Food poisoning is caused by micro- organisms or the toxins
produced by the organisms. The symptoms of food poisoning can last for days and include abdominal pains, diarrhoea, vomiting, nausea and fever. The symptoms usually come on suddenly, but can occur several days after eating contaminated food. Typical sources o contamination !means o spread"# 1. Humans as a result of poor hygiene 2. Air 3. Soil 4. Animal feed . !odents, insects or birds ". #tensils Organisms that cause ood poisoning# 1. $lostridium %otulinium !$l.botulinium"# This organism produces heat resistant to$ins. %$amples of food& Home canned foods li'e vegetables, meat and fruits. 2. Salmonella# These organisms cause food poisoning and can even cause typhoid. (ood poisoning is caused by infecting the gut of the victim and multiplying inside the person. %$amples of food& chic'en, eggs 3. &isteria# This group gro) *uic'ly in foods stored at a temperature of around 4+,. %$amples of food& ,oo' - chill foods, pates and certain soft cheeses. 4. ' ( $oli# This organism usually lives in the gut of humans and other animals. .t is resistant to acid, heat and antibiotics. %$amples of food& /eef, burgers, fruit 0uices, s'ins of carrots and dairy product )I$*O%IO&OGI$+& $ONSID'*+TION The main groups of micro organisms are& /acteria& They cause food spoilage and can cause food poisoning. 1oulds& These have spores 2oating in the air, they cause food spoilage and some produce to$ins )hich cause disease. 3easts& These cause food spoilage especially those foods that are high in sugar or salt. %+$T'*I+& G*O,T- Mrs Onajobi/2007 1 1. &ag phase# 4ro)th is slo) at 5rst as organism becomes established in the food. 2. &og phase# At this stage there is rapid gro)th 6multiplication7. Sometimes there might be no obvious change in the appearance of the food ho)ever there )ill be obvious odours. 3. Stationary phase# .n this stage nutrients have been used up so the number of bacteria dying is the same as the number being produced. 4. Death phase# .n this phase the number dying is greater than the number produced. F+$TO*S T-+T INF&.'N$' T-' G*O,T- OF )I$*O- O*G+NIS)S P- conditions# 8i9erent organisms gro) at di9erent :H conditions e.g. moulds gro) under very acidic conditions )hile some other organisms prefer near neutral :H condition. )oisture# 8i9erent levels of moisture are re*uired depending on the type of microbe. %$amples& 1. /acteria - 1ost re*uire high moisture 2. 1oulds - Some can multiply under lo) moisture 3. 3easts - 1ultiply rapidly on high sugar or salt product. Temperature& /acteria multiply at di9erent temperature. 1. :sychrophiles& They are cold loving organisms. They gro) rapidly at refrigeration temperature 6;+, - 1;+,7. 2. 1esophiles& These are organisms that li'e moderate temperature. They gro) rapidly at 2;+, - 4;+,. 3. Thermophiles& They are organisms that li'e high temperature. They multiply rapidly bet)een ;+, - <;+, +ir !Oxygen"# The amount of o$ygen available a9ects the gro)th of micro organisms. 1oulds are aerobic 6re*uire o$ygen7 )hile yeasts are either aerobic or anaerobic depending on the condition. /ased on their o$ygen re*uirement bacteria can be classi5ed into& 1. =bligate aerobes& =nly gro)s if there is plenty supply of o$ygen. 2. (acultative aerobes& 4ro)s best )ith plenty of o$ygen but can also gro) anaerobically. 3. =bligate anaerobes& =nly gro)s if there is no o$ygen present. 4. (acultative anaerobes& 4ro)s best in the absence of o$ygen but they can also gro) aerobically. Mrs Onajobi/2007 2 ST+G'S IN FOOD )+N.F+$T.*' The processes involved in manufacturing food products are 'no)n as /unit operations/. There are di9erent stages in the commercial manufacture of food products. These include& 1. $leaning This is the separation of food from any contamination e.g. stones, leaves, t)igs and animal parts. ,ontamination can occur )hen using mechanised pic'ed machines or combined>harvesters. There is also a possibility of a machine loosing nuts and bolts or even dropping grease or oil on the food. The use of insecticides, herbicides or fertili?ers can sometimes lead to chemical contamination. ,leaning can be done )ith or )ithout )ater. ,leaning )ithout )ater is cheap but sometimes a dusty process. (or )et cleaning the )ater used has to be free from contamination.
