1/25/2008

Basic
Concepts
4
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
BASIC CONCEPTS
BASIC CONCEPTS
PRINCIPLES:
Governing principles
St. Venant's principle
INTERNAL FORCES AND STRESSES:
Internal forces
Direct stress
Shear stress
DISPLACEMENTS AND STRAINS:
Displacements
Linear strain
Shear strain
MATERIAL BEHAVIOUR:
Stress-Strain relationships
Superposition principle
Material properties
Strain energy
Material failure
Time effects
1/25/2008
Basic
Concepts
5
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
GOVERNING PRINCIPLES
GOVERNING PRINCIPLES
The way in which materials transmit loads is
governed by two basic principles:
Equilibrium: the sum of forces and moments on a
body or any part of the body must be equal to zero.
Certain problems can be solved using only
equilibrium considerations. These are known as
statically determinate.
Compatibility: the movements resulting from the
external loads must be internally compatible (i.e. the
material must not break) and compatible with the
external support conditions.
F F M
x y
= = =

0 0 0 ; ;
1/25/2008
Basic
Concepts
6
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
ST.
ST.
VENANT'S
VENANT'S
PRINCIPLE
PRINCIPLE
A useful further principle is St. Venants Principle: no
matter how complex the distribution of external
forces at a small region on the surface of a body is,
the resulting effect at a small distance away will only
depend on the statically equivalent force.
1/25/2008
Basic
Concepts
7
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
INTERNAL FORCES
INTERNAL FORCES
Consider a bar with an external load and its Free
Body Diagram:
Taking a cut through a section of a bar, equilibrium
and Newtons third law of action and reaction imply
the existence of an equal internal force acting on
each section of the bar:
On a given slice we have:
F
F
F
F F F F
F F

1/25/2008
Basic
Concepts
8
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
DIRECT STRESS
DIRECT STRESS
Stress is the amount of internal force per unit area:
Units: Newtons/metre
2
or N/m
2
or Pascal. Typically
engineers use MN/m
2
, i.e. 10
6
N/m
2
or N/mm
2
.
Stress can be tensile (+) or compressive (-):
F
F
A
=
F
A
Tension (+) Compression (-)
1/25/2008
Basic
Concepts
9
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
SHEAR STRESS
SHEAR STRESS
The force acting on an area may be normal or
tangential to the area. The direct stress is then the
normal force per unit area and the shear stress is
the tangential force per unit area:
Signs:
= =
F
A
F
A
n t
and
F
n
F
F
F
t
A
x
y
+
1/25/2008
Basic
Concepts
10
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
DISPLACEMENTS
DISPLACEMENTS
As a result of the external actions materials will
deform. This deformation manifests itself in small
movements or displacements of material points. It
has units of length (m or mm):
In the case of a beam where the displacement is
perpendicular to the structure, it is known as
deflection:
u
F
F
d
1/25/2008
Basic
Concepts
11
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
LINEAR STRAIN
LINEAR STRAIN
All materials deformwhen subject to external actions
such as loads or temperature changes. The
deformation, i.e. change in shape is measured by the
strain at a point:
Linear Strain is defined as the change in length over
the initial length:
Strain is dimensionless. It is often given as a %.
=
l
l
l
l
l l +
1/25/2008
Basic
Concepts
12
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
SHEAR STRAIN
SHEAR STRAIN
Deformation can also imply distortion which is
measured by the shear strain as the change in
angle:
The shear strain is dimensionless and often given as
a percentage %.

1/25/2008
Basic
Concepts
13
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
STRESS
STRESS
-
-
STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS
STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS
Derived from tensile tests:
Strain is related to stress via the stress-strain curve :
Proportionality
Limit
Linear
Elastic
Range
Breaking
Point
Strain Gauge
F F

1/25/2008
Basic
Concepts
14
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
In the linear elastic range the effect of more than one
load can be obtained by adding the effect of each
individual load acting alone:
F
1
F
2
F
1
F
2
=
+
1/25/2008
Basic
Concepts
15
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
In the elastic range, direct stress is proportional to
linear strain. The proportionality coefficient is
Youngs Modulus E of the material:
Shear stress is proportional to shear strain. The
proportionality coefficient is the Shear Modulus G:
Thermal effects. Changes in temperature lead to a
linear strain which is proportional to the temperature
change. The proportionality coefficient is the
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion :
= E
= G

T
T =
1/25/2008
Basic
Concepts
16
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
POISSON'S RATIO
POISSON'S RATIO
The result of a direct stress in one direction is a
direct strain in the same direction plus a lateral
strain:
The ratio between direct and lateral strain is given by
Poissons coefficient (typically 0.3):
l
d
d
l

1 2
= =
l
l
and
d
d

=
2
1
1/25/2008
Basic
Concepts
17
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
MATERIAL PARAMETERS: Typical Values
MATERIAL PARAMETERS: Typical Values
Material E(GN/m
2
)

(
o
C
-1
)

u
(MN/m
2
)

l
(MN/m
2
)
Mild Steel
200 1.2 10
-5
370 280
High Steel
200 1.3 10
-5
1550 770
Concrete T
14 1.2 10
-5
3 -
Concrete C
14 1.2 10
-5
30 -
Carbon Fibre
170 - 1400 -
Glass Fibre
60 - 1600 -
Aluminium
70 2.3 10
-5
430 280
Titanium
120 0.9 10
-5
690 385
Magnesium
45 2.7 10
-5
280 155
1/25/2008
Basic
Concepts
18
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
STRAIN ENERGY
STRAIN ENERGY
When a material is deformed, the work done by the
external forces is accumulated as elastic strain
energy in the material.
The strain energy per unit volume w is the area
under the stress-strain relationship:
For linear elastic materials w is:
F
W F A V = = =
z z z
d d d l l
F
w E
E
= = =
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
2

w =
z
( )d
1/25/2008
Basic
Concepts
19
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
MATERIAL FAILURE
MATERIAL FAILURE
All materials fail at different values of stress.
Depending on the amount of strain (or strain energy)
before failure, the material is said to be brittle or
ductile:
Breaking Point Breaking Point
DUCTILE MATERIAL BRITTLE MATERIAL

1/25/2008
Basic
Concepts
20
School of
Engineering
Prof. J. Bonet Prof. J. Bonet
EG EG- -120 120
Strength of Strength of
Materials Materials
TIME EFFECTS
TIME EFFECTS
Creep: the deformation of materials under load
increases with time:
Fatigue: materials subject to cyclic loads eventually
fail at a lower than the short term failure stress:
Mild Steel
Aluminium
Endurance
limit
tertiary creep
secondary creep
primary creep

u
No. Cycles
10
4
10
5
10
7
10
6