KAREN J. WARREN The past few decades have wi t nessed an enormous i nt erest i n t he womens movement and the ecology (or environmental) movement. Many feminists have argued t hat t he goal s of t hese t wo movement s are mut ual l y rei nforci ng and ultimately involve the development of worldvietis and practices which are not based on model s of domi nat i on. One of t he fi rst femi ni st s t o do so was Rosemary Radford Ruether who, in 1975, wrote in New WomaniNew Earth: Women must see t hat t here can be no l i berat i on for t hem and no sol ut i on t o t he ecol ogi cal cri si s wi t hi n a soci et y whose funda+ ment al model of rel at i onshi ps cont i nues t o be one ofdomi nat i on. They must unite the demands of the womens movement with t hose of t he ecol ogi cal movement t o envi si on a radi cal reshapi ng of t he basi c soci oeconomi c rel at i ons and t he underl yi ng val ues of this [modern industrial] society. (204) Subsequent feminist writings by animal rights activists and ecological and ot her envi ronment al femi ni st s have rei nforced Ruet hers basi c poi nt : There are important connections between feminism and environmentalism, an apprecia- t i on of whi ch i s essent i al for t he success of t he womens and ecol ogi cal move- ment s. Y Just what are some of the connections between feminism and the environ- ment that have attracted the attention of ecological feminist philosophers? How has recogni t i on of t hese connect i ons affect ed and i nformed t he phi l osophi - cal perspect i ves of femi ni sm and envIronmental i ssues? I n t hi s i nt r oduct i on 1 at t empt t o answer t hese quest i ons by doi ng t hr ee t hi ngs. Fi rst , I i dent i fy some oPthe connection&tween t he domi nat i on of women and t he domi nat i on ofnature whi ch have been suggest ed i n t he schol arl y ecofemi ni st philosophical literature. S&&d,-l identify &%nge of ecological (eco) feminist . . -.J.Y X Ecological Feminist Philosophies: An Overview of the Issues phi l osophi cal posi t i ons whi ch have emerged, part i cul arl y i n t he fi el d of envlron- mental ethics, in an :u tempt to provide :I throrctical framework for underatand- ing the connections hrcwccn fcminisru and the cnvironmcnr. Third, I suggest what the philosophical significance of rhis cmcrging lilcmturc is, not only for femi ni sm and envi ronment al phi l osophy but for mai nst ream phi l osophy as wel l . While no attempt is made to provide an exhaustive account, hopefully this overview highlights some of the relevant issues and acquaints the newcomer with the nature and range of philosophical positions on feminism and the environment, or ecological feminism. A CHARACTERI ZATI ON OF EWWINISM Just as t here i s no t one feminism, there is neither one ecofeminism nor one feminist philosophy. E ological feminism is the name of a variety of different femi ni st perspect i ves 011 t he nat ure of rhe connect i ons bet ween t he domi nat i on of women (and other oppressed humails) and the domination of nature. Eco- logical feminist philosophy is the name of a diversity of philosophical ap- proaclles to the variety of different connections between feminism and the environment. These different perspectives reflect not only different feminist perspectives (e.g., liberal, traditional Marxist, radical, and socialist feminism); t hey al so refl ect di fferent underst andi ngs of t he nat ure, and sol ut i on t o, pressi ng environmental problems (see Warren 1987). So, it is an open question of how many, which, rind on Wl\ ill grounds nny of the proposed ecological feminist phi l osophi es are properl y i dent i fi ed as ecokminist posi t i ons. What one t akes t o be a genui ne ecofemi ni st phi l osophi cal posi t i on wi l l de e n d l argel y on bow one concept ual i zes bot h femi ni sm and ecol ogi cal femi ni sm. s What al l ecofemi ni st phi l osophers do hol d i n common, however, i s t he vi ew that there are important connections between the domination of women (and other human suhc,rdinatcs) and the domination of nature and that a failure to i recognize these connect i ons resul t s i n in:ldcqunte femi ni sms, environtncnlillisln, nd envi ronment al phi l osophy. What t he nat ure of t hese al l eged connect i ons i s and whi ch, i f any, are accurat e descri pt i ons of t he nat ure and root sources of t he t wi n domi nat i ons of women and nat ure i s l argel y what ecofemi ni st phi l osophers debate. !