Bernard Sklar Raylegh Fading Channels

Sklar, B.
Rayleigh Fading Channels

Mobile Communications Handbook
Ed. Suthan S. Suthersan
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 1999
c 1999by CRCPressLLC
Rayl ei gh Fadi ng Channel s
1
Bernard Skl ar
Communications EngineeringServices
18.1 Introduction
18.2 TheChallengeof aFadingChannel
18.3 Mobile-Radio Propagation: Large-ScaleFadingand
Small-ScaleFading
Large-ScaleFading: Path-LossMean andStandardDeviation
Small-ScaleFading: Statisticsand Mechanisms

18.4 Signal Time-SpreadingViewed in theTime-Delay Domain:
Figure18.1, Block 7TheMultipath Intensity Prole
DegradationCategoriesduetoSignal Time-SpreadingViewed
in theTimeDelay Domain
18.5 Signal Time-SpreadingViewed in theFrequency Domain:
Figure18.1, Block 10TheSpaced-Frequency Correlation
Function
DegradationCategoriesduetoSignal Time-SpreadingViewed
in theFrequency Domain
18.6 Typical Examplesof Flat Fadingand Frequency-Selective
FadingManifestations
18.7 TimeVarianceViewed in theTimeDomain: Figure18.1,
Block 13TheSpaced-TimeCorrelation Function
TheConcept of Duality
DegradationCategoriesduetoTime
VarianceViewed in theTimeDomain
18.8 TimeVarianceViewed in theDoppler-Shift Domain: Figure
18.1, Block 16TheDoppler Power Spectrum
18.9 Analogy Between Spectral Broadeningin FadingChannels
and Spectral Broadeningin Digital Signal Keying
18.10 Degradation Categoriesdueto TimeVariance, Viewed in the
Doppler-Shift Domain
18.11 Mitigation Methods
Mitigation to Combat Frequency-SelectiveDistortion

Mit-
igation to Combat Fast-Fading Distortion

Mitigation to
Combat Lossin SNR
18.12 Summary of theKey ParametersCharacterizingFading
Channels
Fast-Fading Distortion: Example #1

Frequency-Selective
FadingDistortion: Example#2
Fast-FadingandFrequency-
SelectiveFadingDistortion: Example#3
18.13 TheViterbi Equalizer asApplied to GSM
18.14 TheRakeReceiver Applied to Direct-Sequence
Spread-Spectrum(DS/SS) Systems
18.15 Conclusion
References
18.1 Introduction
When the mechanisms of fading channels were rst modeled in the 1950s and 1960s, the ideas
were primarily applied to over-the-horizon communications covering a wide range of frequency
bands. The330MHzhigh-frequency (HF) band isused for ionosphericcommunications, and the
300MHz3GHzultra-high-frequency(UHF) and330GHzsuper-high-frequency(SHF) bandsare
used for tropospheric scatter. Although thefading effects in a mobileradio system aresomewhat
different fromthosein ionosphericand troposphericchannels, theearly modelsarestill quiteuseful
to help characterizefadingeffectsin mobiledigital communication systems. Thischapter addresses
Rayleighfading, primarilyin theUHFband, that affectsmobilesystemssuchascellular andpersonal
communication systems(PCS). Thechapter itemizesthefundamental fadingmanifestations, types
of degradation, and methods to mitigate the degradation. Two particular mitigation techniques
areexamined: theViterbi equalizer implemented in theGlobal System for MobileCommunication
(GSM), and theRakereceiver used in CDMA systemsbuilt to meet InterimStandard-95(IS-95).
18.2 TheChallengeof aFadingChannel
In thestudyof communication systems, theclassical (ideal) additive-white-Gaussian-noise(AWGN)
channel, with statisticallyindependent Gaussian noisesamplescorruptingdatasamplesfreeof inter-
symbol interference(ISI), istheusual startingpoint for understandingbasic performancerelation-
ships. Theprimary sourceof performancedegradation isthermal noisegenerated in thereceiver.
Often, external interferencereceived by theantennaismoresignicant than thethermal noise. This
external interferencecansometimesbecharacterizedashavingabroadbandspectrumandquantied
by aparameter called antennatemperature[ 1] . Thethermal noiseusually hasaat power spectral
density over thesignal band and azero-mean Gaussian voltageprobability density function (pdf ).
When modelingpractical systems, thenext step istheintroduction of bandlimitinglters. Thelter
in the transmitter usually serves to satisfy some regulatory requirement on spectral containment.
The lter in the receiver often serves the purpose of a classical matched lter [2] to the signal
bandwidth. Dueto thebandlimitingand phase-distortion propertiesof lters, special signal design
and equalization techniquesmay berequired to mitigatethelter-induced ISI.
If aradio channelspropagatingcharacteristicsarenot specied, oneusually infersthat thesignal
attenuation vs. distancebehavesasif propagation takesplaceover ideal freespace. Themodel of free
spacetreatstheregionbetweenthetransmit andreceiveantennasasbeingfreeof all objectsthat might
absorbor reect radiofrequency(RF) energy. It alsoassumesthat, withinthisregion, theatmosphere
behavesasaperfectlyuniformandnonabsorbingmedium. Furthermore, theearthistreatedasbeing
innitelyfar awayfromthepropagatingsignal (or, equivalently, ashavingareection coefcient that
isnegligible). Basically, in thisidealized free-spacemodel, theattenuation of RFenergy between the
transmitter and receiver behavesaccordingto an inverse-squarelaw. Thereceived power expressed
in termsof transmitted power isattenuated by afactor, L
s
(d), wherethisfactor iscalled pathlossor
1
A version of this chapter has appeared as two papers in the IEEE CommunicationsMagazine, September 1997, under
thetitles Rayleigh Fading Channelsin MobileDigital Communication Systems, Part I: Characterization and Part II:
Mitigation.
freespaceloss. When thereceivingantennaisisotropic, thisfactor isexpressed as[ 1] :
L
s
(d) =
_
4d
_
2
(18.1)
In Eq. (18.1), d isthedistancebetween thetransmitter andthereceiver, and isthewavelengthof the
propagatingsignal. For thiscaseof idealized propagation, received signal power isvery predictable.
For most practical channels, wheresignal propagation takesplacein theatmosphereand near the
ground, thefree-spacepropagation model isinadequateto describethechannel and predict system
performance. In a wirelessmobilecommunication system, a signal can travel from transmitter to
receiver over multiplereectivepaths; this phenomenon is referred to as multipathpropagation.
Theeffect can causeuctuationsin thereceivedsignalsamplitude, phase, andangleof arrival, giving
riseto theterminology multipathfading. Another name, scintillation, havingoriginated in radio
astronomy, isused to describethemultipath fading caused by physical changesin thepropagating
medium, such asvariationsin thedensityof ionsin theionosphericlayersthat reect high frequency
(HF) radio signals. Both names, fadingand scintillation, refer to asignalsrandom uctuationsor
fadingdueto multipath propagation. Themain differenceisthat scintillation involvesmechanisms
(e.g., ions) that are much smaller than a wavelength. The end-to-end modeling and design of
systemsthat mitigatetheeffectsof fadingareusually morechallengingthan thosewhosesolesource
of performancedegradation isAWGN.
18.3 Mobile-Radio Propagation: Large-Scale Fading and Small-
ScaleFading
Figure 18.1 represents an overview of fading channel manifestations. It starts with two types of
fading effectsthat characterizemobilecommunications: large-scalefading and small-scalefading.
Large-scalefading represents theaveragesignal power attenuation or thepath loss dueto motion
over large areas. In Fig. 18.1, the large-scale fading manifestation is shown in blocks 1, 2, and 3.
Thisphenomenon isaffected by prominent terrain contours(e.g., hills, forests, billboards, clumps
of buildings, etc.) between thetransmitter and receiver. Thereceiver isoften represented asbeing
shadowed by such prominences. Thestatisticsof large-scalefading provideaway of computing
an estimate of path loss as a function of distance. This is described in terms of a mean-path loss
(nth-power law) and alog-normally distributed variation about themean. Small-scalefadingrefers
to thedramatic changesin signal amplitudeand phasethat can beexperienced asaresult of small
changes(assmall asahalf-wavelength) in thespatial separation between areceiver and transmitter.
Asindicated in Fig. 18.1, blocks4, 5, and 6, small-scalefading manifestsitself in two mechanisms,
namely, time-spreadingof thesignal (or signal dispersion) andtime-variant behavior of thechannel.
For mobile-radio applications, thechannel istime-variant becausemotion between thetransmitter
andreceiver resultsin propagation path changes. Therateof changeof thesepropagation conditions
accounts for thefading rapidity (rateof changeof thefading impairments). Small-scalefading is
also called Rayleighfadingbecauseif themultiplereectivepathsarelargein number and thereis
no line-of-sight signal component, theenvelopeof thereceived signal isstatistically described by a
Rayleigh pdf. When thereisadominant nonfadingsignal component present, such asaline-of-sight
propagation path, thesmall-scalefading envelopeisdescribed by aRician pdf [ 3] . A mobileradio
roamingover alargeareamust processsignalsthat experiencebothtypesof fading: small-scalefading
superimposed on large-scalefading.
There are three basic mechanisms that impact signal propagation in a mobile communication
system. They arereection, diffraction, and scattering[ 3] .
FIGURE18.1: Fadingchannel manifestations.
c
1
9
9
9
b
y
C
R
C
P
r
e
s
s
L
L
C
Reection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon a smooth
surfacewith very largedimensionscompared to theRFsignal wavelength ().
Diffractionoccurswhentheradiopathbetweenthetransmitter andreceiver isobstructed
by a dense body with large dimensions compared to , causing secondary waves to be
formed behind theobstructingbody. Diffraction isaphenomenon that accountsfor RF
energy travelling from transmitter to receiver without a line-of-sight path between the
two. It isoften termed shadowingbecausethediffracted eld can reach thereceiver even
when shadowed by an impenetrableobstruction.
Scattering occurs when a radio wave impinges on either a large rough surface or any
surfacewhosedimensionsareon theorder of or less, causing thereected energy to
spreadout (scatter) inall directions. Inanurbanenvironment, typical signal obstructions
that yield scatteringarelampposts, street signs, and foliage.
Figure18.1 may serveasatableof contentsfor thesectionsthat follow. Wewill examinethetwo
manifestationsof small-scalefading: signal time-spreading(signal dispersion) and thetime-variant
nature of the channel. These examinations will take place in two domains: time and frequency,
as indicated in Fig. 18.1, blocks 7, 10, 13, and 16. For signal dispersion, we categorize the fading
degradation typesasbeingfrequency-selectiveor frequency-nonselective(at), aslisted in blocks8,
9, 11, and 12. For thetime-variant manifestation, wecategorizethefadingdegradation typesasfast-
fadingor slow-fading, aslisted in blocks14, 15, 17, and 18. ThelabelsindicatingFourier transforms
and dualswill beexplained later.
Figure18.2illustratesthevariouscontributionsthat must beconsideredwhenestimatingpathloss
for alink budget analysisin acellular application [4] . Thesecontributionsare:
Mean path lossasafunction of distance, dueto large-scalefading
Near-worst-casevariationsabout themean path loss(typically 610 dB) or large-scale
fadingmargin
Near-worst-caseRayleigh or small-scalefadingmargin (typically 2030dB)
InFig. 18.2, theannotations 12% indicateasuggestedarea(probability) under thetail of each
pdf asadesign goal. Hence, theamount of margin indicatedisintendedtoprovideadequatereceived
signal power for approximately 9899%of each typeof fadingvariation (large- and small-scale).
A received signal, isgenerally described in termsof atransmitted signal s(t ) convolved with the
impulseresponseof thechannel h
c
(t ). Neglectingthedegradation dueto noise, wewrite:
r(t ) = s(t ) h
c
(t ) (18.2)
where
denotesconvolution. In thecaseof mobileradios, r(t ) can bepartitioned in termsof two

