetic field is known as paleomagnetism). Reversals also provide the
basis for magneto stratigraphy, a way of dating rocks and sediments. The field also magnetizes the crust;
magnetic anomaliescan be used to search for ores.

DESCRIPTION
At any location, the Earth's magnetic field can be represented by a three-dimensional vector .A typical
procedure for measuring its direction is to use a compass to determine the direction of magnetic North.
Its angle relative to true North is the declination(D) or variation. Facing magnetic North, the angle the
field makes with the horizontal is the inclination (I) or dip. The intensity (F) of the field is proportional
to the force it exerts on a magnet. Another common representation is in X (North), Y (East) and Z
(Down) coordinates.



a)Intensity
The intensity of the field is greatest near the poles and weaker near the Equator. It is often measured in
gauss (G) but is generally reported in nanotesla (nT), with 1 G = 100,000 nT. A nanotesla is also referred
to as a gamma (). The field ranges between approximately 25,000 and 65,000 nT (0.250.65 G). By
comparison, a strong refrigerator magnet has a field of about 100 G.
A map of intensity contours is called an isodynamic chart. An isodynamic chart for the Earth's magnetic
field is shown to the left. A minimum intensity occurs over South America while there are maxima over
northern Canada, Siberia, and the coast of Antarctica south of Australia.


b)Inclination
The inclination is given by an angle that can assume values between -90 (up) to 90 (down). In the
northern hemisphere, the field points downwards. It is straight down at the North Magnetic Pole and
rotates upwards as the latitude decreases until it is horizontal (0) at the magnetic equator. It continues
to rotate upwards until it is straight up at the South Magnetic Pole. Inclination can be measured with a
dip circle.

c)Declination
Declination is positive for an eastward deviation of the field relative to true north. It can be estimated
by comparing the magnetic north/south heading on a compass with the direction of a celestial pole.
Maps typically include information on the declination as an angle or a small diagram showing the
relationship between magnetic north and true north. Information on declination for a region can be
represented by a chart with isogonic lines (contour lines with each line representing a fixed declination)



DIPOLAR APPROXIMATION
Near the surface of the Earth, its magnetic field can be closely approximated by the field of a magnetic
dipole positioned at the center of the Earth and tilted at an angle of about 10 with respect to the
rotational axis of the Earth. The dipole is roughly equivalent to a powerful bar magnet, with its south
pole pointing towards the geomagnetic North Pole.This may seem surprising, but the north pole of a
magnet is so defined because, if allowed to rotate freely, it points roughly northward (in the geographic
sense). Since the north pole of a magnet attracts the south poles of other magnets and repels the north
poles, it must be attracted to the south pole of Earth's magnet. The dipolar field accounts for 8090%
of the field in most locations.




MAGNETIC POLES
A magnetic dip pole is a point on the Earth's surface where the magnetic field is entirely vertical.

The inclination of the Earth's field is 90 at the North Magnetic Pole and -90 at the South Magnetic
Pole. The two poles wander independently of each other and are not directly opposite each other on the
globe. They can migrate rapidly: movements of up to 40 km per year have been observed for the North
Magnetic Pole. Over the last 180 years, the North Magnetic Pole has been migrating northwestward,
from Cape Adelaide in the Boothia peninsula in 1831 to 600 km from Resolute Bay in 2001. The
magnetic equator is the line where the inclination is zero (the magnetic field is horizontal).
If a line is drawn parallel to the moment of the best-fitting magnetic dipole, the two positions where it
intersects the Earth's surface are called the North and South geomagnetic poles. If the Earth's magnetic
field were perfectly dipolar, the geomagnetic poles and magnetic dip poles would coincide and
compasses would point towards them. However, the Earth's field has a significant contribution from
non-dipolar terms, so the poles do not coincide and compasses do not generally point at either.

