Thermal Analysis

Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram for the thermal analysis within structural fire engineering design.
Figure 1 Schematic diagram for heat transfer
Model
Design charts / Test
data
Simple formulae Advanced models
Complexity Simple Intermediate Advanced
Heat Transfer
Modes
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Conduction
Analysis aility
-Test results
-Standard fire
conditions
-mpirical solutions
-Standard fire conditions
-Accurate solutions
-Any fire conditions
Memer types
!ependent on availa"le
test data
#ainly steel mem"ers Any material $ construction methods
!nput
parameters
-Construction type
-#em"er geometry
-%eat flu& or fire curves
-'oundary conditions
-#em"er geometry
-#aterial thermal properties
Solutions
-Cross-sectional
temperature charts
-Ta"ulated thermal data
Simple cross-sectional
temperature profile
(ne to three-dimensional time $
space dependent temperature profile
Design tools
-Fire part of urocodes
-Test)Research reports
-Fire part of urocodes
-!esign guides
Finite element pac*age
!esign charts)ta"les Spreadsheet Computer models
Heat Transfer
%eat transfer is the science to evaluate the energy transfer that ta*es place "etween material "odies as a
result of temperature difference. The three modes of heat transfer are conduction+ convection and
radiation. The thermal analysis on structural fire pro"lems can "e divided into two parts,
The heat transfer "y convection and radiation across the "oundary from the fire into structural
mem"ers-
The heat transfer "y conduction within structural mem"ers.
Test Data
The thermal analysis in structural mem"ers can "e e&tremely comple&+ especially for materials that retain
moisture and have a low thermal conductivity. The simplest method of defining the temperature profile
through the cross-section is to use test data presented in ta"les or charts which are pu"lished in codes or
design guides. These test data are generally "ased on standard fire conditions.
Design Formulae
Simple design e.uations are presented in codes and design guides to predict the temperature
development of "are steel. The approach considers "oth radiative and convective heat transfer and+
although a spreadsheet is re.uired to solve the e.uation over the fire duration+ it is simple to use. Similar
e.uations e&ist for protected steel sections+ however the thermal properties of the proposed protection
material are needed+ which can "e difficult to o"tain.
Computer Models
It is possi"le to use simple heat transfer models "ased on one-dimensional heat flow. %owever+ simple
computer programs are needed to solve the heat transfer e.uations. Alternatively+ advance finite-element
heat transfer models can "e used+ "ut this re.uires the relevant e&pertise to ensure the models are
applied correctly and used within their limitations.
Heat Transfer
The thermal analysis can "e divided into two parts,
The heat transfer "y convection and radiation across the "oundary from the fire into the
structural mem"ers-
The heat transfer "y conduction within the structural mem"ers.
In the following+ some guidelines on heat transfer given in codes and design guides will "e "riefly
discussed.
Heat Transfer across "oundary
The surface of a structural mem"er e&posed to a fire is su"/ect to heat transfer "y convection and
radiation. 0enerally+ the radiation is more dominant than the convection after the very early stages of the
fire. The thermal actions can "e represented "y the net heat flu& to the surface of the mem"er.
(n the fire e&posed surfaces+ the net heat flu&
net
h

12)m
3
4 considering heat transfer "y convection and
radiation can "e determined "y,
r net c net net
h h h
+ +

+ = 516
where
c net
h
+

is the net convective heat flu& component as given in ..536 -

r net
h
+

is the net radiative heat flu& component as given in ..576 .

For non-fire e&posed 5une&posed6 surfaces of mem"ers su"/ected to partial heating conditions+ such as
the une&posed side of walls and sla"s+ heat will transfer from the mem"er to the "oundary as the
mem"er will have a higher temperature. The heat transfer analysis according to ..516 can "e applied+
considering different "oundary conditions. The following modifications in the heat transfer can "e
considered 58ur*iss 199:6,
For a surface e&posed to am"ient conditions+ the gas temperature is ta*en to "e e.ual to am"ient
temperature with "oth radiation and convection heat transfer considered.
Alternatively+ for a surface e&posed to am"ient conditions+ a fi&ed temperature e.ual to am"ient
temperature can "e imposed on the "oundary nodes of the surface.
For a surface with insulation+ the "oundary can "e treated as a no heat-flow condition.
It is worth noting that the heat transfer to the "oundary has an important effect on the thermal response
of the region within the mem"ers close to the une&posed surface. The effect is smaller in the region close
to the fire e&posed surface.
Convection
The net heat flu&
c net
h
+