Dry cleaning A7 ,ontinuous drum screen& ,ontaminated products go through a continuous drum )ith screens all over the drum. The contaminants fall out. /7 Aspiration or )inno)ing& Air is blasted up)ards on the contaminated products. The process depends on a di9erence in buoyancy in air bet)een the product and contaminants. ,7 1agnetic separation& :roducts are passed over magnetised drums or magnetised conveyor belts. :o)erful magnets can also be located above conveyors. 1etal detectors are used to remove non>magnetic pieces of metal. ,et $leaning A7 Spray )ashing& A small amount of )ater at high pressure is used cleaning is achieved due to the force of spray. /7 (lotation )ashing& This process depends on the buoyancy di9erences bet)een food products and contaminants. (or e$ample good fruits )ill generally 2oat )hile contaminating soil, stones etc )ill sin'. Slo)ly rotating paddles force the ra) materials under the )ater as they pass through a number of )eirs. Mrs Onajobi/2007 3 0. Peeling# This is the loosening of the s'in of the ra) material. The method for peeling a product depends on the structure of the food and the level of peeling re*uired. .. $hemical peeling# This involves the use of a solution of lye 61 - 2@ al'ali7. The s'in is softened and then spray )ashed. ... )echanical peeling# +brasion peeling# The ra) material is rotated in a machine )ith abrasive device e.g potatoes and root vegetables. '1uipment 2ith mechanical 3ni4es# This can be used for pears, apples, potatoes etc .... Thermal peeling# Steam# (oods are passed through high pressure steam for a 5$ed amount of time. This loosens the s'in of the ra) material. Then spray )ashing is used to remove the s'in. 5. Sorting# !a) materials are easier to process )hen they are of the same si?e. (or e$ample in processing that involves heat penetration there is possibility of overcoo'ing or undercoo'ing if the ra) materials are not the same si?e. .A. Si6e# sorting can be done using screens. !ound items that can )ithstand rough handling can be sorted using screens. A. ,eight# .t is a more precise method of sorting. 1eat cuts, eggs, fruits and vegetables are sorted by )eight. %lectronic )eighing device are incorporated into the conveying system. A.. Shape# This can be used for sorting grains. 8iscs or cylinders )ith accurately shaped indentation )ill pic' up the seeds of the correct shape and the rest )ill be left in the machine. A... $olour# This can be done using a comple$ electronic system using photoelectric cells. The products are compared )ith a standard bac'ground colour. Those not matching )ill be re0ected using a blast of compressed air. 7. Grading# This is the classi5cation of ra) materials on the basis of *uality. The assessment criteria incorporate commercial value, end use and oBcial standards. Trained manual operators are used to 0udge the *uality of ra) materials. :roducts are then separated Mrs Onajobi/2007 4 into *uality categories. .nspection is done on conveyor belts and comparison to chartered standards or even plastic models is carried out. 4rading is also the determination of the *uality of a batch. Human graders assess samples of cheese, butter or meat etc. (or e$ample meat inspectors )ill e$amine the *uality of individual carcasses for a number of criteria. 4rading of ra) materials can also be done on the basis of laboratory analysis. DIFF'*'N$' %'T,''N SO*TING +ND G*+DING A separation of ra) materials based on a single measurable property 6such as si?e, shape, colour or )eight7 is called sorting. (or grading8 the overall *uality of the ra) material is assessed using a number of attributes. !arely )ill one attribute indicate *uality )hen grading a product. 9. %lanching# This is a mild heat treatment. (ood is heated rapidly to a predetermined temperature, holding for a speci5ed time then either cooling rapidly or passing rapidly to the ne$t stage of processing. /lanching may be combined )ith peeling and cleaning to reduce costs. )ethods# 1. -ot or boiling 2ater blanching# 8ipped for about 3; seconds to 3 or 4 minutes. 8isadvantage& causes high losses of soluble material. Additives 6e.g ascorbic acid7 can be used to reduce the losses 2. Steam blanching# uses saturated steam in a closed vessel through )hich the food is conveyed usually by a rotating scre). *'+SONS FO* %&+N$-ING :'G'T+%&'S 1. To inactivate en?ymes, )hich other)ise )ill lead to *uality reduction in the processed product. 