MAGNETOSPHERE
Some of the charged particles from the solar wind are trapped in the Van Allen radiation belt. A
smaller number of particles from the solar wind manage to travel, as though on an electromagnetic
energy transmission line, to the Earth's upper atmosphere and ionosphere in the auroral zones. The only
time the solar wind is observable on the Earth is when it is strong enough to produce phenomena such
as theaurora and geomagnetic storms. Bright auroras strongly heat the ionosphere, causing its plasma to
expand into the magnetosphere, increasing the size of the plasma geosphere, and causing escape of
atmospheric matter into the solar wind. Geomagnetic storms result when the pressure of plasmas
contained inside the magnetosphere is sufficiently large to inflate and thereby distort the geomagnetic
field.
The solar wind is responsible for the overall shape of Earth's magnetosphere, and fluctuations in its
speed, density, direction, and entrained magnetic field strongly affect Earth's local space environment.
For example, the levels of ionizing radiation and radio interference can vary by factors of hundreds to
thousands; and the shape and location of the magnetopause and bow shock waveupstream of it can
change by several Earth radii, exposing geosynchronous satellites to the direct solar wind. These
phenomena are collectively called space weather. The mechanism of atmospheric stripping is caused by
gas being caught in bubbles of magnetic field, which are ripped off by solar winds.Variations in the
magnetic field strength have been correlated to rainfall variation within thetropics.

TIME DEPENDENCE
a)Short term variations
The geomagnetic field changes on time scales from milliseconds to millions of years. Shorter time scales
mostly arise from currents in the ionosphere (ionospheric dynamo region) and magnetosphere, and
some changes can be traced to geomagnetic storms or daily variations in currents. Changes over time
scales of a year or more mostly reflect changes in the Earth's interior, particularly the iron-richcore.
Frequently, the Earth's magnetosphere is hit by solar flares causing geomagnetic storms, provoking
displays of aurorae. The short-term instability of the magnetic field is measured with the K-index.
Data from THEMIS show that the magnetic field, which interacts with the solar wind, is reduced when
the magnetic orientation is aligned between Sun and Earth - opposite to the previous hypothesis. During
forthcoming solar storms, this could result in blackouts and disruptions in artificial satellites.

b)Secular variation
Changes in Earth's magnetic field on a time scale of a year or more are referred to as secular variation.
Over hundreds of years, magnetic declination is observed to vary over tens of degrees.A movie on the
right shows how global declinations have changed over the last few centuries.
The direction and intensity of the dipole change over time. Over the last two centuries the dipole
strength has been decreasing at a rate of about 6.3% per century. At this rate of decrease, the field
would reach zero in about 1600 years.However, this strength is about average for the last 7 thousand
years, and the current rate of change is not unusual.
A prominent feature in the non-dipolar part of the secular variation is a westward drift at a rate of
about 0.2 degrees per year. This drift is not the same everywhere and has varied over time. The globally
averaged drift has been westward since about 1400 AD but eastward between about 1000 AD and 1400
AD.
Changes that predate magnetic observatories are recorded in archaeological and geological materials.
Such changes are referred to aspaleomagnetic secular variation or paleosecular variation (PSV). The
records typically include long periods of small change with occasional large changes reflecting
geomagnetic excursions and geomagnetic reversals.