%ME ALLEGED CONNECTIONS BETWEEN FEMINISM AND THE ENVIRONMPNT There are i\ t lcast ciglit sorts of conncctiotis which ccologicnl Itimini:,ls have i dent i fi ed as i mport ant t o underst andi ng t he connect i ons bet ween femi ni sm and the environmrnt. No attempt is made here to critically assess the claims made about these connections. Furthermore, these eight categories are not to be viewed as competing or mutually exclusive. Indeed, many of the important claims made about one kind of connection (e.g., conceptual and theoretical) Ecofogicd Feminist Philosophies: An Overview of the Issues xi often depend on Insights gleaned from others (e.g., historical and empirical). The aim in this section is simply to present for consideration the various elemrnts of the overall feminism and the environment picture. 1. Hi st ori cal and cat.&. One sort of al l eged connect i on bet ween femi ni sm and the environment discussed by ecological feminist philosophers is primarily historical. When historical data are used to generate theories concerning the sources of t he t wi n domi nat i ons of women and nat ure, i t i s al so causal . In fact , some feminists characterize ecofeminism in terms of just such historical and causal cl ai ms: Ecofemi ni sm i s a recent devel opment i n femi ni st t hought whi ch argues that the current global environmental crisis is a predictable outcome of patrlarchal culture (Salleh 1988, 138, n.1). What are some of these historical and causal cl ai ms? Some ecofeminists (e.g., Spretnak 1990; Reisler 1988) trace the historical and causal connections to prototypical patterns of domination begun with the i nvasi on of Indo-European soci et i es by nomadi c t ri bes from Eurasi a about 4500 B.C. (Lahar 1991). Riane Eisler describes the time before these invmsions as II matrifocal, matrilineal, peaceful agrarian era. Others (e.g., Griffin 1978; Plumwood 1991; Ruether 1975) focus on the historical role plnyed by rational- i sm and i mport ant concept ual dualisms (di scussed at 2, bel ow) i n cl assi cal Greek philosophy. Still other feminists (e.g., Merchant 1980,1989; Shiva 1988) focus on cul t ural and sci ent i fi c changes t hat occurred duri ng t he sci ent i fi c revol ut i on and sanct i oned t he expl oi t at i on of nat ure, unchecked commerci al and i ndust ri al expansion, and the subordination of women. What prompt s and expl ai ns t hese al l eged hi st ori cal and causal connect i ons bet ween t he domi nat i on of women and t he domi nat i on of nat ure? What el se was in place to permit and sanction thest: twin dominations? To answer these quest i ons, ecofemi ni st phi l osophers have t urned t o t he concept ual props whi ch keep the historical dominations of women and nature in place. 2. Concept ual . Many ecofemi ni st s and ecologlcal feminist phi l osopher s (e,g,, Cheney 1987; Gray 1981; Griffin 1978; Y. King 1981, 1983, 1989a; Merchant 1980, 1990; Plumwood 1986, 1991; Ruether 1975; Salleh 1984; Warren 1987, 1988, 1990 [reprinted in this volume]) have argued that, ultimately, historical and causal l i nks bet ween t he domi nat i ons of women and of nat ure are l ocat ed i n conceptual structures of domination and in the way women and nature have been concept ual i zed, part i cul arl y i n t he west ern i nt el l ect ual t radi t i on. Four such concept ual l i nks have been suggest ed. One account locates the concep\ual basis of the twin dominations of women and nat ure i n val ue dualists, i . e. , di sj unct i ve pai rs i n whi ch t hedi sj unct s are seen as oppositional (rat&r than as comphentary) and exclusive (rather than as inclusive), and value hierarchies, i.e., perceptions of diversity organized by a spatial Up-Down metaphck which attril,hSe higher value (status, prestige) to . . -_ ..J that which is higher (Up) (seeGray 1981; Griffin 1978, 1989a; Y. King 1981, 1983, 1990; Ruether 1975; Zimmerman 1987). Frequently cited examples of these hierarchically organized value dualisms include reason/emotion, mind/ body, cul t ure/ nat ure, humanlnaturc, and III:IIJWOII~;~ di chot omi es. These t heo- ri st s argue t hat what ever i s (hi st ori cal l y) associ at ed wi t h emot i on, body, natuie, and women i s regarded as i nferi or t o t hat whi ch i s (hi st ori cal l y) associ at ed wi t h reason, mind, culture, human (i.e., male), and men. One role of feminism and environmental ethics, then, is to expose atrtl dismantle these dualisms and to rethink and reconceive those mainstay philosophical notions (e.g., reason, rationality, knowleclge, objectivity, the self as