School of Public Affairs (The Ohio State University). His research focuses on the role that managerial practices play in improving motivation, commitment, and performance of public sector employees. His research works have appeared in the Journal of Managerial Psychology, Journal of Leadership and Organization Studies, International Public Management Journal, and American Review of Public Administration. E-mail: hassan.125@osu.edu 716 Public Administration Review September | October 2013 Public Administration Review, Vol. 73, Iss. 5, pp. 716725. 2013 by The American Society for Public Administration. DOI: 10.1111/puar.12100. Shahidul Hassan The Ohio State University Tis article examines how greater role clarication may be associated with increased work satisfaction and decreased turnover rates in workgroups. Tese linkages are examined with the use of multivariate analysis of vari- ance and hierarchical regression analysis for data collected during two time periods from multiple sources: personnel records and an organizational survey of 1,699 employees working in 45 geographically distributed o ces in a state government agency. Results indicate that o ces with a high level of role clarication had signicantly higher levels of work satisfaction and lower rates of turnover. Additionally, the eects of role clarication on work sat- isfaction and turnover behavior were mediated by overall role clarity perceived in these o ces. Te implications of these ndings for eective management of workgroups in government agencies are discussed. T he institutional context in which public organizations operate has important impli- cations for their day-to-day operations and performance (Perry and Rainey 1988; Rainey and Steinbauer 1990; Wamsley and Zald 1973). Public agencies deal with complex policy problems, pursue value-laden goals, and provide services for which clear performance criteria are not readily available (Allison 1983; Dahl and Lindblom 1953; Wildavsky 1979; Wilson 1989). Public organizations also need to attend to competing demands from various stakehold- ers and interest groups (Lowi 1979; Rainey 1993; Ring and Perry 1985). Public management scholar- ship suggests that a lack of clear performance criteria, policy complexity, and competing demands from stakeholders lead to goal ambiguity (Chun and Rainey 2005), which, in turn, creates substantial role ambiguity for employees working in public agencies (Wright 2004). Erera (1989), for example, found that vagueness and constant change in state policies caused consid- erable role ambiguity among managers in a state agency. Pandey and Wright (2006) found that a lack of clarity in organizational goals directly as well as indirectly (by increasing procedural constraints) increased role ambiguity among managers in health and human services agencies. Te consequences of high levels of role ambiguity have important cost implications for public agen- cies. While a certain level of role ambiguity is likely to exist in all jobs and may even be benecial in terms of increasing employee creativity and learning (Savelsbergh et al. 2012), a high level of ambigu- ity regarding job goals and performance expecta- tions creates stress and frustration among employees (Schaubroeck et al. 1993) and may inuence them to leave the organization (Jung 2011). Organizational research indicates that work stressors, including role ambiguity and role conict, contribute negatively to employee mental health (Ganster and Schaubroeck 1991). Role ambiguity has also consistently been shown to have a negative inuence on a wide range of benecial employee dispositions, including job satis- faction, organizational commitment, and job involve- ment (Fisher and Gitelson 1983; Jackson and Schuler 1985). More importantly, research indicates that ambiguity about job goals and performance expecta- tions lowers employee job performance (cf. Tubre and Collins 2000). Given the widely acknowledged costs associated with role ambiguity, it is surprising that few studies in pub- lic management have investigated how to enhance role clarity in public organizations. Specically, research has yet to examine whether managerial practices can attenuate the adverse eects of role ambiguity on organiza- tional outcomes. Te present study was designed to examine how role clarication may aect perceived role clarity, work satisfaction, and turnover rates in distinct o ces or workgroups in a government agency. Based on role theory (Graen 1976; Te Importance of Role Clarication in Workgroups: Eects on Perceived Role Clarity, Work Satisfaction, and Turnover Rates Te present study was designed to examine how role clarica- tion may aect perceived role clarity, work satisfaction, and turnover rates in distinct o ces or workgroups in a government agency. The Importance of Role Clarication in Workgroups: Effects on Perceived Role Clarity, Work Satisfaction, and Turnover Rates 717 work practices can also increase role ambiguity (Jimmieson, Terry, and Callan 2004; Lyons 1971). Additionally, lack of managerial communication or poor communication may lead to increased role ambiguity among employees (House and Mitchell 1974; House and Rizzo 1972; Lyons 1971). High levels of role ambiguity have detrimental eects on cooperative attitudes and behaviors of employees (Jackson and Schuler 1985; Tubre and Collins 2000). Role ambiguity increases stress because concerns about how to perform job roles and obtain valued out- comes (both material and social) often cause frustration and anxiety among employees. It can also lead to, as previously noted, a lack of employee commitment and involvement and diminished employee performance (Jackson and Schuler 1985; Schaubroeck et al. 1993; Tubre and Collins 2000). Additionally, incongruity between received role requirements (i.e., role conict) can lower perceptions of self-competence and engender frustration and dissatisfaction among employees. Kahn and colleagues (1964) suggested that when employees experience high levels of role ambiguity and role conict, they will try to reduce the associated stress by avoiding the job situa- tion through chronic absence or leaving the organization. Impact of Role Clarication on Perceived Role Clarity in Workgroups Role clarication is a task-oriented leader behavior that is targeted toward providing cognitive structures to subordinates about how they can attain their job goals (House 1996; Yukl 2010). While the main purpose of role clarication is to guide and coordinate subordinate work activities and make sure subordinates know what they need to do, it also includes setting task objectives in work- groups. Yukl and colleagues (Yukl 2010; Yukl, Gordon, and Taber 2002) noted that setting specic task objectives directs subordinates eorts toward performance of important duties and responsibilities, encourages search for e cient ways of doing work, and facilitates evaluation of performance by providing a benchmark against which to compare it. Role clarication is a core component of initiating structure, one of the two key leader behavior dimensions 3 identied in the Ohio State leadership studies (Fleishman 1953; Fleishman and Harris 1962; Stogdill, Goode, and Day 1962). Role clarication also is the primary component of directive behavior in the path-goal theory of leadership (House 1971; House and Mitchell 1974). Although research on the consequences of using initiating structure was inconclusive, studies on role clarication found stronger results (Fisher and Edwards 1988; Podsako et al. 1995; Woord and Liska 1993). Several studies showed that role clarication is an important determinant of managerial eectiveness (Kim and Yukl 1995; Yukl and Van Fleet 1982). Additionally, laboratory and eld experiments have consistently found that setting