c)Magnetic field reversals
Although the Earth's field is generally well approximated by a magnetic dipole with its axis near the
rotational axis, there are occasional dramatic events where the North and South geomagnetic poles trade
places. These events are called geomagnetic reversals. Evidence for these events can be found worldwide
in basalts, sediment cores taken from the ocean floors, and seafloor magnetic anomalies. Reversals occur
at apparently random intervals ranging from less than 0.1 million years to as much as 50 million years.
The most recent such event, called theBrunhesMatuyama reversal, occurred about 780,000 years ago.
However, a study published in 2012 by a group from the German Research Center for Geosciences
suggests that a brief complete reversal occurred only 41,000 years ago during the last ice age.
The past magnetic field is recorded mostly by iron oxides, such as magnetite, that have some form of
ferrimagnetism or other magnetic ordering that allows the Earth's field to magnetize them. This
remanent magnetization, or remanence, can be acquired in more than one way. In lava flows, the
direction of the field is "frozen" in small magnetic particles as they cool, giving rise to a thermoremanent
magnetization. In sediments, the orientation of magnetic particles acquires a slight bias towards the
magnetic field as they are deposited on an ocean floor or lake bottom. This is called detrital remanent
magnetization.
Thermoremanent magnetization is the form of remanence that gives rise to the magnetic anomalies
around ocean ridges. As the seafloor spreads, magma wells up from the mantle and cools to form new
basaltic crust. During the cooling, the basalt records the direction of the Earth's field. This new basalt
forms on both sides of the ridge and moves away from it. When the Earth's field reverses, new basalt
records the reversed direction. The result is a series of stripes that are symmetric about the ridge. A
ship towing a magnetometer on the surface of the ocean can detect these stripes and infer the age of
the ocean floor below. This provides information on the rate at which seafloor has spread in the past.
Radiometric dating of lava flows has been used to establish a geomagnetic polarity time scale, part of
which is shown in the image. This forms the basis of magnetostratigraphy, a geophysical correlation
technique that can be used to date both sedimentary and volcanic sequences as well as the seafloor
magnetic anomalies.
Studies of lava flows on Steens Mountain, Oregon, indicate that the magnetic field could have shifted at
a rate of up to 6 degrees per day at some time in Earth's history, which significantly challenges the
popular understanding of how the Earth's magnetic field works.
Temporary dipole tilt variations that take the dipole axis across the equator and then back to the
original polarity are known as excursions.

PHYSICAL ORIGIN
a)Earth's core and the geodynamo
A schematic illustrating the relationship between motion of conducting fluid, organized into rolls by the
Coriolis force, and the magnetic field the motion generates.
The Earth's magnetic field is mostly caused by electric currents in the liquid outer core, which is
composed of highly conductive molten iron. A magnetic field is generated by a feedback loop: current
loops generate magnetic fields (Ampre's circuital law); a changing magnetic field generates an electric
field (Faraday's law); and the electric and magnetic fields exert a force on the charges that are flowing in
currents (the Lorentz force). These effects can be combined in a partial differential equation for the
magnetic field called themagnetic induction equation:


where u is the velocity of the fluid, B is the magnetic B-field; and =1/ is the magnetic diffusivity with
electrical conductivity and permeability. The term B/t is the time derivative of the field; 2 is the
Laplace operator and is the curl operator.
The first term on the right hand side of the induction equation is a diffusion term. In a stationary fluid,
the magnetic field declines and any concentrations of field spread out. If the Earth's dynamo shut off,
the dipole part would disappear in a few tens of thousands of years.
In a perfect conductor (=), there would be no diffusion. By Lenz's law, any change in the magnetic
field would be immediately opposed by currents, so the flux through a given volume of fluid could not
change. As the fluid moved, the magnetic field would go with it. The theorem describing this effect is
called the frozen-in-field theorem. Even in a fluid with a finite conductivity, new field is generated by
stretching field lines as the fluid moves in ways that deform it. This process could go on generating new
field indefinitely, were it not that as the magnetic field increases in strength, it resists fluid motion.