component randomvariables, asfollows[ 5] :
r(t ) = m(t ) r
0
(t ) (18.3)
where m(t ) is called the large-scale-fading component, and r
0
(t ) is called the small-scale-fading
component. m(t ) is sometimes referred to as the local meanor log-normal fadingbecause the
magnitude of m(t ) is described by a log-normal pdf (or, equivalently, the magnitude measured
in decibels has a Gaussian pdf ). r
0
(t ) is sometimes referred to as multipath or Rayleigh fading.
Figure18.3 illustrates therelationship between large-scaleand small-scalefading. In Fig. 18.3(a),
received signal power r(t ) vs. antennadisplacement (typically in unitsof wavelength) isplotted for
the case of a mobile radio. Small-scale fading superimposed on large-scale fading can be readily
FIGURE18.2: Link-budget considerationsfor afadingchannel.
identied. Thetypical antennadisplacement between thesmall-scalesignal nullsisapproximately
ahalf wavelength. In Fig. 18.3(b), thelarge-scalefading or local mean, m(t ), hasbeen removed in
order to viewthesmall-scalefading, r
0
(t ), about someaverageconstant power.
Inthesectionsthat follow, weenumeratesomeof thedetailsregardingthestatisticsandmechanisms
of large-scaleand small-scalefading.
18.3.1 Large-ScaleFading: Path-LossMeanandStandardDeviation
For themobileradio application, Okumura[ 6] madesomeof theearlier comprehensivepath-loss
measurements for a widerangeof antenna heights and coveragedistances. Hata [ 7] transformed
Okumuras data into parametric formulas. For the mobile radio application, the mean path loss,
L
p
(d), asafunction of distance, d, between thetransmitter and receiver isproportional to an nth-
power of d relativeto areferencedistanced
0
[ 3] .
L
p
(d)
_
d
d
0
_
n
(18.4)
L
p
(d) isoften stated in decibels, asshown below.
L
p
(d) (dB) = L
s
(d
0
) (dB) +10 n log
_
d
d
0
_
(18.5)
Thereferencedistanced
0
, correspondsto apoint located in thefar eld of theantenna. Typically,
thevalueof d
0
istaken to be1kmfor largecells, 100mfor microcells, and 1mfor indoor channels.
L
p
(d) is the average path loss (over a multitude of different sites) for a given value of d. Linear
FIGURE18.3: Large-scalefadingand small-scalefading.
regression for aminimummean-squared estimate(MMSE) t of L
p
(d) vs. d on alog-logscale(for
distancesgreater than d
0
) yieldsastraight linewith aslopeequal to10n dB/decade. Thevalueof the
exponent n dependson thefrequency, antennaheights, andpropagation environment. In freespace,
n = 2, asseen in Eq. (18.1). In thepresenceof avery strongguided wavephenomenon (likeurban
streets), n can belower than 2. When obstructionsarepresent, n islarger. ThepathlossL
s
(d
0
) tothe
referencepoint at adistanced
0
from thetransmitter istypically found through eld measurements
or iscalculated using thefree-spacepath lossgiven by Eq. (18.1). Figure18.4 showsascatter plot
of path lossvs. distancefor measurementsmadein several German cities[ 8] . Here, thepath loss
hasbeen measured relativeto thefree-spacereferencemeasurement at d
0
= 100 m. Also shown are
straight-linetsto variousexponent values.
The path loss vs. distance expressed in Eq. (18.5) is an average, and therefore not adequate to
describe any particular setting or signal path. It is necessary to provide for variations about the
mean sincetheenvironment of different sitesmay bequitedifferent for similar transmitter-receiver
separations. Figure 18.4 illustrates that path-loss variations can be quite large. Measurements
haveshown that for any valueof d, thepath lossL
p
(d) isarandom variablehaving alog-normal
distribution about the mean distant-dependent value L
p
(d) [ 9] . Thus, path loss L
p
(d) can be
FIGURE18.4: Path lossvs. distancemeasured in several German cities.
expressed in termsof L
p
(d) plusarandomvariableX
, asfollows[ 3] .
L
p
(d) (dB) = L
s
(d
0
) (dB) +10 n log
10
_
d
d
0
_
+ X
(dB) (18.6)
whereX
denotesazero-mean, Gaussian random variable(in decibels) with standard deviation