specic and challenging goals results in higher levels of individual and group performance (Locke and Latham 1990). Te eect of role clarication on perceived role clarity in workgroups may depend on several situational factors, such as employee skill level, experience, and job complexity (House 1996; House and Mitchell 1974). Workgroups that are designed to accomplish complex and Kahn et al. 1964; Katz and Kahn 1978) and path-goal theory of leadership (House 1971, 1996; House and Mitchell 1974), role clarication in this study is anticipated to have an indirect positive eect on work satisfaction and an indirect negative eect on turno- ver behavior by improving perceived role clarity in workgroups. Tese linkages are examined with multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and hierarchical regression analysis with data that were collected during two time periods using a survey and personnel records of 1,699 employees working in 45 geographically distrib- uted o ces in an agency in state government. Te following section draws from the extant organizational research to develop theoreti- cal arguments and a set of testable hypotheses about how greater role clarication may be associated with increased work satisfaction and decreased turnover rates by improving perceived role clarity in workgroups. Theory and Hypotheses Organizational scholars have long suggested that the development and maintenance of roles are critical to the socialization, perform- ance, and well-being of employees in organizations (Graen 1976; Kahn et al. 1964; Katz and Kahn 1978). Roles basically are a set of activities or behaviors that are expected by relevant organizational constituents from a person holding a particular position in an organization (Graen 1976; Katz and Kahn 1978). Organizations tend to divide complex tasks into specialized activities, assign the activities to specic roles, and then integrate the outputs of those activities into nal goods and services (Katz and Kahn 1978). Te formal specication of role requirements is intended to provide guidance and direction to employees about how to carry out their work activities, as well as to hold them accountable for specic levels of performance (Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman 1970). Role theory suggests that role making is a dynamic process involving an employee and his or her direct supervisor 1 whereby the employee acquires knowledge about the demands and constraints placed on his or her behavior, receives feedback regarding his or her behavior in the role, accepts a pattern of behavior, and modies it over time (Graen 1976; Katz and Kahn 1978; Naylor, Pritchard, and Ilgen 1980). Roles are seldom fully specied in advance for organiza- tional members (Schaubroeck et al. 1993). In addition, role-making processes can be complicated by poor communication between role senders 2 and role receivers, as well as by turbulence within an organi- zations task environment that requires constant modications in roles (Katz and Kahn 1978; Schaubroeck et al. 1993). Role ambi- guity occurs when roles are not su ciently articulated in terms of domain, methods of fulllment, and consequences of role perform- ance (Kahn et al. 1964; Schaubroeck et al. 1993). Kahn and colleagues (1964) identied three organizational factors that may contribute to greater role ambiguity: (1) organizational complexity, (2) organizational change, and (3) managerial communication. Increased organizational complexity in terms of higher levels of centralization, formalization, and goal ambiguity can lead to greater role ambi- guity (House and Rizzo 1972; Morris, Steers, and Koch 1979; Nicholson and Goh 1983; Pandey and Wright 2006). Organizational changes that require frequent restructuring of Workgroups that are designed to accomplish complex and nonroutine tasks, for example, may require more role clarica- tion than workgroups that carry out routine or simple tasks. 718 Public Administration Review September | October 2013 may also inuence members to cognitively as well as behaviorally disassociate from the workgroup. Te relationships between role ambiguity and job satisfaction and between role ambiguity and turnover have been studied extensively in organizational research. A meta-analysis by Abramis (1994) showed a negative correla- tion between role ambiguity and job satisfaction. Another meta- analysis found a negative relationship between role ambiguity and turnover behavior (Grieth, Hom, and Gaertner 2000). Studies in public management also found a negative connection between role ambiguity and job satisfaction (Kim and Wright 2007; Wright and Kim 2004; Wright and Davis 2003) and a positive connection between role ambiguity and turnover intention (Jung 2012; Kim and Wright 2007) at the individual level of analysis. But very little research in public management has examined the linkage between role ambiguity and turnover behavior of employees. One study found a positive association between role ambiguity and turnover rates in federal agencies (Jung 2011). Based on these results and arguments from role theory, the following two hypotheses are tested in this study: Hypothesis 2: O ces with a high level of role clarity will have higher levels of work satisfaction than o ces with a low level of role clarity. Hypothesis 3: O ces with a high level of role clarity will have lower rates of turnover than o ces with a low level of role clarity. Impacts of Role Clarication on Perceived Work Satisfaction and Turnover Behavior Role clarication is likely to enhance work satisfaction and reduce turnover rates by increasing role clarity perceived in workgroups. Specically, the eects of role clarication eorts on work satisfac- tion and turnover behavior in this study are expected to be medi- ated by overall role clarity perceived in the o ces. Two hypotheses concerning these relationships were formulated based on the works of House and colleagues (House 1971, 1996; House and Mitchell 1974; House and Rizzo 1972) that suggested that clarifying job duties and performance expectations reduces stress, which, in turn, enhances employee satisfaction and decreases employee work with- drawal behaviors. While the eects of role clarication on work satisfaction and turnover behavior have not been thoroughly investigated in previous studies, a positive connection between initiating structure 4 and work satisfaction has been found in research in business and industry settings (Judge, Piccolo, and Ilies 2004). Research has also shown a negative relationship between instrumental or task-oriented mana- gerial communication and employee turnover behavior (Grieth, Hom, and Gaertner 2000). Additionally, a recent public sector study found a negative correlation between a measure of eective leadership, which comprised aspects of role clarication, and employee turnover behavior (Grissom 2012). However, no previous study has investigated whether role clarity mediates the eects of role clarication on work satisfaction and turnover rates in workgroups. Hence, the following two hypotheses are tested in this study: nonroutine tasks, for example, may require more role clarication than workgroups that carry out routine or simple tasks. Additionally, workgroups with highly experienced members may require less role clarication than workgroups with a large number of new or inexperienced members. Nevertheless, role clarication is likely to be important in enhancing role clarity in workgroups especially when there is substantial uncertainty about work objectives and perform- ance expectations (Yukl 2010). Such conditions are likely to be more prevalent in government work settings because public organizations often need to deal with complex problems and provide services for which there