The motion of the fluid is sustained by convection, motion driven by buoyancy. The temperature
increases towards the center of the Earth, and the higher temperature of the fluid lower down makes it
buoyant. This buoyancy is enhanced by chemical separation: As the core cools, some of the molten iron
solidifies and is plated to the inner core. In the process, lighter elements are left behind in the fluid,
making it lighter. This is called compositional convection. A Coriolis effect, caused by the overall
planetary rotation, tends to organize the flow into rolls aligned along the north-south polar axis.
The mere convective motion of an electrically conductive fluid is not enough to ensure the generation of
a magnetic field. The above model assumes the motion of charges (such as electrons with respect to
atomic nuclei), which is a requirement for generating a magnetic field. However, it is not clear how this
motion of charges arises in the circulating fluid of the outer core. Possible mechanisms may include
electrochemical reactions which create the equivalent of a battery generating electrical current in the
fluid or, a thermoelectric effect[37] (both mechanisms somehow discredited). More robustly, remnant
magnetic fields in magnetic materials in the mantle, which are cooler than their Curie temperature,
would provide seed stator magnetic fields that would induce the required growing currents in the
convectively driven fluid behaving as a dynamo, as analyzed by Dr. Philip William Livermore.
The average magnetic field in the Earth's outer core was calculated to be 25 G, 50 times stronger than
the field at the surface.


b) Crustal magnetic anomalies

Magnetometers detect minute deviations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by iron artifacts, kilns,
some types of stone structures, and even ditches and middens in archaeological geophysics. Using
magnetic instruments adapted from airborne magnetic anomaly detectors developed during World War
II to detect submarines, the magnetic variations across the ocean floor have been mapped. Basalt the
iron-rich, volcanic rock making up the ocean floor contains a strongly magnetic mineral (magnetite)
and can locally distort compass readings. The distortion was recognized by Icelandic mariners as early as
the late 18th century. More important, because the presence of magnetite gives the basalt measurable
magnetic properties, these magnetic variations have provided another means to study the deep ocean
floor. When newly formed rock cools, such magnetic materials record the Earth's magnetic field.

MEASUREMENT AND ANALYSIS
a)Detection
The Earth's magnetic field strength was measured by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1835 and has been
repeatedly measured since then, showing a relative decay of about 10% over the last 150 years. The
Magsat satellite and later satellites have used 3-axis vector magnetometers to probe the 3-D structure of
the Earth's magnetic field. The later rsted satelliteallowed a comparison indicating a dynamic
geodynamo in action that appears to be giving rise to an alternate pole under the Atlantic Ocean west
of S. Africa.
Governments sometimes operate units that specialize in measurement of the Earth's magnetic field.
These are geomagnetic observatories, typically part of a national Geological Survey, for example the
British Geological Survey's Eskdalemuir Observatory. Such observatories can measure and forecast
magnetic conditions that sometimes affect communications, electric power, and other human activities.
The International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network, with over 100 interlinked geomagnetic
observatories around the world has been recording the earths magnetic field since 1991.
The military determines local geomagnetic field characteristics, in order to detect anomalies in the
natural background that might be caused by a significant metallic object such as a submerged
submarine. Typically, these magnetic anomaly detectors are flown in aircraft like the UK's Nimrod or
towed as an instrument or an array of instruments from surface ships.
Commercially, geophysical prospecting companies also use magnetic detectors to identify naturally
occurring anomalies from ore bodies, such as the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly.

b)Statistical models
Each measurement of the magnetic field is at a particular place and time. If an accurate estimate of the
field at some other place and time is needed, the measurements must be converted to a model and the
model used to make predictions.

i)Spherical harmonics
Schematic representation of spherical harmonics on a sphere and their nodal lines.P m is equal to 0
along m great circlespassing through the poles, and along -mcircles of equal latitude. The function
changes sign each time it crosses one of these lines.