knower and moral agent) which rely on them. A second, rel at ed account expands on t he fi rst by housi ng t he val ue dual i st i c, value hierarchical chinking (described above) in larger, oppressive patriarchal conceptual frameworks-ones undergirding all social isms of domination, e.g., racism, classism, heterosexism, sexism as well as naturism, or the unjustified domination of nonhuman nature (see Warren 1987, 1988, 1990). A conceptual framework is a socially constructed set of basic beliefs, values, attitudes, and assumptions that shape d reflect how one views oneself aid others. It is oppressi ve when i t expl ai ns, j ust i fi es, ad mai nt ai ns r el at i onshi ps of domi nat i on and subordination. An oppressive conceptual framework is patriarchal when it explains, justifies, and maintains the subordination of women by men. Oppres- si ve and pat ri archal concept ual frameworks are charact eri zed not onl y by val ue dual i sms and val ue hierarchies, hut al so by power-over concept i ons of power and rel at i onshi ps ~~fdominntic~n (Warren 1991) and by a l ogi c of lIoll~i~i;ltio~i, i.e., a structure of iWgulnent;l~ion which justifies subordination on the grounds that superiority justifies subodination (Warren 1987, 1990). On this view, it is oppressive and patriarchal conceptual frameworks (and the behaviors which they give rise to) which sanction, maintain, and perpetuate the twin domina- tions of women and nature. Revealing :lnd overcoming oppressive and patriar- chat conceptual frameworks as they :Ire manifest in theories and practices regarding women and nature are important tasks of feminism, rnvironmental- ism, and environmental ethics. A third account locates the conceptual basis in sex-gender differences, part i cul arl y i n di fferent i at ed personal i t y format i on or consci ousness (see Cheney 1987; Gray 1981; Caldecott and Leland 1983; Salleh 1984). The claim is that female bodily experiences (e.g., of reproduction and childrearing), not female biology per se situate women differently with respect to nature than men. This difference is revealed in a different consciousness in women than men; it is rootedconceptually ilr paradigms th;\l are uncritically oriented to the dominant western masculine forms of experiencing the world: the analytic, non-related, delightfully called objective or scientific approaches (Salleh 1988, 130)- just the sort of value dualisms which are claimed (above) to separate and inferiorize what is historically female-gender identified. These socio-psycho- I XIII l ogi cal fact ors provi de a concept ual l i nk i nsofar as t hey are embedded i n di fferent concept ual i zat i on st ruct ures and st rat egi es (di fferent ways of knowi ng), copi ng st rat egi es, and ways of rel at i ng t o nat ure for women and men. A goal of femi ni sm and envi ronment al et hi cs, t hen, i s co devel op gender-sensi t i ve language, t heor y, and practices which do not further the exploitative experiences and habits of dissociated, male-gender identified culture toward women and nature. A fourth account draws on some of the historical connections mentioned earlier (at 1). It locates the conceptual link between feminism and the environ- ment in the metaphors and models of mechanistic science which began during both the Enlightenment and pre-Enlightenment period (see Merchant 1980; Easlea 1981). The claim is that prior to the seventeenth century, nature was concei ved on an organi c model as a benevol ent femal e, a nurt uri ng mot her; aft er the scientific revolution, nature was conceived on a mechanistic model as a (mere) machine, inert, dead. On both models, nature was female. The claim is that the move from the organic to the lnechaniscic model conceptually permic- t ed and et hi cal l y j ust i fi ed t he expl oi t at i on of t he (femal e) eart h by removi ng t he sorts of barriers to such treatment chat the metaphor of nature as a living organi sm previ ousl y prevent ed. The chal l enge t o femi ni st s, envi ronment al i st s, and envi ronment al et hi ci st s, t hen, i s t o overcome met aphors and model s whi ch feminize nature and naturalize wotnen to the mutual detriment of both nature and women. 