are no clear performance criteria (Allison 1983; Dahl and Lindblom 1953; Wildavsky 1979; Wilson 1989). Although the connection between role clarication and role clarity has not been thoroughly investigated in research in public manage- ment, studies by Wright and colleagues (Kim and Wright 2007; Wright 2004; Wright and Davis 2003) found that performance- oriented feedback enhances employee role clarity in public organiza- tions. Additionally, survey studies in business and industry settings have consistently found a negative connection between role clarica- tion and role ambiguity at the individual level of analysis (Woord and Liska 1993). Several eld experiments also showed that role clarication has a negative impact on role ambiguity (Quick 1979; Schaubroeck et al. 1993). Following these results, a positive associa- tion between role clarication and role clarity at the workgroup level is anticipated in this study. Hypothesis 1: O ces with a high level of role clarication will have higher levels of role clarity than o ces with a low level of role clarication. Linkages between Role Clarity and Perceived Work Satisfaction and Turnover Behavior Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman (1970) suggested that when employees are unaware of what is expected of them, they may hesitate to act, show a lack of self-determination, and feel unable to make a dier- ence in achieving the organizations goals. Yukl (2010) noted that even highly competent and motivated employees may fail to achieve a high level of performance if they are unsure about their work goals and responsibilities. Katz and colleagues (1964) asserted that unclear role expectations may increase employee work withdrawal behaviors, including absenteeism and turnover. Research on small groups indicates that role clarity is essential for the eective functioning of workgroups (Bray and Brawley 2002). As previously noted, roles are a set of prescriptions that dene the behaviors that are expected from a member of a workgroup (Katz and Kahn 1978). Clear knowledge about these behavioral expecta- tions is important for a group member to eectively perform his or her work, as well as to coordinate work activities within the group. When group members do not clearly under- stand their responsibilities, they may under- estimate their ability to achieve their groups goals (Bandura 1997), leading to a low level of group performance (Bray and Brawley 2002). A high level of role ambiguity is likely to increase dissatisfaction in workgroups. It A high level of role ambiguity is likely to increase dissatisfac- tion in workgroups. It may also inuence members to cogni- tively as well as behaviorally dis- associate from the workgroup. The Importance of Role Clarication in Workgroups: Effects on Perceived Role Clarity, Work Satisfaction, and Turnover Rates 719 were expected to do in their job and understood which of their job duties were more important than others. Role clarication was assessed with four items ( = .84) that captured the extent to which managers (1) clearly expressed work and performance expecta- tions to subordinates, (2) adequately instructed subordinates about how to carry out their work activities, (3) informed subordinates about organizational issues or changes, and (4) provided feedback to subordinates when they performed their job well. Work satisfac- tion was measured with two items ( = .79) that were derived from the Michigan Organizational Assessment Questionnaire. Tese two items have been used to measure work satisfaction in several recent studies (Hassan and Rohrbaugh 2011; Shim and Rohrbaugh, forthcoming). O ce-level employee turnover records for 2009 were collected in 2010 from 45 of the 65 o ce locations. Te agency could not provide disaggregated turnover data for employees in 19 o ce loca- tions. Te unavailability of turnover data from 19 o ce locations resulted in a reduction of the sample size from 2,136 to 1,699, a retention rate of almost 80 percent. Te demographic characteristics of these respondents were in no way dierent from respondents who participated in the survey. Te numbers of employees in the 45 o ces ranged from 3 to 167; 16 o ces were described by fewer than 10 employees, while 11 o ces were described by more than 50 employees. Employee turnover rates were calculated by dividing the sum of voluntary separations by the total number of employees in each o ce. Research indicates that various individual and group characteristics may inuence employee satisfaction and turnover behavior (Cho and Lewis 2012; Grieth, Hom, and Gaertner 2000; Grissom 2012; Kellough and Osuna 1995; Shaw et al. 1998). Hence, o ce size (i.e., total number of employees in each o ce) and mean position tenure were included as control variables in the data analyses. Tese two variables were included in the analyses because larger o ces, for instance, may experience more employee turnover than smaller o ces. O ces with more experienced employees may require less role clarication than o ces with less experienced employees. Additionally, because the level of role clarity in workgroups may depend on employee skill level and job complexity, the percentage of professional employees working in the o ces was included as a Hypothesis 4: Te inuence of role clarication on work satisfaction will be mediated by overall role clarity perceived in o ces. Hypothesis 5: Te inuence of role clarication on turn- over rates will be mediated by overall role clarity perceived in o ces. Method of the Study Sample and Procedures Te ve research hypotheses were tested using data that were col- lected during two time periods from two dierent sources: person- nel records and a survey of employees working in 65 geographically dispersed o ces of a government agency with 11 distinct divisions of operation. Te agency was responsible for maintaining and administering the states accounting, payroll, and retirement systems for public employees. Te agency also was responsible for review- ing states contracts and conducting audits of other state agencies and public beneciaries, as well as overseeing the scal aairs of local governments (including one of the largest municipalities in the United States). Te survey was designed and distributed to a population of 2,614 employees in the spring of 2008 to collect data regarding their perceptions of managerial practices and their work climate. Responsibility for the internal distribution and collection of the survey was assigned to division managers. Prior to distributing the survey, the research team and division managers clearly com- municated the purpose of the study to all participants, the voluntary nature of their participation, and the complete anonymity and condentiality of their responses. Altogether, 2,136 usable ques- tionnaires were returned, for an overall response rate of 82 percent; response rates by division ranged from a low of 70 percent to a high of 100 percent. Approximately 87 percent of the survey respondents identied themselves as Caucasian, 8 percent as African American, 3 percent as Asian, 2 percent as Hispanic, and 1 percent as Native-American; these percentages matched exactly the distribution generated from agency personnel records. Approximately 60 percent of the respond- ents were female and 40 percent male, nearly matching agency records of 59 percent female and 41 percent male. With regard to position description, 31 percent of the respondents reported that their job was best described as clerical and 66 percent as profes- sional. Te majority of the professional employees in the agency were accountants, auditors, business analysts, lawyers, information technology specialists, and managers. Te mean age of the respond- ents was 45.6 years; their mean tenures in their