(also in decibels). X
issiteand distancedependent. Thechoiceof avaluefor X
isoften based on
measurements; it isnot unusual for X
to takeon valuesashigh as610 dBor greater. Thus, the

parametersneededtostatisticallydescribepathlossduetolarge-scalefadingfor an arbitrarylocation
with aspecictransmitter-receiver separation are:
Thereferencedistanced
0
Thepath-lossexponent n
Thestandard deviation of X
Thereareseveral good referencesdealing with themeasurement and estimation of propagation

path lossfor many different applicationsand congurations[ 3] , [ 7] [ 11] .
18.3.2 Small-ScaleFading: StatisticsandMechanisms
When thereceived signal ismadeup of multiplereectiveraysplusasignicant line-of-sight (non-
faded) component, theenvelopeamplitudeduetosmall-scalefadinghasaRician pdf, andisreferred
to asRicianfading[ 3] . Thenonfaded component iscalled thespecularcomponent. Astheampli-
tudeof thespecular component approacheszero, theRicianpdf approachesaRayleighpdf, expressed
as:
p(r) =
_
_
_
r
2
exp
_
r
2
2
2
_
for r 0
0 otherwise
_
_
_
(18.7)
wherer istheenvelopeamplitudeof thereceived signal, and 2
2
isthepredetection mean power
of themultipath signal. TheRayleigh faded component issometimescalled therandom,scatter,or
diffusecomponent. TheRayleigh pdf resultsfromhavingnospecular component of thesignal; thus
for asinglelink it representsthepdf associatedwith theworst caseof fadingper mean receivedsignal
power. For theremainder of thischapter, it will beassumed that lossof signal-to-noiseratio (SNR)
due to fading follows the Rayleigh model described. It will also be assumed that the propagating
signal isin theUHFband, encompassingpresent-daycellular andpersonal communicationsservices
(PCS) frequency allocationsnominally 1GHzand 2GHz, respectively.
Asindicated in Fig. 18.1, blocks4, 5, and 6, small-scalefadingmanifestsitself in two mechanisms:
Time-spreadingof theunderlyingdigital pulseswithin thesignal
Atime-variant behavior of thechannel duetomotion(e.g., areceiveantennaonamoving
platform).
Figure 18.5 illustrates the consequences of both manifestations by showing the response of a
multipath channel toanarrowpulsevs. delay, asafunction of antennaposition (or time, assuminga
constant velocityof motion). InFig. 18.5, wedistinguishbetweentwodifferent timereferencesdelay
time andtransmissionor observationtimet . Delaytimereferstothetime-spreadingmanifestation
which results from the fading channels nonoptimum impulse response. The transmission time,
however, is related to the antennas motion or spatial changes, accounting for propagation path
changesthat areperceived asthechannelstime-variant behavior. Notethat, for constant velocity,
as is assumed in Fig. 18.5, either antenna position or transmission time can be used to illustrate
thistime-variant behavior. Figures18.5(a)(c) show thesequenceof received pulse-power proles
astheantennamovesthrough asuccession of equally spaced positions. Here, theinterval between
antenna positions is 0.4 , where is the wavelength of the carrier frequency. For each of the
three cases shown, the response-pattern differs signicantly in the delay time of the largest signal
component, thenumber of signal copies, their magnitudes, and thetotal received power (area) in
thereceived power prole. Figure18.6 summarizes thesetwo small-scalefading mechanisms, the
two domains(timeor time-delay and frequency or Doppler shift) for viewingeach mechanism and
the degradation categories each mechanism can exhibit. Note that any mechanism characterized
in thetimedomain can becharacterized equally well in thefrequency domain. Hence, asoutlined
in Fig. 18.6, the time-spreading mechanism will be characterized in the time-delay domain as a
multipath delay spread and in thefrequency domain asachannel coherencebandwidth. Similarly,
thetime-variant mechanism will becharacterized in thetimedomain asachannel coherencetime
and in the Doppler-shift (frequency) domain as a channel fading rate or Doppler spread. These
mechanisms and their associated degradation categories will be examined in greater detail in the
sectionsthat follow.
FIGURE18.5: Responseof amultipath channel to anarrowpulsevs. delay, asafunction of antenna
position.
18.4 Signal Time-SpreadingViewedintheTime-Delay
Domain: Figure18.1, Block 7TheMultipath
IntensityProle
Asimplewaytomodel thefadingphenomenonwasintroducedbyBello[ 13] in1963; heproposedthe
notion of wide-sensestationaryuncorrelatedscattering(WSSUS). Themodel treatssignal variations
arrivingwithdifferent delaysasuncorrelated. It canbeshown[ 4, 13] that suchachannel iseffectively
WSSin both thetimeand frequency domains. With such a model of a fading channel, Bello was
ableto denefunctionsthat apply for all timeand all frequencies. For themobilechannel, Fig. 18.7
containsfour functionsthat makeup thismodel [ 4] , [ 13] [ 16] . Wewill examinethesefunctions,
startingwith Fig. 18.7(a) and proceedingcounter-clockwisetoward Fig. 18.7(d).
In Fig. 18.7(a), a multipath-intensityprole, S() vs. time delay is plotted. Knowledge of
S() helpsanswer thequestion, For atransmitted impulse, how doestheaveragereceived power
vary as a function of time delay, ? The term time delay is used to refer to the excess delay.
It represents the signals propagation delay that exceeds the delay of the rst signal arrival at the
receiver. For atypical wirelessradio channel, thereceived signal usually consistsof several discrete
multipathcomponents, sometimesreferredtoasngers. For somechannels, suchasthetropospheric
scatter channel, received signalsareoften seen asa continuum of multipath components[ 14, 16] .
For makingmeasurementsof themultipath intensity prole, wideband signals(impulsesor spread
FIGURE18.6: Small-scalefading: mechanisms, degradation categories, and effects.
c
1
9
9
9
b
y
C
R
C
P
r
e
s
s
L
L
C
FIGURE18.7: Relationshipsamongthechannel correlation functionsand power density functions.
spectrum) needtobeused[ 16] . For asingletransmittedimpulse, thetime, T
m
, between therst and
last received component representsthemaximumexcessdelay, during which themultipath signal
power fallstosomethresholdlevel belowthat of thestrongest component. Thethresholdlevel might
be chosen at 10 dB or 20 dB below the level of the strongest component. Note, that for an ideal
system(zero excessdelay), thefunction S() would consist of an ideal impulsewith weight equal to
thetotal averagereceived signal power.
18.4.1 Degradation Categories dueto Signal Time-SpreadingViewed in the
Time-DelayDomain
In a fading channel, the relationship between maximum excess delay time, T
m
, and symbol time,
T
s
, can beviewed in termsof two different degradation categories, frequency-selectivefadingand
frequencynonselectiveor atfading, as indicated in Fig. 18.1, blocks 8 and 9, and Fig. 18.6. A
channel is said to exhibit frequency-selective fading if T
m
> T
s
. This condition occurs whenever
thereceived multipath componentsof a symbol extend beyond thesymbolstimeduration. Such
multipathdispersionof thesignal yieldsthesamekindof ISI distortionthat iscausedbyanelectronic
lter. In fact, another namefor thiscategory of fading degradation ischannel-inducedISI. In the
caseof frequency-selectivefading, mitigatingthedistortionispossiblebecausemanyof themultipath
componentsareresolvableby thereceiver. Later, several such mitigation techniquesaredescribed.
A channel issaid to exhibit frequency nonselectiveor at fading if T
m
< T
s
. In thiscase, all of
thereceived multipath componentsof asymbol arrivewithin thesymbol timeduration; hence, the
componentsarenot resolvable. Here, thereisnochannel-inducedISI distortion, sincethesignal time
spreadingdoesnot result in signicant overlap amongneighboringreceived symbols. Thereisstill
performancedegradationsincetheunresolvablephasor componentscanaddupdestructivelytoyield
asubstantial reduction in SNR. Also, signalsthat areclassiedasexhibitingat fadingcan sometimes
experiencefrequency-selectivedistortion. Thiswill beexplained later when viewingdegradation in
thefrequency domain, wherethephenomenon ismoreeasily described. For lossin SNRdueto at
fading, themitigation techniquecalled for isto improvethereceived SNR(or reducetherequired
SNR). For digital systems, introducing some form of signal diversity and using error-correction
codingisthemost efcient way to accomplish this.
18.5 Signal Time-SpreadingViewedintheFrequency
Domain: Figure18.1, Block 10The
Spaced-FrequencyCorrelationFunction
Acompletely analogouscharacterization of signal dispersion can begin in thefrequency domain. In
Fig. 18.7(b), thefunction |R(f )| isseen, designated aspaced-frequencycorrelationfunction;it is
theFourier transform of S(). R(f ) representsthecorrelation between thechannelsresponseto
two signalsasafunction of thefrequency differencebetween thetwo signals. It can bethought of as
thechannelsfrequencytransfer function. Therefore, thetime-spreadingmanifestationcanbeviewed
asif it weretheresult of alteringprocess. Knowledgeof R(f ) helpsanswer thequestion, What
isthecorrelation between received signalsthat arespaced in frequency f = f
1
f
2
? R(f ) can
bemeasured by transmittingapair of sinusoidsseparated in frequency by f , cross-correlatingthe
twoseparatelyreceivedsignals, andrepeatingtheprocessmanytimeswithever-larger separationf .
Therefore, themeasurement of R(f ) can bemadewith asinusoid that isswept in frequencyacross
theband of interest (awideband signal). Thecoherencebandwidth, f
0
, isastatistical measureof
therangeof frequenciesover which thechannel passesall spectral componentswith approximately
equal gain andlinear phase. Thus, thecoherencebandwidthrepresentsafrequencyrangeover which
frequency componentshaveastrongpotential for amplitudecorrelation. That is, asignalsspectral
componentsin that rangeareaffected by thechannel in asimilar manner, asfor example, exhibiting
fadingor no fading. Notethat f
0
and T
m
arereciprocally related (within amultiplicativeconstant).
Asan approximation, it ispossibleto say that
f
0