3. Ern[piricnl and experi ent i al . Many ecofemi ni scs and ecol ogi cal femi ni st phi - losophers have documented empirical evidence linking feminism and the envi- ronment . Some poi nt t o vari ous heal t h and ri sk fact ors caused by t he presence of l ow-l evel radi at i on, pest i ci des, toxics, and ot her pol l ut ant s and borne di spropor- tionately by women and children (see Caldecott and Leland 1983; Diamond 1990; Kheel 1989; Philipose 1989). Ot hers provi de dat a toshow t hat Fi r st Wor l d development policies foster practices regarding food, forests, and water which directly contribute to the inability of women to provide adequately for them- / selvesand their families (e.g., Mics 1986; Salleh 1990; Shiva 1988; Warren 1988, 1989). Feminist animal-rights scholars argue that factory farming, animal ex- perimentation, hunting, and meateating are tied to patriarchal concepts and practices (Adams 1990,199l; Collard with Contrucci 1988; Kheel 1985,1987- 88). Appeal s t o such empi ri cal dat a are i nt ended t o document t he very real , fel t , lived connections between the dominations of women and nature and to motivate the need for feminist critical analysis of environmental concerns. Some ecofeminists and ecofeminist philosophers cite experiential connec- tions which honor and celebrate important cultural and spiritual ties of wotnen and indigenous peoples to the earth (see Allen 1986, 1990; Bagby 1990; Doubiago 1990; LaChapeJle 1978; Wonla~qfPourer 1988). Indeed, documenting such connect i ons and maki ng t hem i nt egral t o t he proj ect of femi ni sm and t he environment is often heralbed,as one of thegpst,imporcant contributions to . _=;+. XIV Ecokqical Feminist Philosophies: An Overview of the Issues the creation of liberating, life-affirming, and post-patriarchal wcjrldviews and earth-based spirituality or theology (see Christ 1990; McDaniels 1989, 1990; Ructhcr 1989;Sptl*tll:lk 1989;1, 1990; %rh:lwk 1989, 1990). Applc*ci;lring thcsc connections and undcrst anding the polit-its of womens spiritualit y is viewed as an important aspect of feminism, environmentalism, and environlurntal ethics. 4. Epistemological. The various historical, conceptual, and eml>irical/experi- ential connections which have been claimed to link feminism aml the environ- ment (discussed at l-3, above) have also motivated the neetl for different feminist environmentnl cpistcmctlogics. Typically these cmergitlg c.pistemolo~ gies build on scholarship currcnl Iy untlrtway in feminist philosophy which chal l enges mai nst ream vi ews of rc:lson, rat i onal i t y, knowl edge, and the nat ure of t he knower (see APA Newsl et t er on Femi ni sm and Phi l osophy 1989; Jaggar and Bordo 1989; Code 1987; Garry and Pearsall 1989; Harding and Hintikka 1983). Dougl as Buege, for i nst ance, argues for a femi ni st envi ronment al epi st emol ogy t hat bui l ds on Lorrai ne Codes responsi bi l i st epi st emol ogy (Buege 1991). As Val Plumwood suggest s, i f one mi st akenl y const rues envi ronment al phi l osophy as only or mainly concerned with ethics, one will ncglcct a key aspect of the overall problem which is concerned with the definiticbu of the human self as separat e from nat ure, t he connect i on bet ween t hi s and t he i nst rument al vi ew of nature, and broader political aspects of the critique of instrumentalism (Pl umwood 1991). A femi ni st envi ronment al epi st emol ogy woul d address t hese pol i t i cal aspect s of t he human/ nat ure di chot omy. Other ecofeminists :lppcal IO the Critical Theory of I lorkheimcr (1974), Adorno (1973, 1974), Balbus ( I982), and the I+ankfurt circle, cl:liming that their epistemology and substantive analysis both point to a convergence of feminist and ecological concerns, anticipating the more recent arrival of eco- feminism (Salleh 1988, 131). For these feminists, Critical Theory provides a critique of the nature versus culture and an epistcmological structure for critiquing the rclntionship bclwcrn the tlomin~~tion of womcn and the dourinn- tion of nature (see Sallch 1988; Mills 1987, 1991). 5. Symbolic. Many ecofeminists (see, e.g., Heresies #13; Bell 1988; Murphy 1990; Salleh 1988) explore the symbolic association and devaluation of women and nature that appears in art, litcmnuc, religion, nnd theology. Drawing on feminist literature (e.g., the literature of Atwood 1985; Bngby 1990; Corrigan and Hoppe 1989, 1990; Dou >i;lgo I 1990; Gcnrh;lrt 1979; Kolotlny 1975; LeGuin 1985, 1987, 1988; Oliver 1983; Iicarcy IY76; Rich 1986; Silk0 1987; ZaI~;Iva 1988), some argue that patriar~hll conceptions of nature and women have justified a two-pronged rape and domination of the earth and the women who l i ve on i t (Murphy 1988,87), oft en usi ng t hi s as background for devel opi ng an ecofeminist literary theory (Murphy 1991). Others