position, division, and agency were 4.8 years, 9.8 years, and 11.6 years, respectively; all three tenure distributions were skewed positively. Measures All of the survey items were measured either on a six-point (coded 16) strength of agreement (strongly disagree, generally disagree, disagree a little, agree a little, generally agree, and strongly agree) or on a ve-point (coded 04) frequency of occurrence (almost never/ never, rarely, sometimes, often, and almost always/always) scale (see table 1 for a complete list of the survey items used in this study). Steerss (1975, 1976) Task-Goal Attribute Scales provided the basis for the three-item measure of role clarity ( =.73). Tese three items captured the extent to which employees were clear about what they Table 1 CFA Results: Standardized Factor Loadings Items Standardized Factor Loading () Role clarication My supervisor clearly expresses work expectations to me. .78 My supervisor keeps me in the loop about issues that affect my work. .76 I am told by my immediate supervisor when I do a good job. .70 My supervisor properly instructs me regarding how to do my job. .83 Role clarity I know exactly what I am supposed to do on my job. .66 I understand fully which of my job duties are more impor- tant than others. .64 My responsibilities at work are very clear and specic. .78 Work satisfaction I am very satised with the kind of work that I do. .80 At the end of the day, I feel good about the work that I do here. .82 720 Public Administration Review September | October 2013 group variances with an expected variance under the null hypoth- esis of no agreement. Two main advantages in using the r wg index are that (1) it does not depend on the between-groups variance and thus is particularly useful when the group means are restricted in their range, and (2) it provides an agreement measure for each group rather than one summary for the entire sample (Cohen, Doveh, and Eick 2001). 7 Although there is no clear standard for acceptable levels of inter-rater agreement, a value of .70 or higher for the r wg index is considered desirable (Janz, Colquitt, and Noe 1997). Te calculated median r wg values for role clarication, role clarity, and work satisfaction were .79, .86, and .70, respectively, which indicated su cient within-group agreement in perceptions of the three measures. Descriptive Statistics and Results of Correlation Analyses Table 2 provides descriptive statistics and correlation coe cients of the measures included in the present study. Te mean position tenure of employees in the o ces was close to ve years, and the standard deviation was 3.49 years. On average, each o ce had approximately 37 employees, and 60 percent of the employees were professionals. Te minimum rate of annual turnover in the o ces was zero; the maximum was .33. On average, 11 percent of employ- ees from each o ce had voluntarily left the organization by the end of 2009. As indicated in table 2, role clarication had a positive correlation with role clarity perceived in the o ces (r = .49, p < .01). Additionally, measures for role clarication, role clarity, and work satisfaction had signicant negative correlations with turnover rates in the o ces (rs = .33, .49, .32, respectively, p < .05). Te results also showed that role clarication scores were lower in larger o ces (r = .34, p < .05) and higher in o ces with a larger number of professional employees (r = .27, p < .05). Tests of the Research Hypotheses A three-step analytical procedure was undertaken to test the hypoth- eses identied for the present study. Initially, the 45 o ces were divided into three groups with low (turnover rates = .00 to .07, n = 15 o ces), moderate (turnover rates = .08 to .14, n = 17 o ces) and high (turnover rates = .15 to .33, n = 13 o ces) rates of turnover. 8
A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) test was performed to assess direct connections between role clarication, role clarity, and work satisfaction and turnover rates in the o ces. Next, assum- ing a positive result from the rst step, univariate F statistics were examined for the three measures with respect to low, moderate, and high rates of turnover. Finally, hierarchical regression analyses were performed to examine direct and indirect eects of role clarication on perceived role clarity and work satisfaction and turnover rates in the o ces. control variable as well. Te rationale was that o ces with a high number of professional employees were likely to perform more com- plex or nonroutine tasks and therefore might have less role clarity than o ces with a high number of clerical or support employees. Results Psychometric Properties of the Measures Conrmatory factor analyses (CFA) were conducted to assess the discriminant validity of the study measures. Tis study relied on one measure of parsimony troot mean square error of approximation (RMSEA)and two measures of relative tcomparative t index (CFI) and Tucker Lewis t index (TLI)to assess validity of the measures. A reasonable t is indicated by CFI and TLI values of .90 or greater and RMSEA value of .08 or less (Hu and Bentler 1995). Te CFA results indicated that the three-factor measurement model provided a good t to the data ( 2 = 221.20 [24], p < .05, RMSEA = .07, CFI = .97, TLI = .94). Standardized factor loadings (lambdas) for all items were .60 or greater (see table 1), and factor intercorrela- tions were below .65. Additionally, a sequential chi-square dierence test was performed to examine whether the proposed three-factor measurement model provided a better t to the data than alterna- tive one-factor and two-factor models. Te results indicated that the one-factor model t the data signicantly worse than the proposed three-factor model ( 2 = 1052.8, p < .05, RMSEA = .17, CFI = .79, TLI = .64). Te three-factor model also t the data signicantly better than the two-factor model, in which the correlation between role clarication and role clarity was set to one ( 2 = 525.8, p < .05, RMSEA = .13, CFI = .87, TLI = .79). Tese results indicated su cient discriminant validities for the three measures. Moreover, poor t of the one-factor model suggested that common method bias did not materially aect the data collected through survey in the rst phase of this study. 5 Data Aggregation for Ofce-level Analyses Te compatibility principle regarding unit of analysis suggests that when the outcome variable is measured at the group level, the predictor variables should also be measured at the same level (Ajzen 2005; Pugh and Dietz 2008). Because turnover behavior in this study was measured at the workgroup or o ce level, 6 scale scores for role clarication, role clarity, and work satisfaction were aggregated at the o ce level to test the ve research hypotheses. Several recent studies in public management have also relied on this approach to assess relationships at the group level (Fernandez, Cho, and Perry 2010; Hassan and Rohrbaugh 2012; Jung 2011; Rubin and Kellough 2012; Shim and Rohrbaugh, forthcoming). Methodologists have suggested that su cient between-group vari- ability and within-group agreement must be demonstrated before any study of relationships between constructs at the group level (Homan 2002). Between-group dierences typically are assessed with an examination of F statistics from one-way analysis of vari- ance (ANOVA) across the intended groups. In the present study, there was an ANOVA result for each of the three measures across 45 o ces. All F statistics were signicant (p < .05), indicating that the three measures varied appropriately by o ce location. In addition, within-group agreement in the three measures was assessed by exam- ining values for the r wg index developed by James, Demaree, and Wolf (1984). Te r wg index was originally