2. To remove gases from plant tissues. This is useful prior to canning as blanching helps achieve vacuum in the containers hence preventing e$pansion of air during processing. 3. /lanching helps to remove o$ygen so o$idation of the product and corrosion of can does not occur in canned products. 4. /lanching involves the removal of gases along )ith the removal of surface of dust. This helps in brightening the colour of some products especially green vegetables. . .t acts as a 5nal cleaning and decontamination process. 1icro organisms or pesticides in ra) materials can be signi5cantly reduced Mrs Onajobi/2007 5 )'T-ODS OF %&+N$-ING ;" -ot 2ater blanching# The food material is passed through the )ater on a moving belt or rotating mesh drum. The food is dipped into hot or boiling )ater for a short period usually 3; seconds to four minutes depending on the type of food. There is usually high loss of soluble materials. Ho)ever ascorbic acid, citric acid and sulphites can be added to improve the product. 0" Steam blanching# .t involves conveying food material through an atmosphere of steam in a tunnel on a mesh belt. .n the 2uidised bed design, pieces of vegetables are heated rapidly in thin layers then cooled in chilled air. There is reduction in the loss of soluble material in this process. <. Si6e reduction# Si?e reduction is important is an important stage in manufacturing because most ra) materials cannot be pac'ed in their original si?e or shape. Grinding and $rushing reduce the si?e of solid materials by mechanical action, dividing them into smaller particles. ,rushing is used as a preliminary stage to reduce the si?e of ra) materials. (or e$ample, )hen ma'ing 2our, )heat is crushed then it is follo)ed by a grinding process. .n the grinding process, materials are reduced in si?e by fracturing them. Grinding e1uipment ;" -ammer mills# .n a hammer mill, s)inging hammerheads are attached to a rotor that rotates at high speed inside a hardened casing. The material is crushed bet)een the hammers and the casing and remains in the mill until it is 5ne enough to pass through a screen )hich forms the bottom of the casing. 0" Disc mills# 8isc mills could be a single rotating disc in a stationary casing in this case the ra) material passes through the ad0ustable gap bet)een the disc and the casing. =r the disc mill could consist of t)o fdiscs rotating in opposite directions and the ra) material passes bet)een the discs. 5" %all mills# This consists of a hori?ontal steel cylinder )hich slo)ly rotates. The si?e of the 5nal particle is determined by the speed of rotation and the si?e of the ball. 7" *oller mills# Mrs Onajobi/2007 6 .n this type of e*uipment, t)o or more steel rollers revolve to)ards each other and pull particles of the ra) material through the space bet)een the rollers. =. $ombining>)ixing# The dispersing of components, one throughout the other is called mixing. There are di9erent types of mi$ing machine depending on the ra) material being processed. There are& 8ough and paste mi$ers Ci*uid mi$ers :o)der and particle mi$ers *ibbon blender consists of a trough in )hich rotates a shaft )ith t)o open helical scre)s attached to it, one scre) being right> handed and the other left>handed. As the shaft rotates sections of the po)der move in opposite directions and so particles are vigorously displaced relative to each other. !ibbon blenders are normally used for dry mi$es e.g. soups, instant desserts etc. Tumbler mixers are also used to mi$ po)der and particle. The machines revolve rapidly hence tumbling the mi$. There are di9erent designs e.g. the double>cone blender )hich has t)o cones mounted )ith their open ends fastened together. They are rotated about an a$is through their common base. -omogenisation This is a process of ma'ing a mi$ture the same throughout the entire substance. (or e$ample homogeni?ation is used for brea'ing up the fat in mil' into smaller particles so it no longer separates from the )ater hence maintaining a fat - in - )ater emulsion. This allo)s the sale of non>separating 2@ and )hole mil'. The process of homogeni?ation involves the forcing of the li*uid through a very 5ne 5lter at high pressure. %ene?ts o homogenisation# Mrs Onajobi/2007 7 .t mi$es li*uids together .t reduces the si?e of fat globules :revents separation of oil and li*uid .mproves long term stability .t give droplet uniformityDeven distribution ,reates an emulsion Euic' and ine$epensive process ,onsistency in sensory properties .mproves mouthfeelDte$ture Mrs Onajobi/2007 8