explore the potential of (eco)fcminism for creating alternative Iangrlages (e g., Daly 1978; Griffin 1978), Ecological Feminist Philosophies: An Overview of the Issues xv rel i gi ous/ spi ri t ual symbol s (e. g. , Goddess symbol s), hypot heses (e. g. , t he Gala hypothesis), theologies (e.g., Christ 1990; Daly 1978; Gray 1988; Ruether 1989; Sprctnak 1982, 1989a; Starhawk 1989, 1990), and societies (e.g., the feminist utopias suggested by Gearhart 1979 and Piercy 1976). Other ecofeminists explore the symbolic connections between sexist and naturist language, i.e., language which inferiorizes women and nonhuman nature. This may involve raising questions about whether the sex-gendered l anguage used t o descri be Mot her nat ure i s, i n Ynest ra Ki ngs words, pot en- t i al l y l i berat i ng or si mpl y a rnt i onal e for t he cont i nued subordi nat i on of women (King 1981, 12; see nlso Grlscom 1981; Ortner 1974; Roach 1991).& mny i nvol ve est abl i shi ng connect i ons bet ween t he langunges used codescri be women, nat ure, and nucl ear weaponry (see Adams 1990; Cohn 1989; St range 1989). For i nst ance, women are oft en descri bed i n ani mal t erms (e. g. , as cows, foxes, chi cks, serpents, bitches, beavers, old bats, pussycats, cats, birdbrains, harebrains). Nat ure i s oft en descri bed i n femal e and sexual t erms: Nat ure i s raped, mast ered, conquered, controlled, mined. Her secrets are penetrated and her womb is put into the services of the man ofscicnce. Virgin timber is felled, cut down. Fertile soil is tilled and land that lies fallow is barren, useless. The claim is that l anguage whi ch so femi ni zes nat ure and nat ural i zes women descri bes, refl ect s, and perpet uat es t he domi nat i on and inferior i zat i on of bot h by fai l i ng t o see t he extent to which the twin dominations of women and nature (including animals) are, i n fact , cul t ural l y (and not merel y fi gurat i vel y) anal ogous (Adams 1990,61). The development of feminist theory and praxis which does not perpetuate this l anguage nnd t he power-over syst ems of domi nat i on t hey rei nforce i s, t herefore, a goal of feminist environmentalism2 \ 6. Ethical. Much of the ecologicid feminists philosophical literature on feminism ;Ind the environment has linked the two ethically. The claim is that the in~crconucctions ml~ong the conceptuillIzaticrtls and treatment of women, animals, and (the rest of) nonhuman nature require a feminist ethical analysis and response. Mi ni mal l y, t he goal of femi ni st envil onmental et hi cs i s t o devel op & theories and practices concerning humans and thr natural environment which are not male-biased and which provide n guide to action in the prefeminist t present (see Warren 1990; Warren and Chcney 199lb). Since a discussion of et hi cal concerns i s i nt i mat el y t i ed wi t h al l eged t hevret i cal connect i ons bet ween femi ni sm and t he envi ronment , consi der now t he range of t heoret i cal posi t i ons which have emerged. 7. Theoret i cal . The vari et i es of alleged connect i ons bet ween femi ni sm and t he environment (identified&t 1-6, above) Juve generated different, sometimes competing, theoretical philosophical positions in all areas of feminist and environmental scholarship. 1VoyheJleis this rgqr,e-evident that in the field of - , ,. Ecological Feminist Philosophies: An Overview o/ the Issues environmental ethics. For reasons of space and audience, the discussion of theoretical connections is limited here to the field of environmental ethics. In many respects, conlcmpomry cnvilonmcntal ethics reflects the range of positions in contemporary normal IVC philosophical ethics. The latter includes tradition consequent ialist (e.g., ethical egoist, utilitarian) and nonconsequen- tialist or deontological (e.g., Kantian, rights-based, virtue-based) positions, as well as challenges to them by nontraditional (e.g., some feminist, existential- ist, Marxist, Afrocentric) positions. Similarly with environmental ethics. There are consequentialist (e.g., eco-utilitarian, utilitarian-based animal lib- eration) and nonconsequentialist (c.g., human rights-based, rights-based ani- mal liberation, land stewardship) positions that extend traditional ethical considerations to animals and the nonhuman environment. There also are nontraditional approaches (e.g., holistic Leopoldian land ethics, social ecol- ogy, deep ecol ogy, ecol ogi cal femi ni sm). Ecoftminists and ecofemi ni st phi l oso- phers who address envi ronment