1
T
m
(18.8)
Themaximum excess delay, T
m
, is not necessarily thebest indicator of how any given system will
performon achannel becausedifferent channelswith thesamevalueof T
m
can exhibit verydifferent
prolesof signal intensity over thedelay span. A moreuseful measurement of delay spread ismost
often characterized in termsof theroot mean squared (rms) delay spread,
, where
=
_
2
()
2
(18.9)
isthemean excessdelay, ()
2
isthemean squared,
2
isthesecond moment, and
isthesquare
root of thesecond central moment of S() [ 3] .
An exact relationship between coherencebandwidth and delay spread doesnot exist, and must be
derived from signal analysis(usually usingFourier techniques) of actual signal dispersion measure-
mentsin particular channels. Several approximaterelationshipshavebeen described. If coherence
bandwidth isdened asthefrequency interval over which thechannelscomplex frequency transfer
function hasacorrelation of at least 0.9, thecoherencebandwidth isapproximately [ 17]
f
0

1
50
(18.10)
For the case of a mobile radio, an array of radially uniformly spaced scatterers, all with equal-
magnitudereection coefcientsbut independent, randomly occurringreection phaseangles[18,
19] isgenerally accepted asauseful model for urban surroundings. Thismodel isreferred to asthe
dense-scattererchannel model. With theuseof such amodel, coherencebandwidth hassimilarly
been dened [ 18] for a bandwidth interval over which the channels complex frequency transfer
function hasacorrelation of at least 0.5to be
f
0
=
0.276
(18.11)
Theionospheric-effectscommunity employsthefollowingdenition
f
0
=
1
2
(18.12)
A morepopular approximation of f
0
correspondingto abandwidth interval havingacorrelation of
at least 0.5is[ 3]
f
0