developed as a measure of inter-rater reliability. It is estimated by comparing observed within Table 2 Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlation Coefcients Measures Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 Percentage of professionals .60 .24 Mean position tenure 4.69 3.49 .02 Ofce size 37.09 45.94 .06 .03 Role clarication 3.88 .38 .27* .19 .34* Role clarity 4.50 .28 .01 .09 .24 .49** Work satisfaction 4.88 .40 .06 .18 .31* .61** .70** Turnover rates .11 .09 .09 .12 .06 .33* .49** .32* **p < .01; *p < .05; N = 45. The Importance of Role Clarication in Workgroups: Effects on Perceived Role Clarity, Work Satisfaction, and Turnover Rates 721 Schees post hoc comparisons also revealed that o ces with a high rate of turnover had a signicantly lower level of work satisfaction than o ces with a low rate of turnover. A four-step procedure proposed by method- ologists (Baron and Kenny 1986; Judd and Kenny 1981; MacKinnon, Fairchild, and Fritz 2007) was followed to examine direct and indirect eects of role clarication on work satisfaction and turnover behavior in o ces. 9 Table 4 presents the results of media- tion analyses. Figure 1 provides a graphical representation of the results of hierarchical regression analyses. 10 As indicated in table 4, role clarication was found to be a signicant predictor of perceived role clarity in the o ces ( = .54, p < .01; R 2 = .22, F = 4.45, p < .01). Role clarica- tion also had a positive eect on work satisfaction ( = .59, p < .01; R 2 =
.35, F = 6.90, p < .01). When role clarity was included in the second step of regression analyses, the coe cient for the direct eect of role clarication on work satisfaction became smaller in magni- tude ( = .28, p < .05), which indicated that role clarity partially mediated the eect of role clarication on work satisfaction. Role clarity explained an additional 22 percent of the total variance in work satisfaction (F = 23.45, p < .01). As shown in table 4, role clarication was found to have a signicant negative impact on turnover rates in the o ces ( = .49, p < .01; R 2 = .13, F = 2.74, p < .05). Role clarity had a signicant negative eect on turnover rates in the o ces, as well ( = .39, p < .05). When role clarity was included in the second step of regression analyses, the inuence of role clarication on turnover rates became nonsignicant, which indicated that role clarity fully mediated the inuence of role clari- cation on turnover rates. Role clarity explained an additional 11 per- cent of the total variance in turnover rates in the o ces (F = 6.31, p < .01). Tese results provided support for all ve hypotheses. 11 Discussion Limitations of the Study Before discussing the implications of this study, it is important to note its limitations. Because data for role clarication, role clarity, and work satisfaction were collected from the same source and at MANOVA results supported the anticipated connections between role clarication, role clarity, work satisfaction, and turnover behavior in o ces. Hotellings trace (T = .40, F = 2.66, p < .05) and Wilks lambda (= .70, F = 2.69, p < .05) were both statistically signicant for the combination of the three measures. Tis result led appropriately to an examination of the three univariate F statis- tics, as shown in table 3. All three F statistics were statistically signicant (p < .05). Schees post hoc comparisons suggested that manag- ers in o ces with low and moderate rates of turnover were signicantly more active in clarifying subordinates roles and responsibili- ties than those in o ces with a high rate of turnover. In addition, o ces that experienced a low rate of turnover had signicantly higher levels of role clarity than o ces with a high rate of turnover. Table 4 Results of Hierarchical Regression Analyses Role Clarity Work Satisfaction Turnover Rates Measures t t t Step 1 Percentage of professionals .17 1.24 .10 .81 .22 1.52 Ofce size .08 .69 .13 .98 .18 1.20 Mean position tenure .20 1.49 .06 .48 .21 1.50 Role clarication .54** 3.70 .59** 4.35 .48** 3.08 Adjusted R 2 .22 .35 .13 F-ratio 4.45** 6.90** 2.74* Step 2 Percentage of professionals .01 .06 .15 1.10 Ofce size .07 .70 .24 1.54 Mean position tenure .17 1.68 .14 1.00 Role clarication .28* 2.26 .26 1.59 Role clarity .56** 4.85 .39* 2.51 Adjusted R 2 .57 .23 F-ratio 13.20** 3.72* R 2 .22 .10 F 23.45** 6.31** ** p < .01; *p < .05; N = 45. Turnover Rates Role Clarification Role Clarity Work Satisfaction .39** .56** .54** .28* R 2 = .22 R 2 = .57 R 2 = .23 Figure 1 Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analyses Results **p < .01; *p < .05; N = 45. O ces that experienced a low rate of turnover had signi- cantly higher levels of role clar- ity than o ces with a high rate of turnover. Table 3 Univariate F Tests from MANOVA: Different Rates of Turnover in Ofces Measures Low (n = 15) Moderate (n = 17) High (n = 13) F-ratio Role clarication 3.97 a 3.97 a 3.60 b 3.99* Role clarity 4.64 a 4.51 ab 4.34 b 4.98** Work satisfaction 5.08 a 4.84 ab 4.71 b 3.24* Different subscripts indicate signicant differences in turnover rates at p < .05. **p < .01; *p < .05. 722 Public Administration Review September | October 2013 clarication eorts can attenuate the adverse eects of role ambigu- ity on work satisfaction and turnover behavior in workgroups. Te results also are promising because the ve research hypotheses were tested with data that were collected from multiple sources and in dierent time periods. Te ndings also contribute to the emerging literature on mana- gerial leadership in public organizations. Although managerial leadership is considered important in improving performance of public agencies (Rainey and Steinbauer 1999; Terry 1995; Van Wart 2003), there has been limited research on how specic leader behavior aects organizational outcomes. Recent studies have investigated how transformational leadership practices may lead to positive outcomes in public organizations (Moynihan, Pandey, and Wright 2012; Wright, Moynihan, and Pandey 2012; Vigoda-Gadot and Beeri 2012), but limited research has examined how task- and relations-oriented leader behaviors aect eectiveness of workgroups in public agencies. Te current study, therefore, extends the litera- ture by examining how role clarication inuences work satisfaction and turnover rates in workgroups in a public agency. Much of previous research on employee turnover in public agen- cies focused on intended rather than actual turnover of employees. Te few studies that examined turnover behavior focused primarily on the impact that demographic factors have on turnover rates in federal agencies (Cho and Lewis 2012; Kellough and Osuna 1995; Lewis 1991; Lewis and Park 1989). Te present study indicated that managerial practices may play an important role in reducing turno- ver of public employees. Specically, the results indicated that an increase in role clarication by one standard deviation resulted in a decrease in turnover rates by almost half a standard deviation. Given that the average rate of turnover in the o ces was 11 percent, the size of this eect may appear relatively small. Nevertheless, even a slight reduction in turnover could conceivably mean a large savings in costs because when a skilled employee leaves, an agency not only loses a source of valuable institutional knowledge but also needs to spend resources on training a new employee that otherwise could be used for an important public program (Kim 2005; Moynihan and Landuyt 2008; Moynihan and Pandey 2008). Finally, the results of this study have important implications for public managers practice. Te ndings suggest that reducing role ambiguity is particularly important for increasing satisfaction and retention of employees. Managers can take a number of steps