al i ssues can be found defendi ng each of t hese sor t s of posi t i ons. By extension, there is not one ecofeminist philosophical ethic. Given the newness of ecofeminism as a theoretical position, the nalure of ecofeminist ethics is still emerging. Among the most visible are feminist animal-rights positions (e.g., Adams 1988, 1991; Khecl 1985; Slicer 1991) and feminist environmental ethics based on an ethic of care (e.g., Curtin 1991; see also R. King 1991), an ethic of respect (e.g., Westra 1989), themes in social ecology (e.g., Y. King 1981, 198.3, 1989, 1990), and themes in bioregionalism (e.g., Cheney 19891~; Ilnn~ 1990). They all rccOgl1iZC importnnt C~I I I WCI i ons hrtwccn t he i ndefensi bl e t reat ment of women and of nat ure, and t hey i nvol ve a commi t - ment to developing ethics which are not male-biased. It remains an open question, then, of how many, which, and on what grounds any of the various positions in environmental ethics which acknowledge such feminist concerns are ecofcminist philosophical l~ositions.2 8. Political (Praxis). FranGoisc dEaubonne introduced the term ecofemin- isme in 1974 to bring attention to womens potential for bringing about an ecological revolution (1974,213-52). Ec ofeminist and other feminist concerns for women and t he envi ronment have al ways grown out of pressi ng pol i t i cal and practical concerns. These range from issues of health concerning women and environmental health to development and technology, the treatment of ani- mals, peace, and antinuclear and antimilita~ism activism (see Griffin 1989b; Harris and King 1990; Lahar 1991; Sprctnak 1989b). The varieties of feminist thcorctical pcrspcctivcs on the cnvironmcnt arc proptrly sew as m iIttCllll>t to stake seriously the grassroots activism and political concerns by developing I analyses of domination which explain, clarify, and guide that praxis (see The Ecofeminist Neurslettet; Harris and King 1989; Y. King 1981, 1983, 1989, 1990; Spretnak 1989b; Warren 1991). Ecological Feminist Philosophies: An Overview of the Issues xvii PHI LOSOPHI CAL IMFORTANCE OF mE ~~FEMINIST L I TERATURE In tile preceding 1 have identified eight sorts of connections alleged by ecofemi ni st s and ecofemi ni st phi l osophers bet ween femi ni sm and t he envi ron- ment. I have indicated why and how, if indeed there are these connections, feminism, environmentalism, and environmental ethics will need to take them seri ousl y. What are some of t he i mpl i cat i ons of t hese connect i ons for mai nst ream phi l osophy? I suggest a few here. The concept ual l i nks (gi ven above at 2) suggest t hat phi l osophi cal concep- t i ons of t he sel f, knowl edge and t he knower, reason and rat i onal i t y, obj ect i vi t y, and nature versus culture-mainstay philosophical notions in ethics, episte- mology, metaphysics, philosophy of science, history of philosophy, political philosophy-will need to be reconceived. The value dualisms which seem to pervade t he west ern phi l osophi cal t radi t i on si nce t he earl y Greeks (e. g. , reason/ emotion, mind/body, culture/nature, human/nature) and the historical sex- gendered associ at i on of women wi t h emot i on, body, and nat ure wi l l need t o be examined for male-gender bias. The historical and empi ri cal l i nks (gi ven at 1 and 3, above) suggest t hat soci al sclentilic datn on women and the environment is relevant to the theoretical undertakings in many areas of philosophy. In ethics, for example, this data on women and nat ure rai ses i ssues of ant hropocent ri c and androcent ri c bi as. Can mainstream normative ethical theories generate an environmental ethic which is not male IriasedI In epistemology, data on the indigenous technical knowl- edge (see Warren 1988) of women who gl obal l y const i t ut e t he mai n agri cul t ural production force (e.g., at least 80 percent of the farmers in Africa are women) rai ses i ssues about womens epi st emi c pri vi l ege about farmi ng and forest ry (see Warren 1988): If there is such privilege, does it generate the need for feminist st andpoi nt epi st emol ogi es, as some feminists have claimed (see Garry and Pearsall 1989; Harding 1986; Harding and Hintikka 1983; Jaggar and Bordo 1989)? In metaphysics, data of the cross-cultural variability of women-nature connections raise issues about the concept of nature and the nature/cultural di chot omy. Is nat ure a gi ven, a cross-cul t ural const ant t hat st ands i n cont rast h to socially evolving and created culture, or