1
5
(18.13)
18.5.1 Degradation Categories dueto Signal Time-SpreadingViewed in the
FrequencyDomain
A channel is referred to as frequency-selectiveif f
0
< 1/T
s
W, wherethesymbol rate1/T
s
is
nominally taken to beequal to thesignal bandwidth W. In practice, W may differ from 1/T
s
due
to system ltering or datamodulation type(quaternary phaseshift keying, QPSK, minimum shift
keying, MSK, etc.) [ 21] . Frequency-selectivefading distortion occurs whenever a signals spectral
componentsarenot all affected equally by thechannel. Someof thesignalsspectral components,
falling outsidethecoherencebandwidth, will beaffected differently (independently) compared to
thosecomponentscontained within thecoherencebandwidth. Thisoccurswhenever f
0
< W and
isillustrated in Fig. 18.8(a).
FIGURE 18.8: Relationships between the channel frequency-transfer function and a signal with
bandwidth W.
Frequency-nonselective or at fading degradation occurs whenever f
0
> W. Hence, all of the
signals spectral components will be affected by the channel in a similar manner (e.g., fading or
no fading); this is illustrated in Fig. 18.8(b). Flat-fading does not introduce channel-induced ISI
distortion, but performancedegradation can still beexpected dueto thelossin SNRwhenever the
signal isfading. In order to avoid channel-induced ISI distortion, thechannel isrequired to exhibit
at fadingby insuringthat
f
0
> W
1
T
s
(18.14)
Hence, thechannel coherencebandwidth f
0
setsan upper limit on thetransmission ratethat can
beused without incorporatingan equalizer in thereceiver.
For the at-fading case, where f
0
> W (or T
m
< T
s
), Fig. 18.8(b) shows the usual at-fading
pictorial representation. However, asamobileradio changesitsposition, therewill betimeswhen
thereceived signal experiencesfrequency-selectivedistortion even though f
0
> W. Thisisseen in
Fig. 18.8(c), wherethenull of thechannelsfrequency transfer function occursat thecenter of the
signal band. Whenever thisoccurs, thebaseband pulsewill beespecially mutilated by deprivation of
itsDCcomponent. Oneconsequenceof thelossof DC(zero mean value) istheabsenceof areliable
pulsepeak on which to establish thetiming synchronization, or from which to samplethecarrier
phasecarried by thepulse[ 18] . Thus, even though achannel iscategorized asat fading(based on
rmsrelationships), it can still manifest frequency-selectivefadingon occasions. It isfair to say that a
mobileradiochannel, classiedashavingat-fadingdegradation, cannot exhibit at fadingall of the
time. Asf
0
becomesmuch larger than W (or T
m
becomesmuch smaller than T
s
), lesstimewill be
spent in conditionsapproximatingFig. 18.8(c). Bycomparison, it shouldbeclear that in Fig. 18.8(a)
thefading isindependent of theposition of thesignal band, and frequency-selectivefading occurs
all thetime, not just occasionally.
18.6 Typical Examplesof Flat Fadingand
Frequency-SelectiveFadingManifestations
Figure18.9showssomeexamplesof at fadingand frequency-selectivefadingfor adirect-sequence
spread-spectrum (DS/SS) system [ 20, 22] . In Fig. 18.9, there are three plots of the output of a
pseudonoise(PN) codecorrelator vs. delayasafunction of time(transmission or observation time).
Each amplitudevs. delay plot isakin to S() vs. shown in Fig. 18.7(a). Thekey differenceisthat
theamplitudesshown in Fig. 18.9 represent theoutput of acorrelator; hence, thewaveshapesarea
function not onlyof theimpulseresponseof thechannel, but alsoof theimpulseresponseof thecor-
relator. Thedelaytimeisexpressedin unitsof chipdurations(chips), wherethechipisdenedasthe
spread-spectrumminimal-duration keyingelement. For eachplot, theobservation timeisshown on
an axisperpendicular totheamplitudevs. time-delayplane. Figure18.9isdrawn fromasatellite-to-
groundcommunicationslink exhibitingscintillationbecauseof atmosphericdisturbances. However,
Fig. 18.9isstill auseful illustration of threedifferent channel conditionsthat might applytoamobile
radio situation. A mobileradio that movesalongtheobservation-timeaxisisaffected by changing
multipath prolesalongtheroute, asseen in thegure. Thescalealongtheobservation-timeaxisis
also in unitsof chips. In Fig. 18.9(a), thesignal dispersion (onenger of return) ison theorder
of a chip timeduration, T
ch
. In a typical DS/SSsystem, thespread-spectrum signal bandwidth is
approximately equal to 1/T
ch
; hence, thenormalized coherencebandwidth f
0
T
ch
of approximately
unity in Fig. 18.9(a) implies that the coherence bandwidth is about equal to the spread-spectrum
bandwidth. Thisdescribesachannel that can becalled frequency-nonselectiveor slightlyfrequency-
selective. In Fig. 18.9(b), wheref
0
T
ch
= 0.25, thesignal dispersion ismorepronounced. Thereis
FIGURE18.9: DS/SSMatched-lter output time-history examplesfor threelevelsof channel condi-
tions, whereT
ch
isthetimeduration of achip.
deniteinterchip interference, and thecoherencebandwidth isapproximately equal to 25% of the
spread-spectrum bandwidth. In Fig. 18.9(c), wheref
0
T
ch
= 0.1, thesignal dispersion iseven more
pronounced, with greater interchip-interference effects, and the coherence bandwidth is approxi-
mately equal to 10%of thespread-spectrum bandwidth. Thechannelsof Figs. 18.9(b) and (c) can
becategorized asmoderately and highly frequency-selective, respectively, with respect to thebasic
signallingelement, thechip. Later, weshowthat aDS/SSsystemoperatingover afrequency-selective
channel at thechip level doesnot necessarily experiencefrequency-selectivedistortion at thesymbol
level.
18.7 TimeVarianceViewedintheTimeDomain:
Figure18.1, Block 13TheSpaced-TimeCorrelation
Function
Until now, wehavedescribed signal dispersion and coherencebandwidth, parametersthat describe
thechannelstime-spreadingpropertiesinalocal area. However, theydonot offer informationabout
thetime-varyingnatureof thechannel caused byrelativemotion between atransmitter and receiver,
or by movement of objectswithin thechannel. For mobile-radio applications, thechannel istime
variant becausemotion between thetransmitter and receiver resultsin propagation-path changes.
Thus, for atransmitted continuouswave(CW) signal, asaresult of such motion, theradio receiver
sees variations in the signals amplitude and phase. Assuming that all scatterers making up the
channel arestationary, then whenever motion ceases, theamplitudeand phaseof thereceived signal
remain constant; that is, thechannel appearsto betimeinvariant. Whenever motion beginsagain,
thechannel appearstimevariant. Sincethechannel characteristicsaredependent on thepositions
of thetransmitter and receiver, timevariancein thiscaseisequivalent to spatial variance.
Figure18.7(c) showsthefunction R(t ), designated thespaced-timecorrelationfunction;it is
theautocorrelationfunctionof thechannelsresponsetoasinusoid. Thisfunctionspeciestheextent
to which there is correlation between the channels response to a sinusoid sent at time t
1
and the
responsetoasimilar sinusoidsent at timet
2
, wheret = t
2
t
1
. Thecoherencetime,T
0
, isameasure
of theexpected timeduration over which thechannelsresponseisessentially invariant. Earlier, we
mademeasurementsof signal dispersion andcoherencebandwidthbyusingwidebandsignals. Now,
to measurethetime-variant natureof thechannel, weuseanarrowband signal. To measureR(t )
we can transmit a single sinusoid (f = 0) and determine the autocorrelation function of the
received signal. The function R(t ) and the parameter T
0
provide us with knowledge about the
fading rapidity of thechannel. Notethat for an ideal time-invariantchannel (e.g., amobileradio
exhibitingno motion at all), thechannelsresponsewould behighly correlated for all valuesof t ,
and R(t ) would beaconstant function. When usingthedense-scatterer channel model described
earlier, with constant velocity of motion, and an unmodulated CW signal, thenormalized R(t ) is
described as
R(t ) = J
0
(kVt ) (18.15)
whereJ
0
() isthezero-order Bessel function of therst kind, V isvelocity, Vt isdistancetraversed,
andk = 2/isthefree-spacephaseconstant (transformingdistancetoradiansof phase). Coherence
timecan bemeasured in termsof either timeor distancetraversed (assumingsomexed velocity of
motion). Amoroso described such ameasurement usingaCW signal and adense-scatterer channel
model [ 18] . Hemeasured thestatistical correlation between thecombination of received magnitude
and phasesampled at aparticular antennalocation x
0
, and thecorrespondingcombination sampled
at some displaced location x
0
+ , with displacement measured in units of wavelength . For a
displacement of 0.38 between twoantennalocations, thecombinedmagnitudesandphasesof the
received CW arestatistically uncorrelated. In other words, thestateof thesignal at x
0
saysnothing
about thestateof thesignal at x
0
+ . For agiven velocity of motion, thisdisplacement isreadily
transformed into unitsof time(coherencetime).
18.7.1 TheConcept of Duality
Two operators(functions, elements, or systems) aredual when thebehavior of onewith referenceto
atime-related domain (timeor time-delay) isidentical to thebehavior of theother with referenceto
thecorrespondingfrequency-related domain (frequency or Doppler shift).
In Fig. 18.7, wecan identify functionsthat exhibit similar behavior acrossdomains. For under-
standing the fading channel model, it is useful to refer to such functions as duals. For example,
R(f ) in Fig. 18.7(b), characterizingsignal dispersion in thefrequency domain, yieldsknowledge
about therangeof frequency over which two spectral componentsof areceived signal haveastrong
potential for amplitudeand phasecorrelation. R(t ) in Fig. 18.7(c), characterizingfadingrapidity
in thetimedomain, yieldsknowledgeabout thespan of timeover which two received signalshavea
strongpotential for amplitudeandphasecorrelation. Wehavelabeledthesetwocorrelationfunctions
asduals. Thisisalso noted in Fig. 18.1 astheduality between blocks10 and 13, and in Fig. 18.6 as
theduality between thetime-spreading mechanism in thefrequency domain and thetime-variant
mechanismin thetimedomain.
18.7.2 DegradationCategoriesduetoTimeVarianceViewedinthe
TimeDomain
Thetime-variant natureof thechannel or fadingrapidity mechanismcan beviewed in termsof two
degradation categories as listed in Fig. 18.6: fast fadingand slowfading. The terminology fast
fading isusedfor describingchannelsin whichT
0
< T
s
, whereT
0
isthechannel coherencetimeand
T
s
isthetimeduration of atransmission symbol. Fast fadingdescribesacondition wherethetime
durationinwhichthechannel behavesinacorrelatedmanner isshort comparedtothetimeduration
of asymbol. Therefore, it can beexpectedthat thefadingcharacter of thechannel will changeseveral
times during the time that a symbol is propagating, leading to distortion of the baseband pulse
shape. Analogous to the distortion previously described as channel-induced ISI, here distortion
takesplacebecausethereceived signalscomponentsarenot all highly correlated throughout time.
Hence, fast fadingcan causethebaseband pulseto bedistorted, resultingin alossof SNRthat often
yields an irreducible error rate. Such distorted pulses cause synchronization problems (failure of
phase-locked-loop receivers), in addition to difcultiesin adequately deningamatched lter.
Achannel isgenerallyreferredtoasintroducingslowfadingif T
0
> T
s
. Here, thetimedurationthat
thechannel behavesin acorrelated manner islongcompared to thetimeduration of atransmission
symbol. Thus, one can expect the channel state to virtually remain unchanged during the time
in which a symbol is transmitted. The propagating symbols will likely not suffer from the pulse
distortion described above. Theprimary degradation in aslow-fadingchannel, aswith at fading,
islossin SNR.
18.8 TimeVarianceViewedintheDoppler-Shift Domain:
Figure18.1, Block 16TheDoppler Power Spectrum
A completely analogouscharacterization of thetime-variant natureof thechannel can begin in the
Doppler-shift (frequency) domain. Figure18.7(d) showsaDoppler power spectral density, S(v),
plotted as a function of Doppler-frequency shift, v. For the case of the dense-scatterer model, a
vertical receiveantennawith constant azimuthal gain, auniform distribution of signalsarriving at
all arrival anglesthroughout therange(0, 2), andan unmodulatedCWsignal, thesignal spectrum
at theantennaterminalsis[ 19]
S(v) =
1
f
d
_
1
_
vf
c
f
d
_
2
(18.16)
Theequality holdsfor frequency shiftsof v that arein therangef
d
about thecarrier frequency f
c
andwouldbezerooutsidethat range. Theshapeof theRFDoppler spectrumdescribedbyEq. (18.16)
isclassicallybowl-shaped, asseen in Fig. 18.7(d). Notethat thespectral shapeisaresult of thedense-
scatterer channel model. Equation (18.16) has been shown to match experimental data gathered
for mobileradio channels[ 23] ; however, different applicationsyield different spectral shapes. For
example, thedense-scatterer model doesnot hold for theindoor radio channel; thechannel model
for an indoor areaassumesS(v) to beaat spectrum[ 24] .
In Fig. 18.7(d), thesharpnessand steepnessof theboundariesof theDoppler spectrum aredue
to thesharp upper limit on theDoppler shift produced by avehicular antennatravelingamongthe
stationary scatterersof thedensescatterer model. Thelargest magnitude(innite) of S(v) occurs
when thescatterer isdirectlyaheadof themovingantennaplatformor directlybehindit. In that case
themagnitudeof thefrequency shift isgiven by
f
d
=
V
(18.17)
whereV isrelativevelocity and isthesignal wavelength. f
d
ispositivewhen thetransmitter and
receiver movetoward each other and negativewhen moving away from each other. For scatterers
directlybroadsideof themovingplatform, themagnitudeof thefrequencyshift iszero. Thefact that
Doppler componentsarriving at exactly 0
and 180
havean innitepower spectral density isnot