The most common way of analyzing the global variations in the Earth's magnetic field is to fit the
measurements to a set of spherical harmonics. This was first done by Carl Friedrich Gauss. Spherical
harmonics are functions that oscillate over the surface of a sphere. They are the product of two
functions, one that depends on latitude and one on longitude. The function of longitude is zero along
zero or more great circles passing through the North and South Poles; the number of such nodal lines is
the absolute value of the order m. The function of latitude is zero along zero or more latitude circles;
this plus the order is equal to the degree . Each harmonic is equivalent to a particular arrangement of
magnetic charges at the center of the Earth. A monopole is an isolated magnetic charge, which has
never been observed. A dipole is equivalent to two opposing charges brought close together and a
quadrupole to two dipoles brought together. A quadrupole field is shown in the lower figure on the
right.
Spherical harmonics can represent any scalar field (function of position) that satisfies certain properties.
A magnetic field is a vector field, but if it is expressed in Cartesian components X, Y, Z, each component
is the derivative of the same scalar function called the magnetic potential. Analyses of the Earth's
magnetic field use a modified version of the usual spherical harmonics that differ by a multiplicative
factor. A least-square fit to the magnetic field measurements gives the Earth's field as the sum of
spherical harmonics, each multiplied by the best-fitting Gauss coefficient gm or hm.
The lowest-degree Gauss coefficient, g00, gives the contribution of an isolated magnetic charge, so it is
zero. The next three coefficients g10, g11, and h11 determine the direction and magnitude of the
dipole contribution. The best fitting dipole is tilted at an angle of about10 with respect to the rotational
axis, as described earlier.

ii) Radial dependence
Spherical harmonic analysis can be used to distinguish internal from external sources if measurements
are available at more than one height (for example, ground observatories and satellites). In that case,
each term with coefficient gm or hm can be split into two terms: one that decreases with radius as
1/r+1 and one that increases with radius as r. The increasing terms fit the external sources (currents in
the ionosphere and magnetosphere). However, averaged over a few years the external contributions
average to zero.

The remaining terms predict that the potential of a dipole source (=1) drops off as 1/r2. The magnetic
field, being a derivative of the potential, drops off as 1/r3. Quadrupole terms drop off as 1/r4, and higher
order terms drop off increasingly rapidly with the radius. The radius of the outer core is about half of
the radius of the Earth. If the field at the core-mantle boundary is fit to spherical harmonics, the dipole
part is smaller by a factor of about at the surface, the quadrupole part 116, and so on. Thus, only the
components with large wavelengths can be noticeable at the surface. From a variety of arguments, it is
usually assumed that only terms up to degree 14 or less have their origin in the core. These have
wavelengths of about 2000 km or less. Smaller features are attributed to crustal anomalies.

iii)Global models
The International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy maintains a standard global field model
called the International Geomagnetic Reference Field. It is updated every 5 years. The 11th-generation
model, IGRF11, was developed using data from satellites (rsted, CHAMP and SAC-C) and a world
network of geomagnetic observatories. The spherical harmonic expansion was truncated at degree 10,
with 120 coefficients, until 2000. Subsequent models are truncated at degree 13 (195 coefficients).
Another global field model is produced jointly by the National Geophysical Data Center and the British
Geological Survey. This model truncates at degree 12 (168 coefficients). It is the model used by the
United States Department of Defense, the Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom), the North Atlantic
Treaty Organization, and the International Hydrographic Office as well as in many civilian navigation
systems.
A third model, produced by the Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA and GSFC) and the Danish Space
Research Institute, uses a "comprehensive modeling" approach that attempts to reconcile data with
greatly varying temporal and spatial resolution from ground and satellite sources.

BIOMAGNETISM
Animals including birds and turtles can detect the Earth's magnetic field, and use the field to navigate
during migration. Cows and wild deer tend to align their bodies north-south while relaxing, but not
when the animals are under high voltage power lines, leading researchers to believe magnetism is
responsible.

ELECTOMAGNETIC THEORIES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Several theorists have proposed that consciousness can be understood as an electromagnetic
phenomenon. Their theories differ in how they relate consciousness to electromagnetism. For example,
electromagnetic field theories (or "EM field theories") of consciousness propose that consciousness
results when a brain produces an electromagnetic field with features that meet certain criteria; Susan
Pockett and Johnjoe McFadden have proposed EM field theories; William Uttal has criticized McFadden's
and other field theories.
Some electromagnetic theories are also quantum mind theories of consciousness; examples include
quantum brain dynamics (QBD) approaches of Mari Jibu and Kunio Yasue and of Giuseppe Vitiello. In
general, however, quantum mind theories other than these QBD approaches do not treat consciousness
as an electromagnetic phenomenon.
Also related are E. Roy John's work and Andrew and Alexander Fingelkurt's theory "Operational
Architectonics framework of brain-mind functioning".