to reduce role ambiguity in their workgroups. Specically, managers can reduce role ambiguity in workgroups by setting specic task objectives, communicating clearly about performance expecta- tions, and providing clear direction about how to accomplish work activities. Keeping subordinates informed about changes in the organizational environment that may have an impact on their work and providing them with periodic feedback about their perform- ance are also likely to improve role clarity in workgroups. While setting task objec- tives and providing directions and feedback are important for improving role clarity in workgroups, it is also important for managers to recognize that subordinates may vary in the same time, causal connections between these three variables could not be ascertained in this study. Relationships between these variables may involve reciprocal causality over time rather than uni- directional causality. Future research should examine causal relation- ships between these variables with an experimental design and use of longitudinal data. Te possibility that common source bias inuenced the research ndings could not be fully ruled out, even though data for employee turnover were collected from personnel records in the agency. But steps were introduced in the design of this study to reduce the potential of common method bias in the results. For example, ano- nymity of response was assured repeatedly in all correspondence and evidenced in every aspect of data collection. Te particular items used in the present study were interspersed widely over seven pages and nine distinct sections in the questionnaire. Tese items also were almost evenly split in the directionality of their wording and varied response formats were used. Because these steps were taken, problems of common method bias were attenuated, if not fully eliminated. Te CFA results also provided some assurance that such problems did not materially aect the results. While o ce size, mean job tenure, and percentage of professional employees were included as control variables in the regression analy- ses, none of these variables had any inuence on work satisfaction and turnover rates in the o ces. Research indicates that a variety of individual, job, and organization related factors including employee satisfaction with pay, training, career advancement opportunity, job characteristics, quality of manageremployee relationships, workgroup cohesion and diversity, as well as labor market condi- tions may inuence employee satisfaction and turnover behavior (Grieth, Hom, and Gaertner 2000; Grissom 2012; Jung 2011; Selden and Moynihan 2000; Shaw et al. 1998). However, these variables were not included in the analyses because of unavailability of data. Tis particular limitation suggests that the indirect eects of role clarication on work satisfaction and turnover behavior that were found in this study should be interpreted with caution and viewed as not fully conclusive. A fuller understanding of how role clarication aects employee satisfaction and retention requires additional empirical tests of the hypothesized indirect relationships with a larger number of workgroups from a broader range of public organizations. Further, given that the sample included 45 o ces from a public agency, the regression analyses provided a conserva- tive test of the hypothesized relationships and the results may have limited generalizability. Implications for Research and Practice Despite the limitations, the ndings can be considered noteworthy in several ways. Te results provided new insight about how role clarication may lead to benecial outcomes in workgroups. Specically, the results indicated that clarifying work objectives and performance expectations improved overall role clarity perceived in the o ces, which, in turn, enhanced work satisfaction and reduced turnover rates in those o ces. Tese ndings are noteworthy, as no previous study in public management has investigated whether role Specically, the results indicated that clarifying work objectives and performance expectations improved overall role clarity perceived in the o ces, which, in turn, enhanced work satisfac- tion and reduced turnover rates in those o ces. The Importance of Role Clarication in Workgroups: Effects on Perceived Role Clarity, Work Satisfaction, and Turnover Rates 723 behavior in the o ces, but the results indicated no evidence in support of an interaction eect. References Abramis, David J. 1994. Work Role Ambiguity, Job Satisfaction, and Job Performance: Meta-Analyses and Review. Psychological Reports 74(3): 141133. Allison, Graham T. 1983. Public and Private Management: Are Tey Fundamentally Alike in All Unimportant Respects? In Public Management: Public and Private Perspectives, edited by James L. Perry and Kenneth L. Kraemer, 7292. Palo Alto, CA: Mayeld. Ajzen, Icek. 2005. Attitudes, Personality, and Behavior. 2nd ed. Milton Keynes, UK: Open University Press. Bandura, Albert. 1997. Self-E cacy: Te Exercise of Control. New York: W. H. Freeman. Baron, Reuben M., and David A. Kenny. 1986. Te Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51(6): 117382. Bray, Steven R., and Lawrence R. Brawley. 2002. Role E cacy, Role Clarity, and Role Performance Eectiveness. Small Group Research 33(2): 23353. Cho, Yoon Jik, and Gregory B. Lewis. 2012. Turnover Intention and Turnover Behavior: Implications for Retaining Federal Employees. Review of Public Personnel Administration 32(1): 423. Chun, Young H., and Hal G. Rainey. 2005. Goal Ambiguity and Organizational Performance in U.S. Federal Agencies. Journal of Public Administration Research and Teory 15(4): 52957. Cohen, Ayala, Etti Doveh, and Uri Eick. 2001. Statistical Properties of the r wg Index of Agreement. Psychological Methods 6(3): 297310. Dahl, Robert A., and Charles E. Lindblom. 1953. Politics, Economics, and Welfare: Planning and Politico-Economic Systems Resolved into Basic Social Processes. New York: Harper & Bros. Erera, Irit P. 1989. Role Ambiguity in Public Welfare Organizations. Administration in Social Work 13(2): 6783. Fernandez, Sergio, Yoon J. Cho, and James L. Perry. 2010. Exploring the Link between Integrated Leadership and Public Sector Performance. Leadership Quarterly 21(2): 30823. Fisher, Bruce M., and Jack E. Edwards. 1988. Consideration and Initiating Structure and Teir Relationships with Leader Eectiveness: A Meta-Analysis. Academy of Management Best Papers Proceedings, August, 2015. Fisher, Cynthia D., and Richard Gitelson. 1983. A Meta-Analysis of the Correlates of Role Conict and Ambiguity. Journal of Applied Psychology 68(2): 32033. Fleishman, Edwin A. 1953. Te Description of Supervisory Behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology 37(1): 16. Fleishman, Edwin A., and Edwin F. Harris. 1962. Patterns of Leadership Behavior Related to Employee Grievances and Turnover. Personnel Psychology 15(1): 4356. Ganster, Daniel C., and John Schaubroeck. 1991. Work Stress and Employee Health. Journal of Management 17(2): 23571. Graen, George B. 1976. Role-Making Processes within Complex Organizations. In Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, edited by Marvin D. Dunnette, 120145, Chicago: Rand-McNally. Grieth, Rodger W., Peter W. Hom, and Stefan Gaertner. 2000. A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents and Correlates of Employee Turnover: Update, Moderator Tests, and Research Implications for the Next Millennium. Journal of Management 26(3): 46388. Grissom, Jason A. 2012. Revisiting the Impact of Participative Decision Making on Public Employee Retention: Te Moderating Inuence of Eective Managers. American Review of Public Administration 42(4): 400418. Hassan, Shahidul, and John Rohrbaugh. 