aproblem, sincetheangleof arrival iscontinuously distributed and theprobability of components
arrivingat exactly theseanglesiszero [ 3, 19] .
S(v) istheFourier transformof R(t ). Weknowthat theFourier transformof theautocorrelation
function of atimeseriesisthemagnitudesquaredof theFourier transformof theoriginal timeseries.
Therefore, measurementscan bemadeby simply transmittingasinusoid (narrowband signal) and
usingFourier analysisto generatethepower spectrumof thereceived amplitude[ 16] . ThisDoppler
power spectrum of the channel yields knowledge about the spectral spreading of a transmitted
sinusoid (impulsein frequency) in theDoppler-shift domain. Asindicated in Fig. 18.7, S(v) can be
regarded asthedual of themultipath intensity prole, S(), sincethelatter yieldsknowledgeabout
thetimespreadingof atransmitted impulsein thetime-delay domain. Thisisalsonoted in Fig. 18.1
astheduality between blocks7 and 16, and in Fig. 18.6 astheduality between thetime-spreading
mechanismin thetime-delaydomain andthetime-variant mechanismin theDoppler-shift domain.
Knowledgeof S(v) allowsusto glean howmuch spectral broadeningisimposed on thesignal as
a function of the rate of change in the channel state. The width of the Doppler power spectrum
isreferred to asthespectral broadeningor Dopplerspread, denoted by f
d
, and sometimescalled
thefadingbandwidthof thechannel. Equation (18.16) describestheDoppler frequency shift. In a
typical multipath environment, thereceived signal arrivesfromseveral reected pathswith different
path distancesand different anglesof arrival, and theDoppler shift of each arrivingpath isgenerally
different from that of another path. Theeffect on thereceived signal isseen asaDoppler spreading
or spectral broadeningof thetransmittedsignal frequency, rather than ashift. Notethat theDoppler
spread, f
d
, and thecoherencetime, T
0
, arereciprocally related (within a multiplicativeconstant).
Therefore, weshowtheapproximaterelationship between thetwo parametersas
T
0

1
f
d
(18.18)
Hence, theDoppler spreadf
d
or 1/T
0
isregardedasthetypical fadingrateof thechannel. Earlier,
T
0
was described as the expected time duration over which the channels response to a sinusoid
is essentially invariant. When T
0
is dened more precisely as the time duration over which the
channelsresponseto asinusoid hasacorrelation of at least 0.5, therelationship between T
0
and f
d
isapproximately [ 4]
T
0

9
16f
d
(18.19)
A popular ruleof thumb isto deneT
0
asthegeometric mean of Eqs. (18.18) and (18.19). This
yields
T
0
=
_
9
16f
2
d
=
0.423
f
d
(18.20)
For thecaseof a900MHzmobileradio, Fig. 18.10illustratesthetypical effect of Rayleigh fading
on a signals envelope amplitude vs. time [ 3] . The gure shows that the distance traveled by the
FIGURE18.10: A typical Rayleigh fadingenvelopeat 900MHz.
mobilein thetimeinterval corresponding to two adjacent nulls(small-scalefades) ison theorder
of ahalf-wavelength (/2) [ 3] . Thus, from Fig. 18.10and Eq. (18.17), thetime(approximately, the
coherencetime) required to traverseadistance/2 when travelingat aconstant velocity, V, is:
T
0