is nature, like culture, a social construct? Even if there really are trees, rivers, and ecosystems, does the way nat ure i s concei ved and t heori zed about refl ect hi st ori cal , soci oeconomi c fact ors in much the same way that, according to many feminists, conceptions and theories about humans and human nature are constructed? In political phi l osophy, data about t he inferior st andards of l i vi ng of women gl obal l y rai se issues ahollt political theories and theorizing. What roles do unequal distribu- tions of pcnver and privilege play in the maintenance of systems of domination over bot h women and nat ure? How do theiaect t he cont ent and met hodol ogy of political theories and the+ngl_la the hisfpry,of philosophy, data on the xviii Ecolo&nI Feminist Philosophies: An Overview of the Issues hi st ori cal i nferi ori zat i on and associ at i ons of women and nat ure rai se i ssues about the nature and substantive content of the philosophical theories advanced in any given time period: Do they inhcril I~i;~scs ag:;tinst WOIIICII d twtllrc which IWilr 011 the critical aSscssIucIIt of the thcorics thcmsclvcs? Iii philosopl~y of science, particularly philosophy of biology, the tlati~ raise issues about the relationships between feminism and science, particularly ecology. As Carolyn Merchant asks, Is t here a set of assumpt i ons basi c to t he sci ence of ecol ogy t hat al so hol ds i mpl i cat i ons for t he st at us of women? Is t here an ecol ogi cal et hi c t hat is also a feminist ethic? (Merchant 1985, 229). Are there important parallels between contemporary feminist environmental ethics and ecosystems ecology whi ch suggest ways i n whi ch they are engaged i n mut ual l y support i ve proj ect s (see Y. King 1989; Warren and Cheney 199l)l These are the sort of questions rai sed by a phi l osophi cal look at t he si gni fi cance of i ssues concerni ng femi ni sm and the environment. ESSAYS I N THI S VOLUME Ecofeminist philosopl~y INS certainly risen to the forefront of feminist and envi ronment al concerns si nce t he publ i cat i on of the fi rst j ournal i ssue devot ed exclusively to ecofeminist philosophy: Hywtia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy, Special issue on Ecological Feminism (1991). This special issue was the first col l ect i on ever publ i shed of expl i ci t l y phi l osophi cal art i cl es on ecol ogi cal femi - nism. It broke new ground hy inviting feminist philosophers to join ecofeminist scholars in the philosopl~ical exploration of issues involving women and nonhu~ man nature (or the ctlvil,olitrleIlt). Although the number of scholarly articles, anthologies, and books on ecological feminism 1 x 1 s blossomed since then, this ant hol ogy, a revi sed and expanded versi on of t hat speci al i ssue, remai ns t he fi rst vol ume ever t o offer disti, actively f emi ni st phi l osophi cal essays on ecof emi ni sm. The essays cont ai ned i n t hi s ant hol ogy vary bot h i n perspect i ves and i n subj ect matter. Some ess;lys (c.~., Knren J. W;rrrens, Dcanc Curtins, and Roger J. H. Kings) address the I1;tnll.c of a distinctively ecofeminist ethic and the mle of pat ri archal conceptu:ll frameworks (e. g. , Warren) i n perpet uat i ng t he t wi n domi- nat i ons of women and nat ure. Some (e. g. , St ephani e Laharb and Chri s Cuomos) address t he grassroot s ori gi ns and nat ure of a t hought ful ecofemi ni st pract i ce or pmxis. Some (e.g., Val Plumwoods and Robert Sessionss articles) focus on the now infamous ecofeminism-deep ecology debate in environmental philosophy. Others (e. g. , Deborah Sl i cers, Carol J. Adamss, Iat ri ci a Jagent owi cz Mi l l ss, and Vi ct ori a Davions essays) address concretr i ssues around deep ecol ogi cal t reat ment of animal rights ;md lhr omission of ecofcminist analyses of the domination of animals, abortion, i l l 1 d nuclear deterl-cnce, respectively. Still others (e.g., Cat heri ne Roachs, Pat ri ck D. Murphys, and Carol H. Cantrells essays) address i ssues of l anguage and l i t erary pract i ce: Roach probl emat i zes t he envi ronment al slogan Love Your Mother; Murphy uses the dialogics of Russian theorist Bakhtin Ecological Feminist Philosophies: An Overview of the lssws xix t o show t he need for a mut ual l y enhanci ng ecofemi ni st phi l osophy and l i t erary theory; and Cantrell uses ecofeminist Susan Griffins classic book Woman and Nature: The Roaring It&c I ler (1978) to show the formative role of Inngungc in est abl i shi ng anal ogi es