2011. Te Role of Psychological Climate on Public Sector Employees Organizational Commitment: An Empirical their need for role clarication. Experienced employees are likely to feel less uncertain about their work goals and thus may need only general directions, whereas new or inexperienced employees may require more elaborate and specic instructions in carrying out their work activities. Terefore, it is important that public managers adapt their role clarication eorts to the needs of each subordinate. Acknowledgments Te author would like to thank John Rohrbaugh (State University of New York, Albany), Anand Desai (Te Ohio State University), and the three anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and suggestions on this article. Notes 1. Relevant peers and subordinates can also be members of an employees role set (see Graen 1976 for more information about role-making processes in organizations). 2. Role senders are members of a focal employees role set, which may include his or her manager, subordinates, and relevant peers (Katz and Kahn 1978). 3. Te other key behavior dimension in the Ohio State leadership studies was consideration. 4. Role clarication is a key component of initiating structure in the Ohio State leadership studies (Fleishman 1953; Fleishman and Harris 1962; Stogdill, Goode, and Day 1962). 5. A test of Harmans single factor also was done to check for the presence of com- mon method bias in the data. Tree factors emerged from the analysis, which accounted for 68 percent of the total item variance. Te largest factor did not account for a majority of the variance (44 percent), which suggested that same source bias did not adversely aect the data. 6. Te research team collected o ce- rather than individual-level turnover records because the survey did not have any code/identier (to protect the anonymity of the respondents). Specically, it was not possible to link survey responses with individual turnover records. 7. Te r wg index is calculated using the following formula: r wg = J * [1 (s avg 2 / 2 )]/ [J * [1 (s avg 2 / 2 )] + s avg 2 / 2 ], where s avg 2 is the average of the observed variances on the J items and 2 is the variance of a null distribution corresponding to some null response pattern. 8. O ces with turnover rates below one-half of one standard deviation from the mean were categorized as low, above one-half of one standard deviation from the mean were categorized as high, and within one-half of one standard deviation from the mean were categorized as moderate. 9. Kenny and colleagues (Baron and Kenny 1986; Judd and Kenny 1981) suggested that to establish mediation, rst, the independent variable (IV) must have a signicant direct eect on the dependent variable (DV). Second, the IV should also have a signicant direct eect on the mediator variable (MV). Tird, the MV must be signicantly related to the DV when both the IV and MV are predic- tors of the DV. Fourth, the coe cient relating the IV to the DV in the regression model in which both the IV and MV are predictors should become nonsigni- cant (i.e., full mediation) or become smaller in magnitude (i.e., partial mediation) than the initial regression coe cient estimated in step one. Recently, MacKinnon, Fairchild, and Fritz (2007) suggested that the rst step identied by Kenny and colleagues (Baron and Kenny 1986; Judd and Kenny 1981) is not always neces- sary to establish mediation, especially when the goal is to examine indirect eects. 10. Because of the small sample size, the regression analyses did not control for the eects of 11 divisions in which the 45 o ces were located. 11. Supplemental analysis also was conducted to assess whether role clarication moderated the eects of role clarication on work satisfaction and turnover 724 Public Administration Review September | October 2013 Kim, Soonhee, and Bradley E. Wright. 2007. Information Technology Employee Work Exhaustion: Toward an Integrated Model of Antecedents and Consequences. Review of Public Personnel Administration 27(2): 14770. Lewis, Gregory B. 1991. Turnover and the Quiet Crisis in the Federal Civil Service. Public Administration Review 51(2): 14555. Lewis, Gregory B., and Kyungho Park. 1989. Turnover Rates in Federal White-Collar Employment: Are Women More Likely to Quit than Men? American Review of Public Administration 19(1): 1328. Locke, Edwin A., and Gary P. Latham. 1990. A Teory of Goal Setting and Task Performance. Englewood Clis, NJ: Prentice Hall. Lowi, Teodore J. 1979. Te End of Liberalism: Te Second Republic of the United States. New York: W. W. Norton. Lyons, Tomas F. 1971. Role Clarity, Need for Clarity, Satisfaction, Tension, and Withdrawal. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 6: 99110. MacKinnon, David P., Amanda J. Fairchild, and Matthew S. Fritz. 2007. Mediation Analysis. Annual Review of Psychology 58: 593614. Morris, James H., Richard M. Steers, and James L. Koch. 1979. Inuence of Organization Structure on Role Conict and Role Ambiguity for Tree Occupational Groupings. Academy of Management Journal 22(1): 5871. Moynihan, Donald P., and Noel Landuyt. 2008. Explaining Turnover Intention in State Government: Examining the Roles of Gender, Life Cycle, and Loyalty. Review of Public Personnel Administration 28(2): 12043. Moynihan, Donald P., and Sanjay K. Pandey. 2008. Te Ties Tat Bind: Social Networks, PersonOrganization Value Fit, and Turnover Intention. Journal of Public Administration Research and Teory 18(2): 20527. Moynihan, Donald P., Sanjay K. Pandey, and Bradley E. Wright. 2012. Setting the Table: How Transformational Leadership Fosters Performance Information Use. Journal of Public Administration Research and Teory 22(1): 14364. Naylor, James C., Robert D. Pritchard, and Daniel R. Ilgen. 1980. A Teory of Behavior in Organizations. New York: Academic Press. Nicholson, Peter J., and Sewe C. Goh. 1983. Te Relationship of Organization Structure and Interpersonal Attitudes to Role Conict and Ambiguity in Dierent Work Environments. Academy of Management Journal 26(1): 14855. Pandey, Sanjay K., and Bradley E. Wright. 2006. Connecting the Dots in Public Management: Political Environment, Organizational Goal Ambiguity, and the Public Managers Role Ambiguity. Journal of Public Administration Research and Teory 16(4): 51132. Perry, James L., and Hal G. Rainey. 1988. Te PublicPrivate Distinction in Organizational Teory: A Critique and Research Strategy. Academy of Management Review 13(2): 182201. Podsako, Philip M., Scott B. MacKenzie, Michael Ahearne, and William H. Bommer. 1995. Searching for a Needle in a Haystack: Trying to Identify Illusive Moderators of Leadership Behaviors. Journal of Management 21(3): 42370. Pugh, S. Douglas, and Joerg Dietz. 2008. Employee Engagement at the Organizational Level of Analysis. Industrial and Organizational Psychology 1(1): 4548. Quick, James C. 1979. Dyadic Goal Setting and Role Stress: A Field Study. Academy of Management Journal 22(2): 24152. Rainey, Hal G. 1993. A Teory of Goal Ambiguity in Public Organizations. In Research in Public Administration, edited by James L. Perry, 12166. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Rainey, Hal G., and Paul Steinbauer. 1999. Galloping Elephants: Developing Elements of a Teory of Eective Government Organizations. Journal of Public Administration Research and Teory 9(1): 132. Ring, Peter Smith, and James L. Perry. 1985. Strategic Management in Public and Private Organizations: Implications of Distinctive Contexts and Constraints. Academy of Management Review 10(2): 27686. Rizzo, John, Robert J. House, and Sidney I. Lirtzman. 1970. Role Conict and Ambiguity in Complex Organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly 15(2): 15063. Assessment of Tree Occupational Groups. International Public Management Journal 14(1): 2762. . 