/2
V
=
0.5
f
d
(18.21)
Thus, when theinterval between fadesistaken to be/2, asin Fig. 18.10, theresultingexpression
for T
0
in Eq. (18.21) isquiteclosetotherule-of-thumbshown in Eq. (18.20). UsingEq. (18.21), with
theparametersshown in Fig. 18.10 (velocity = 120 km/hr, and carrier frequency = 900 MHz), it is
straightforward to computethat thecoherencetimeisapproximately 5 msand theDoppler spread
(channel fading rate) isapproximately 100 Hz. Therefore, if thisexamplerepresentsavoice-grade
channel with atypical transmission rateof 10
4
symbols/s, thefading rateisconsiderably lessthan
thesymbol rate. Under such conditions, thechannel would manifest slow-fadingeffects. Notethat
if theabscissaof Fig. 18.10werelabeled in unitsof wavelength instead of time, thegurewould look
thesamefor any radio frequency and any antennaspeed.
18.9 AnalogyBetweenSpectral BroadeninginFading
ChannelsandSpectral BroadeninginDigital Signal
Keying
Help isoften needed in understandingwhy spectral broadeningof thesignal isafunction of fading
rateof thechannel. Figure18.11 usesthekeyingof adigital signal (such asamplitude-shift-keying
or frequency-shift-keying) to illustratean analogouscase. Figure18.11(a) showsthat asingletone,
cos 2f
c
t (< t < ) that existsfor all timeischaracterized in thefrequency domain in terms
of impulses (at f
c
). This frequency domain representation is ideal (i.e., zero bandwidth), since
the tone is pure and neverending. In practical applications, digital signalling involves switching
(keying) signalson and off at arequired rate. Thekeyingoperation can beviewed asmultiplyingthe
innite-duration tonein Fig. 18.11(a) by an ideal rectangular (switching) function in Fig. 18.11(b).
The frequency-domain description of the ideal rectangular function is of the form (sin f )/f . In
Fig. 18.11(c), theresult of themultiplication yieldsatone, cos 2f
c
t , that istime-duration limited
in theinterval T/2 < t < T/2. Theresulting spectrum is obtained by convolving thespectral
impulsesin part (a) with the(sin f )/f function in part (b), yieldingthebroadenedspectrumin part
(c). It isfurther seen that, if thesignalling occursat a faster ratecharacterized by therectangleof
shorter duration in part (d), theresultingspectrumof thesignal in part (e) exhibitsgreater spectral
broadening. Thechangingstateof afadingchannel issomewhat analogousto thekeyingon and off
of digital signals. Thechannel behaveslikeaswitch, turningthesignal on and off. Thegreater
therapidity of thechangein thechannel state, thegreater thespectral broadening of thereceived
signals. The analogy is not exact because the on and off switching of signals may result in phase
discontinuities, but thetypical multipath-scatterer environment inducesphase-continuouseffects.
18.10 Degradation Categories dueto TimeVariance, Viewedin
theDoppler-Shift Domain
A channel isreferred to asfast fadingif thesymbol rate, 1/T
s
(approximately equal to thesignalling
rate or bandwidth W) is less than the fading rate, 1/T
0
(approximately equal to f
d
); that is, fast
fadingischaracterized by
W < f
d
(18.22a)
or
T
s
> T
0
(18.22b)
Conversely, achannel isreferred to asslow fading if thesignalling rateisgreater than thefading
FIGURE18.11: Analogy between spectral broadeningin fadingand spectral broadeningin keyingadigital signal.
c
1
9
9
9
b
y
C
R
C
P
r
e
s
s
L
L
C
rate. Thus, in order to avoid signal distortion caused by fast fading, thechannel must bemadeto
exhibit slowfadingby insuringthat thesignallingratemust exceed thechannel fadingrate. That is
W > f
d
(18.23a)
or
T
s
< T
0
(18.23b)
In Eq. (18.14), it wasshown that dueto signal dispersion, thecoherencebandwidth, f
0
, setsan
upper limit on thesignallingratewhichcan beusedwithout sufferingfrequency-selectivedistortion.
Similarly, Eq. (18.23a18.23b) showsthat duetoDoppler spreading, thechannel fadingrate, f
d
, sets
alower limit on thesignallingratethat can beused without sufferingfast-fadingdistortion. For HF
communicatingsystems, whenteletypeor Morse-codedmessagesweretransmittedat alowdatarate,
the channels were often fast fading. However, most present-day terrestrial mobile-radio channels
can generally becharacterized asslowfading.
Equation (18.23a18.23b) doesnt go far enough in describing what wedesireof thechannel. A
better way to statetherequirement for mitigating theeffectsof fast fading would bethat wedesire
W f
d
(or T
s
T
0
). If thiscondition isnot satised, therandom frequency modulation (FM)
due to varying Doppler shifts will limit the system performance signicantly. The Doppler effect
yields an irreducible error rate that cannot be overcome by simply increasing E
b
/N
0
[ 25] . This
irreducible error rate is most pronounced for any modulation that involves switching the carrier
phase. Asinglespecular Doppler path, without scatterers, registersan instantaneousfrequencyshift,
classically calculated asf
d
= V/. However, acombination of specular and multipath components
yieldsarather complex timedependenceof instantaneousfrequency which can causemuch larger
frequency swings than V/ when detected by an instantaneous frequency detector (a nonlinear
device) [ 26] . Ideally, coherent demodulatorsthat lock onto and track theinformation signal should
suppresstheeffect of thisFM noiseand thuscancel theimpact of Doppler shift. However, for large
valuesof f
d
, carrier recovery becomesaproblem becausevery wideband (relativeto thedatarate)
phase-lock loops (PLLs) need to bedesigned. For voice-gradeapplications with bit-error rates of
10
3
to 10
4
, alargevalueof Doppler shift isconsidered to beon theorder of 0.01 W. Therefore,
to avoid fast-fading distortion and the Doppler-induced irreducible error rate, the signalling rate
should exceed thefadingrateby afactor of 100 to 200 [ 27] . Theexact factor dependson thesignal
modulation, receiver design, and required error-rate[3] , [ 26] [ 29] . Davarian [ 29] showed that a
frequency-tracking loop can help lower, but not completely remove, theirreducibleerror ratein a
mobilesystemwhen usingdifferential minimum-shift keyed (DMSK) modulation.
18.11 MitigationMethods
Figure18.12, subtitled TheGood, TheBad, and TheAwful, highlightsthreemajor performance
categoriesin termsof bit-error probability, P
B
, vs. E
b
/N
0
. Theleftmost exponentially-shapedcurve
representstheperformancethat canbeexpectedwhenusinganynominal modulationtypeinAWGN.
Observe that with a reasonable amount of E
b
/N
0
, good performance results. The middle curve,
referred to astheRayleighlimit, showstheperformancedegradation resulting from alossin SNR
that is characteristic of at fading or slow fading when thereis no line-of-sight signal component
present. The curve is a function of the reciprocal of E
b
/N
0
(an inverse-linear function), so for
reasonable values of SNR, performance will generally be bad. In the case of Rayleigh fading,
parameterswith overbarsareoften introduced to indicatethat amean isbeingtaken over theups
anddowns of thefadingexperience. Therefore, oneoften seessuch bit-error probabilityplotswith
mean parametersdenoted byP
B
and E
b
/N
0
. Thecurvethat reachesan irreduciblelevel, sometimes
called an erroroor,representsawful performance, wherethebit-error probability can approach
thevalueof 0.5. Thisshowstheseveredistortingeffectsof frequency-selectivefadingor fast fading.
FIGURE18.12: Error performance: Thegood, thebad, and theawful.
If the channel introduces signal distortion as a result of fading, the system performance can
exhibit an irreducibleerror rate; when larger than thedesired error rate, no amount of E
b
/N
0
will
help achieve the desired level of performance. In such cases, the general approach for improving
performanceisto usesomeform of mitigation to removeor reducethedistortion. Themitigation
method depends on whether the distortion is caused by frequency-selective fading or fast fading.
Oncethedistortion hasbeen mitigated, theP
B
vs. E
b
/N
0
performanceshould havetransitioned
fromtheawful bottomingout curvetothemerely bad Rayleighlimit curve. Next, wecan further
amelioratetheeffectsof fadingand striveto approach AWGN performanceby usingsomeform of
diversity to providethereceiver with acollection of uncorrelated samplesof thesignal, and by using
apowerful error-correction code.
In Fig. 18.13, several mitigation techniquesfor combatingtheeffectsof both signal distortion and
lossin SNRarelisted. Just asFigs. 18.1and18.6serveasaguidefor characterizingfadingphenomena
and their effects, Fig. 18.13 can similarly serveto describemitigation methodsthat can beused to
amelioratetheeffectsof fading. Themitigation approach to beused should followtwo basic steps:
rst, providedistortion mitigation; second, providediversity.
18.11.1 MitigationtoCombat Frequency-SelectiveDistortion
Equalization can compensate for the channel-induced ISI that is seen in frequency-
selectivefading. That is, it canhelpmovetheoperatingpoint fromtheerror-performance
curvethat isawful in Fig. 18.12to theonethat is bad. Theprocessof equalizingthe
ISI involvessomemethodof gatheringthedispersedsymbol energyback together intoits
original timeinterval. Ineffect, equalizationinvolvesinsertionof alter tomakethecom-
bination of channel and lter yield aat responsewith linear phase. Thephaselinearity
isachievedbymakingtheequalizer lter thecomplex conjugateof thetimereverseof the
dispersed pulse[ 30] . Becausein amobilesystem thechannel responsevarieswith time,
theequalizer lter must alsochangeor adapt tothetime-varyingchannel. Suchequalizer
lters are, therefore, called adaptive equalizers. An equalizer accomplishes more than
distortion mitigation; it also providesdiversity. Sincedistortion mitigation isachieved
by gatheringthedispersed symbolsenergy back into thesymbolsoriginal timeinterval
so that it doesnt hamper thedetection of other symbols, theequalizer issimultaneously
providingeach received symbol with energy that would otherwisebelost.
Thedecisionfeedbackequalizer (DFE) hasafeedforwardsectionthat isalinear transversal
lter [ 30] whoselengthandtapweightsareselectedtocoherentlycombinevirtuallyall of
thecurrent symbolsenergy. TheDFEalso hasafeedback section which removesenergy
that remainsfrom previously detected symbols[ 14] , [ 30] [ 32] . Thebasic ideabehind
the DFEis that once an information symbol has been detected, the ISI that it induces
on futuresymbolscan beestimated and subtracted beforethedetection of subsequent
symbols.
Themaximum-likelihood sequenceestimation (MLSE) equalizer testsall possibledata
sequences (rather than decoding each received symbol by itself ) and chooses the data
sequence that is the most probable of the candidates. The MLSE equalizer was rst
proposed by Forney [ 33] when heimplemented theequalizer usingtheViterbi decoding
algorithm [ 34] . The MLSE is optimal in the sense that it minimizes the probability
of a sequence error. Because the Viterbi decoding algorithm is the way in which the
MLSEequalizer istypically implemented, theequalizer isoften referred to astheViterbi
equalizer. Later in thischapter, weillustratetheadaptiveequalization performed in the
FIGURE18.13: Basicmitigation types.
c
1
9
9
9
b
y
C
R
C
P
r
e
s
s
L
L
C
Global Systemfor MobileCommunications(GSM) usingtheViterbi equalizer.
Spread-spectrum techniques can be used to mitigate frequency-selective ISI distortion
becausethehallmarkof anyspread-spectrumsystemisitscapabilitytoreject interference,
and ISI isa typeof interference. Consider a direct-sequencespread-spectrum (DS/SS)
binaryphaseshift keying(PSK) communication channel comprisingonedirect path and
one reected path. Assume that the propagation from transmitter to receiver results
in a multipath wave that is delayed by
k
compared to the direct wave. If the receiver
is synchronized to the waveform arriving via the direct path, the received signal, r(t ),
neglectingnoise, can beexpressed as
r(t ) = Ax(t )g(t ) cos (2f
c
t ) +Ax (t
k
) g (t
k
) cos (2f
c
t +) (18.24)
wherex(t ) isthedatasignal, g(t ) isthepseudonoise(PN) spreadingcode, and
k
isthe
differential timedelaybetweenthetwopaths. Theangleisarandomphase, assumedto
beuniformly distributed in therange(0, 2), and istheattenuation of themultipath
signal relativeto thedirect path signal. Thereceiver multipliestheincomingr(t ) by the
codeg(t ). If thereceiver issynchronized to thedirect path signal, multiplication by the
codesignal yields
Ax(t )g
2
(t ) cos (2f
c
t ) +Ax (t
k
) g(t )g (t
k
) cos (2f
c
t +) (18.25)
whereg
2
(t ) = 1, and if
k
isgreater than thechip duration, then,
_
g
(t )g (t
k
) dt
_
g
(t )g(t )dt (18.26)