12)m
3
4 due to convection is given "y,
( )
m g c c net
h =
+

536
where
c
is the coefficient of heat transfer "y convection as given in Ta"le 1 12)m
3
;4-
g

is the gas temperature in the vicinity of the fire e&posed mem"er 1<C4-
m
is the surface temperature of the mem"er 1<C4.
Tale 1 Convection coefficients c according to #$1%%1&1&' ('))'*
Fire model or e&posed condition =c12)m
3
;4
Standard fires 3>
&ternal fires 3>
%ydrocar"on fires >?
8arametric fires 7>
@ne&posed side of separating mem"ers
-withough radiation A
-with radiation 9
+adiation
The e&act formula for the heat flu& due to radiation is complicated+ in which the parameters involved
depend on the type of surface+ the type of flame and the temperature. For simplicity+ B1991-1-3 53??36
provides an appro&imation of the net heat flu& 12)m
3
4 due to radiation as follows,
( ) ( ) ( )
4 4
273 273 + + =
m r f m r net
h
+

576
where
f
is the emissivity of the fire 5C1.?6-
m
is the surface emissivity of the mem"er 5see Ta"le 36-
is the configuration factor 5D 1.?6-
r
is the effective radiation temperature of the fire environment 1<C4-
is the Stephan 'oltEmann constant 5C>.:F G 1?
-H
2)m
3
;
A
6.
Tale ' #missivity of materials according to #urocodes
#aterial missivity Im Reference
Car"on steel ?.F B1997-1-3
Stainless steel ?.A B1997-1-3
Concrete ?.F B1993-1-3
(thers ?.H B1991-1-3
The configuration factor J ta*es into account of varying radiative heat flu& levels on the fire e&posed
surface of the mem"ers depending on the position and shallow effects. Anne& 0 5informative6 of B1991-
1-3 gives the method for calculating the value of + which will "e discussed in the ne&t section.
Conservatively+ can "e ta*en as 1.?.
Configuration Factor
Anne& 0 5informative6 of B1991-1-3 53??36 provides the simple method for calculating the configuration
factor J for the determination of the thermal actions for e&ternal mem"ers.
The configuration factor J measures the fraction of the total radiative heat leaving a radiating surface
that arrives at a receiving surface+ depending on the siEe of the radiating surface and the distance and
the orientation "etween the two surfaces 5see Figure '6.
Figure ' +adiative heat transfer et,een t,o infinitesimal surfaces (#$1%%1&1&'*
'asically+ the value J of for a mem"er surface e&posed to a fire depends on two effects,
8osition effect K the position and the siEe of the fire
Shadow effect K the radiation from other parts of the mem"er
The radiative heat transfer to a conve& mem"er surface is determined "y the position effect+ whereas the
transfer to a concave surface is determined "y "oth the position and shadow effects.
The assumptions made in the calculation of J for an e&ternal mem"er include,
All radiating surfaces are ta*en as rectangles in shape+ including windows and other openings in
fire compartment walls and the e.uivalent rectangular surfaces of flames.
The value of J is determined for the mid-point 8 of each face of a rectangular envelope drawn
around the cross-section of the mem"er receiving the radiative heat transfer+ as shown in
Figure 7. This accounts for the shadow effect in an appro&imate way.
Figure - #nvelope according to #$1%%1&1&'
The calculation procedure J of is e&plained in the following steps,
1. Choose a point 8 on the mem"er.
3. Locate the point M on the radiating surface "y drawing a horiEontal line perpendicular to
the receiving surface from 8 to the plane containing the radiating surface. The distance s from 8
to M is the shortest distance from 8 to the receiving surface.
7. !ivide the receiving surface into different Eones "y drawing a horiEontal and a vertical line
through M. Bormally+ it contains four Eones if the whole radiating surface is visi"le from 8 as
shown in Figure A5a6. It will only contain two Eones if the radiating surface is only partially visi"le
as shown in Figure A5"6.
A. The J of the receiving surface is the sum of the contri"utions from each visi"le Eone on
the radiating surface.
>. If M lies outside the radiating surface+ the effective J is determined "y adding the
contri"utions of the two e&tending rectangular Eones from M to the farther side of the radiating
surface+ then su"tracting the contri"utions of the two rectangular Eones e&tending from M to the
nearer side of the radiating surface.
Figure . Calculation of the configuration factor / according to #$1%%1&1&'
Heat Transfer ,ithin Memers
In the modern physics+ the heat transfer "y conduction in solids is governed "y the FourierNs e.uation of
heat transfer. FourierNs e.uation states that the .uantity of heat transferred per unit time across an area
A is proportional to the temperature gradient OT)O& as follows,
x
T
A k q