2012. Variability in the Organizational Climate of Government O ces and Aective Organizational Commitment. Public Management Review 14(5): 56384. Homan, David A. 2002. Issues in Multilevel Research: Teory Development, Measurement, and Analysis. In Handbook of Research Methods in Industrial and Organizational Psychology, edited by Steven G. Rogelberg, 467511. Malden, MA: Blackwell. House, Robert J. 1971. A Path-Goal Teory of Leader Eectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly 16(3): 32138. . 1996. Path-Goal Teory of Leadership: Lessons, Legacy and a Reformulated Teory. Leadership Quarterly 7(3): 32352. House, Robert J., and Terence R. Mitchell. 1974. Path-Goal Teory of Leadership. Journal of Contemporary Business 3(4): 197. House, Robert J., and John R. Rizzo. 1972. Role Conict and Ambiguity as Critical Variables in a Model of Organizational Behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 7(3): 467505. Hu, Li-tze, and Peter M. Bentler. 1995. Evaluating Model Fit. In Structural Equation Modeling: Concepts, Issues, and Applications, edited by Richard H. Hoyle, 7699. London: Sage Publications. Jackson, Susan E., and Randall S. Schuler. 1985. A Meta-Analysis and Conceptual Critique of Research on Role Ambiguity and Role Conict in Work Settings. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 36(1): 1678. James, Lawrence R., Robert G. Demaree, and Gerrit Wolf. 1984. Estimating Within- Group Interrater Reliability With and Without Response Bias. Journal of Applied Psychology 69(1): 8598. Janz, Brian D., Jason A. Colquitt, and Raymond A. Noe. 1997. Knowledge Worker Team Eectiveness: Te Role of Autonomy, Interdependence, Team Development, and Contextual Support Variables. Personnel Psychology 50(4): 877904. Jimmieson, Nerina L., Deborah J. Terry, and Victor J. Callan. 2004. A Longitudinal Study of Employee Adaptation to Organizational Change: Te Role of Change- Related Information and Change-Related Self-E cacy. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 9(1): 1127. Judd, Charles M., and David A. Kenny. 1981. Process Analysis: Estimating Mediation in Treatment Analysis. Evaluation Review 5(5): 60219. Judge, Timothy A., Ronald F. Piccolo, and Remus Ilies. 2004. Te Forgotten Ones? Te Validity of Consideration and Initiating Structure in Leadership Research. Journal of Applied Psychology 89(1): 3651. Jung, Chan S. 2011. Predicting Organizational Actual Turnover Rates in U.S. Federal Government. International Public Management Journal 13(3): 297317. . 2012. Why Are Goals Important in the Public Sector? Exploring the Benets of Goal Clarity for Reducing Turnover Intention. Journal of Public Administration Research and Teory. Published electronically on December 10. doi:10.1093/jopart/mus058. Kahn, Robert L., Donald M. Wolfe, Robert P. Quinn, J. Diedrick Snoek, and Robert A. Rosenthal. 1964. Organizational Stress: Studies in Role Conict and Ambiguity. New York: Wiley. Katz, Daniel, and Robert L. Kahn. 1978. Te Social Psychology of Organizations. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley. Kellough, J. Edward, and Will Osuna. 1995. Cross-Agency Comparisons of Quit Rates in the Federal Service: Another Look at the Evidence. Review of Public Personnel Administration 15(4): 5868. Kim, Helen, and Gary Yukl. 1995. Relationships of Managerial Eectiveness and Advancement to Self-Reported and Subordinate-Reported Leadership Behaviors from the Multiple-Linkage Mode. Leadership Quarterly 6(3): 36177. Kim, Soonhee. 2005. Factors Aecting State Government Information Technology Employee Turnover Intentions. American Review of Public Administration 35(2): 13756. The Role of Role Clarity Remains Unclear 725 Rubin, Ellen V., and J. Edward Kellough. 2012. Does Civil Service Reform Aect Behavior? Linking Alternative Personnel Systems, Perceptions of Procedural Justice, and Complaints. Journal of Public Administration Research and Teory 22(1): 12141. Savelsbergh, Chantal, Josette M. P. Gevers, Beatrice I. J. M. van der Heijden, and Rob F. Poell. 2012. Team Role Stress: Relationships with Team Learning and Performance in Project Teams. Group and Organization Management, 37(1): 67100. Schaubroeck, John, Daniel Ganster, Wesley E. Sime, and David Ditman. 1993. A Field Experiment Testing Supervisor Role Clarication. Personnel Psychology 46(1): 125. Selden, Sally Coleman, and Donald P. Moynihan. 2000. A Model of Voluntary Turnover in State Government. Review of Public Personnel Administration 20(2): 6374. Shaw, Jason, John Delery, Douglas Jenkins, and Nina Gupta. 1998. An Organization-Level Analysis of Voluntary and Involuntary Turnover. Academy of Management Journal 41(5): 51125. Shim, Dong Chul, and John Rohrbaugh. Forthcoming. An Explanation of Dierences between Government O ces in Employees Organizational Citizenship Behavior. Public Management Review. Steers, Richard M. 1975. Task-Goal Attributes, n Achievement, and Supervisory Performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 13(3): 392403. . 1976. Factors Aecting Job Attitudes in a Goal-Setting Environment. Academy of Management Journal 19(1): 619. Stogdill, Ralph M., Omar S. Goode, and David R. Day. 1962. New Leader Behavior Description Subscales. Journal of Psychology 54(2): 25969. Terry, Larry D. 1995. Leadership of Public Bureaucracies: Te Administrator as Conservator. Tousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Tubre, Travis C., and Judith M. Collins. 2000. Jackson and Schuler (1985) Revisited: A Meta-Analysis of the Relationships between Role Ambiguity, Role Conict, and Job Performance. Journal of Management 26(1): 15569. Van Wart, Montgomery. 2003. Public-Sector Leadership Teory: An Assessment. Public Administration Review 63(2): 21328. Vigoda-Gadot, Eran, and Ira Beeri. 2012. Change-Oriented Organizational Citizenship Behavior in Public Administration: Te Power of Leadership and the Cost of Organizational Politics. Journal of Public Administration Research and Teory 22(3): 57396. Wamsley, Gary A., and Mayer N. Zald. 1973. Te Political Economy of Public Organizations: A Critique and Approach to the Study of Public Administration. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. Wildavsky, Aaron. 1979. Speaking Truth to Power: Te Art and Craft of Policy Analysis. Boston: Little, Brown. Wilson, James Q. 1989. Bureaucracy: What Government Agencies Do and Why Tey Do It. New York: Basic Books. Woord, J. C., and Laurie Z. Liska. 1993. Path-Goal Teories of Leadership: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Management 19(4): 85776. Wright, Bradley E. 2004. Te Role of Work Context in Work Motivation: A Public Sector Application of Goal and Social Cognitive Teories. Journal of Public Administration Research and Teory 14(1): 5978. Wright, Bradley E., and Brian S. Davis. 2003. Job Satisfaction in the Public Sector: Te Role of the Work Environment. American Review of Public Administration 33(1): 7090. Wright, Bradley E., and Soonhee Kim. 2004. Participations Inuence on Job Satisfaction: Te Importance of Job Characteristics. Review of Public Personnel Administration 24(1): 1840. Wright, Bradley E., Donald P. Moynihan, and Sanjay K. Pandey. 2012. Pulling the Levers: Transformational Leadership, Public Service Motivation, and Mission Valence. Public Administration Review 72(2): 20615. Yukl, Gary. 2010. Leadership in Organizations. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Yukl, Gary, Angela Gordon, and Tom Taber. 2002. A Hierarchical Taxonomy of Leadership Behavior: Integrating Half a Century of Leadership Research. Journal of Leadership and Organization Studies 9(1): 1532. Yukl, Gary, and David Van Fleet. 1982. Cross-Situational, Multi-Method Research on Military Leader Eectiveness. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 30(1): 87108.