a)CEMI THEORY
The starting point for McFadden and Pockett's theory is the fact that every time a neuron fires to
generate an action potential, and a postsynaptic potential in the next neuron down the line, it also
generates a disturbance in the surrounding electromagnetic field. McFadden has proposed that the
brain's electromagnetic field creates a representation of the information in the neurons. Studies
undertaken towards the end of the 20th century are argued to have shown that conscious experience
correlates not with the number of neurons firing, but with the synchrony of that firing. McFadden views
the brain's electromagnetic field as arising from the induced EM field of neurons. The synchronous
firing of neurons is, in this theory, argued to amplify the influence of the brain's EM field fluctuations to
a much greater extent than would be possible with the unsynchronized firing of neurons.
McFadden thinks that the EM field could influence the brain in a number of ways. Redistribution of ions
could modulate neuronal activity, given that voltage-gated ion channels are a key element in the
progress of axon spikes. Neuronal firing is argued to be sensitive to the variation of as little as one
millivolt across the cell membrane, or the involvement of a single extra ion channel. Transcranial
magnetic stimulation is similarly argued to have demonstrated that weak EM fields can influence brain
activity.
McFadden proposes that the digital information from neurons is integrated to form a conscious
electromagnetic information (cemi) field in the brain. Consciousness is suggested to be the component
of this field that is transmitted back to neurons, and communicates its state externally. Thoughts are
viewed as electromagnetic representations of neuronal information, and the experience of free will in our
choice of actions is argued to be our subjective experience of the cemi field acting on our neurons.
McFadden's view of freewill is deterministic. Neurons generate patterns in the EM field, which in turn
modulate the firing of particular neurons. There is only conscious agency in the sense that the field or
its download to neurons is conscious, but the processes of the brain themselves are driven by
deterministic electromagnetic interactions. The feel of subjective experience or qualia corresponds to a
particular configuration of the cemi field. This field representation is in this theory argued to integrate
parts into a whole that has meaning, so a face is not seen as a random collection of features, but as
somebody's face. The integration of information in the field is also suggested to resolve the
binding/combination problem.
Susan Pockett has advanced a theory, which has a similar physical basis to McFadden's, with
consciousness seen as identical to certain spatiotemporal patterns of the EM field. However, whereas
McFadden argues that his deterministic interpretation of the EM field is not out-of-line with mainstream
thinking, Pockett suggests that the EM field comprises a universal consciousness that experiences the
sensations, perceptions, thoughts and emotions of every conscious being in the universe. However, while
McFadden thinks that the field is causal for actions, albeit deterministically, Pockett does not see the
field as causal for our actions.

b)QUANTUM BRAIN DYNAMICS
The concepts underlying this theory derive from the physicists, Hiroomi Umezawa and Herbert Frhlich
in the 1960s. More recently, their ideas have been elaborated by Mari Jibu and Kunio Yasue. Water
comprises 70% of the brain, and quantum brain dynamics (QBD) proposes that the electric dipoles of
the water molecules constitute a quantum field, referred to as the cortical field, with corticons as the
quanta of the field. This cortical field is postulated to interact with quantum coherent waves generated
by the biomolecules in neurons, which are suggested to propagate along the neuronal network. The idea
of quantum coherent waves in the neuronal network derives from Frohlich. He viewed these waves as a
means by which order could be maintained in living systems, and argued that the neuronal network
could support long-range correlation of dipoles. This theory suggests that the cortical field not only
interacts with the neuronal network, but also to a good extent controls it.
The proponents of QBD differ somewhat as to the way in which consciousness arises in this system. Jibu
and Yasue suggest that the interaction between the energy quanta (corticons) of the quantum field and
the biomolecular waves of the neuronal network produces consciousness. However, another theorist,
Giuseppe Vitiello, proposes that the quantum states produce two poles, a subjective representation of
the external world and also the internal self.