= 5A6
where
A is the area across which heat is transferred 1m
3
4-
K is the thermal conductivity of the material 12)m ;4-
Q is the heat transfer rate across the area A 124-
T is the temperature 1;4-
x is the distance normal to the area A 1m4.
In the conduction heat transfer of solids made of construction materials+ such as steel+ concrete and
masonry+ the solids are generally assumed to "e isotropic. Conse.uently+ for a small rectangular "loc* in
a Cartesian coordinate system 5x, y and z6+ the three-dimensional heat conduction e.uation is given "y,
t
T
c Q
z
T
k
z y
T
k
y x
T
k
x

= +

5>6
where
is the density of the material 1*g)m
7
4-
c is the specific heat of the material 1P)*g ;4-
k is the thermal conductivity of the material 12)m ;4-
Q is the internal energy generated within the element 12)m
7
4-
T is the temperature 1;4-
t is the time 1sec4.
..536 can "e rewritten in the following form,
t
T
k
Q
z
T
y
T
x
T

= +

1
2
2
2
2
2
2
5:6
where
c k =
is called the thermal diffusivity of the material 1m
3
)sec4. The larger the value of + the
faster heat will diffuse through the material.
To solve the heat conduction e.uation of a structural mem"er+ initial and "oundary conditions must "e
provided+ including,
The initial temperature of the mem"er.
The temperature or heat flu& at the surface of the mem"er for all times.
In steady-state condition where the thermal environment of the mem"er is constant+ it is possi"le to
esta"lish simple analytical solutions "y using finite difference techni.ue for one and two-dimensional heat
transfer of conduction+ if the material properties are assumed to "e independent of temperature.
%owever+ in transient-state condition where the thermal environment is not constant+ the solutions can
only "e carried out "y using either finite element or finite difference techni.ue
Heat Transfer & Advanced Models0 Computer 1ac2ages
The advanced models for heat transfer pro"lems are generally referring to computer models. In structural
fire engineering pro"lems+ most of the time+ the heat transfer is in transient-state condition+ coupled with
time-dependent "oundary conditions and temperature-dependent material properties. Conse.uently+
most advanced models can only "e developed "ased on finite element techni.ues. The heat transfer
analysis can "e performed "y a two-dimensional 53!6 or three-dimensional 57!6 models.
The general aspects for the modeling of heat transfer analysis include,
Meshing The shape and dimensions of the structural model are modeled "y a finite element mesh
of general flow continuum elements+ in form of triangles+ .uadrilaterals+ wedges+ or
"ric*s.
The "oundary elements or interface elements can "e line shaped elements for a 3!
model+ and triangular or .uadrilateral elements for a 7! model.
"oundary
Conditions
%eat sources can "e represented "y either temperature-time functions or heat flu& in
"oundary elements.
Convection and)or radiation at "oundaries of the structural model can "e modeled "y the
heat transfer coefficient of "oundary elements.
Material
1roperties
The material can "e isotropic+ orthotropic or anisotropic.
The material thermal properties of conductivity+ specific heat and emissivity can "e
temperature-dependent.
Special
Features
%ydration heat+ moisture evaporation and movement+ change in contact conditions may
"e modeled.
The heat transfer analysis of structural fire engineering pro"lems can normally "e performed "y the
commercial computer pac*ages for general finite element modeling+ including,
A'AQ@S
R

ABSSS
R

#SC.#arc
R

TB( !IABA
R

The special purpose computer programs for structural fire engineering analyses include,
FIRS-T7 from Bational Institute of Standards and Technology+ @SA 5Iding+ 'resler $ BiEamuddin
199:6
SAFIR from the @niversity of LiTge+ 'elgium 5Franssen+ ;odur $ #ason 3???6
TASF-3 from Lund Institute of Technology+ Sweden 52ic*strUm 19F96