between wot nen and nat ure. Fi nal l y, t he essay by Karen j. Warren and Ji m Cheney addresses t en ways i n whi ch ecofenri ni sm and t he sci ence of ecol ogy are or coul d be engaged i n compl ement ary, support i ve proj ect s. As feminists, environmentalists, and philosophers continue to see that any analysis of what it is for humans to be ecological beings, what parameters constitute an appropriate human-nonhuman nature relationship, and the im- pact of the omission of gender as a category of analysis in contemporary discussions of environmental problems, a solid, critical ecological feminist philosophical scholarship will continue to be necessary. The articlrs In this ant hol ogy form an i mport ant and (as an out growt h of t he hi ghl y successful 1991 Hypatia volume) a historically unprecedented step in that direction. The scholnrship on t he ri ght al l eged sort s of connect i ons bet ween femi ni sm and the environment addressed by ecofeminists generally and ecofeminist philosophers in particular illustrates the importance of ecofeminist concerns about how one conceives feminism, environmentalism, and environmental phi l osophy. If one t akes seri ousl y al l eged ecofemi ni st phi l osophi cal connect i ons between feminism and the environment, the nature and scope of bona fide concerns in mainstream philosophy will be affected significantly. Presumably, si gns of t aki ng t hese i ssues seri ousl y woul d be t o revi se t he courses we t each and t o ret hi nk our schol arshi p accordi ngl y. As wi t h any at t empt t o i ncorporat e t he scholarship on women and feminism into our curricula and scholarship, such revising projects can be quite challenging. With regard to feminism and the environment, they also may be vital-not only for women, animals, and planet Earth, but for the development of worldviews and practices which are ecologi* tally responsi bl e and soci al l y j ust for us al l . The 1990s have often been dubbed The Decade of the Environment. Cer- tainly the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro during June 1992 brought the countries of the world together to address such issues as biodiversity, global warmi ng, aci d rai n, pol l ut i on, deforest at i on and desertification, speci es endanger- ment , preservat i on of wi l derness, and energy consumpt i on t o i nt ernat i onal at t en- t i on, Incl uded among t he vari ous semi nars and conferences-t he Gl obal Forum- that constituted satellite meetings to the Earth Summit was a special seminar, Ecofeminism: Gender, Developmenrl and the Environment, hosted by the University of Rio de Janeiro. This satellite seminar focused explicitly on ecological femi ni sm: It made visiblscrucial and oftegpverlooked envi ronment al concems- t he ei ght sort s of concerns di scussed i n t hi s i nt roduct i on-t hat ecofemi ni st s t hi nk are necessary to any adequae e,nvicooomental policy, t heory, or phi l osophy. -,,, !. . xx Ecolt~gical Feminist Ihilosophies: An C~ueruiew o/k Issues As a participant in this satellite Ecofcminism seminar, it,wwan readily apparent to me what impact this gender invisibility (or the invisibility of what women do) has in the analysis and pr;lct ices of &)bal environmental concerns. By p~d~lishing this hook, I hope to provide one sort of rem+ to this invisibility, viz., to make ccofcminist issues pliilosoy,)iically significant, and to make ecofeminist philosophy a vit:ll player on the field of feminist and environmental concerns. If this anthology does that, it will successfully call attention in an expressly philosophical way to the importance of ecofcminist insights to all aspects of feminist, philosophical, and environmental scholar- ship and practice. NOTES 1. Major portions of this introduction are taken from two of my previously published works (in APA Newsletter 1991, 108-16 and in Zimmerman 1993, 253-67). 2. Indeed, just what the similarities and tlifferences are between ecological femi ni sm and deep ecol ogy, social ecol ogy, and ani mal ri ght s posi t i ons i n envi ronment al et hi cs i s an i ssue whi ch receives consi derabl e schol arl y at t ent i on, particularly in the leading journal in the field, Enuironmed Erhics. The so- cal l ed debat e bet ween ecofemi ni sm and deep ecol ogy (t he posi t i on advocat ed by Bi l l Deval l and George Sessi ons ( 1985), A rnc Nacss (1973, l986), and Warwick Fox (1985, 1989), to name a few) has probably rcccived the most attention. 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