c)OBJECTION
In a circa-2002 publication of The Journal of Consciousness Studies, the electromagnetic theory of
consciousness faced an uphill battle for acceptance among cognitive scientists. Scientific study of
consciousness has only recently begun to gain acceptance as a legitimate scientific discipline, and some
think field theories like McFadden's are pseudo-science that threaten their hard-worn legitimacy.
"No serious researcher I know believes in an electromagnetic theory of consciousness," Bernard Baars
wrote in an e-mail. Baars is a neurobiologist and co-editor of Consciousness & Cognition, another
scientific journal in the field. "It's not really worth talking about scientifically,"he was quoted as saying.
McFadden acknowledges that his theorywhich he calls the "cemi field theory"is far from proven but
he argues that it is certainly a legitimate line of scientific inquiry. His article underwent peer review
before publication. In fact, Baars is on the editorial board of the journal that published it.
The field theories of consciousness do not appear to have been as widely discussed as other quantum
consciousness theories, such as those of Penrose, Stapp or Bohm. However, David Chalmers argues that
quantum theories of consciousness suffer from the same weakness as more conventional theories. Just as
he argues that there is no particular reason why particular macroscopic physical features in the brain
should give rise to consciousness, he also thinks that there is no particular reason why a particular
quantum feature, such as the EM field in the brain, should give rise to consciousness either. While at
least one researcher claims otherwise, Jeffrey Gray states in his book Consciousness: Creeping up on the
Hard Problem, that tests looking for the influence of electromagnetic fields on brain function have been
universally negative in their result.

d)ADVANTAGES
Locating consciousness in the brain's EM field, rather than the neurons, has the advantage of neatly
accounting for how information located in millions of neurons scattered through the brain can be
unified into a single conscious experience (sometimes called the binding or combination problem): the
information is unified in the EM field. In this way EM field consciousness can be considered to be
"joined-up information". This theory accounts for several otherwise puzzling facts, such as the finding
that attention and awareness tend to be correlated with the synchronous firing of multiple neurons
rather than the firing of individual neurons. When neurons fire together their EM fields generate
stronger EM field disturbances; so synchronous neuron firing will tend to have a larger impact on the
brain's EM field (and thereby consciousness) than the firing of individual neurons. However their
generation by synchronous firing is not the only important characteristic of conscious electromagnetic
fieldsin Pockett's original theory, spatial pattern is the defining feature of a conscious (as opposed to
a non-conscious) field.

e)INFLUENCE ON BRAIN FUNCTION
The different EM field theories disagree as to the role of the proposed conscious EM field on brain
function. In McFadden's cemi field theory, as well as in Drs Fingelkurts' Brain-Mind Operational
Architectonics theory, the brain's global EM field modifies the electric charges across neural membranes,
and thereby influences the probability that particular neurons will fire, providing a feed-back loop that
drives free will. However in the theories of Susan Pockett and E. Roy John, there is no necessary causal
link between the conscious EM field and our consciously willed actions.


f) IMPLICATIONS FOR ARTIFICIAL INTELIGENCE
If true, the theory has major implications for efforts to design consciousness into Artificial intelligence
machines; current microprocessor technology is designed to transmit information linearly along electrical
channels, and more general electromagnetic effects are seen as a nuisance and damped out; if this theory
is right, however, this is directly counterproductive to creating an artificially conscious computer, which
on some versions of the theory would instead have electromagnetic fields that synchronized its
outputsor in the original version of the theory would have spatially patterned electromagnetic fields









BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.PHYSICS NCERT TEXTBOOK CLASS XII
2. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF PHYSICS BY H.C VERMA
3.WWW.WIKIPEDIA.ORG
4.WWW.BRITANICA.ORG