over someappropriateinterval of integration (correlation), where
indicates complex
conjugate, and
k
is equal to or larger than the PN chip duration. Thus, the spread
spectrum system effectively eliminatesthemultipath interferenceby virtueof itscode-
correlation receiver. Even though channel-induced ISI istypically transparent to DS/SS
systems, such systemssuffer from thelossin energy contained in all themultipath com-
ponentsnot seen by thereceiver. Theneed to gather up thislost energy belongingto the
received chip wasthemotivation for developingtheRakereceiver [ 35] [ 37] . TheRake
receiver dedicatesaseparatecorrelator to each multipath component (nger). It isable
to coherently add theenergy from each nger by selectively delaying them (theearliest
component getsthelongest delay) so that they can all becoherently combined.
Earlier, we described a channel that could be classied as at fading, but occasionally
exhibitsfrequency-selectivedistortion when thenull of thechannelsfrequency transfer
functionoccursat thecenter of thesignal band. Theuseof DS/SSisagoodwaytomitigate
such distortion becausethewideband SSsignal would span many lobesof theselectively
faded frequency response. Hence, agreat deal of pulseenergy would then bepassed by
thescatterer medium, in contrast to thenullingeffect on arelatively narrowband signal
[ seeFig. 18.8(c)] [ 18] .
Frequency-hoppingspread-spectrum(FH/SS) can beused tomitigatethedistortion due
to frequency-selectivefading, provided thehopping rateisat least equal to thesymbol
rate. Compared to DS/SS, mitigation takes place through a different mechanism. FH
receiversavoid multipath lossesbyrapid changesin thetransmitter frequencyband, thus
avoidingtheinterferenceby changingthereceiver band position beforethearrival of the
multipath signal.
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing(OFDM) can beusedin frequency-selective
fadingchannelstoavoidtheuseof an equalizer bylengtheningthesymbol duration. The
signal band is partitioned into multiplesubbands, each oneexhibiting a lower symbol
ratethan theoriginal band. Thesubbandsarethen transmitted on multipleorthogonal
carriers. The goal is to reduce the symbol rate (signalling rate), W 1/T
s
, on each
carrier to be less than the channels coherence bandwidth f
0
. OFDM was originally
referred toasKineplex. Thetechniquehasbeen implemented in theU.S. in mobileradio
systems[ 38] , and hasbeen chosen by theEuropean community under thenameCoded
OFDM (COFDM), for high-denition television (HDTV) broadcasting[ 39] .
Pilot signal isthenamegiven to asignal intended to facilitatethecoherent detection of
waveforms. Pilot signals can be implemented in the frequency domain as an in-band
tone[ 40] , or in thetimedomain asapilot sequence, which can also provideinformation
about thechannel stateand thusimproveperformancein fading[ 41] .
18.11.2 MitigationtoCombat Fast-FadingDistortion
For fast fadingdistortion, usearobust modulation (noncoherent or differentially coher-
ent) that doesnot requirephasetracking, and reducethedetector integration time[ 20] .
Increasethesymbol rate, W 1/T
s
, to begreater than thefading rate, f
d
1/T
0
, by
addingsignal redundancy.
Error-correction codingand interleavingcan providemitigation becauseinstead of pro-
vidingmoresignal energy, acodereducestherequired E
b
/N
0
. For agiven E
b
/N
0
, with
codingpresent, theerror oor will belowered compared to theuncoded case.
An interestinglteringtechniquecan providemitigation in theevent of fast-fadingdis-
tortion and frequency-selective distortion occurring simultaneously. The frequency-
selective distortion can be mitigated by the use of an OFDM signal set. Fast fading,
however, will typically degradeconventional OFDM becausetheDoppler spreadingcor-
ruptstheorthogonality of theOFDM subcarriers. A polyphaselteringtechnique[ 42]
isused to providetime-domain shaping and duration extension to reducethespectral
sidelobes of thesignal set and thus help preserveits orthogonality. Theprocess intro-
ducesknown ISI and adjacent channel interference(ACI) which arethen removed by a
post-processingequalizer and cancelinglter [ 43] .
18.11.3 MitigationtoCombat LossinSNR
After implementingsomeformof mitigationtocombat thepossibledistortion(frequency-selectiveor
fast fading), thenext stepistousesomeformof diversitytomovetheoperatingpoint fromtheerror-
performancecurvelabeled as bad in Fig. 18.12 to a curvethat approachesAWGN performance.
Theterm diversity isused to denotethevariousmethodsavailablefor providingthereceiver with
uncorrelated renditionsof thesignal. Uncorrelated istheimportant featurehere, sinceit would not
help the receiver to have additional copies of the signal if the copies were all equally poor. Listed
belowaresomeof thewaysin which diversity can beimplemented.
TimediversityTransmit thesignal on L different timeslotswith timeseparation of at
least T
0
. Interleaving, often usedwitherror-correction coding, isaformof timediversity.
Frequency diversityTransmit the signal on L different carriers with frequency sep-
aration of at least f
0
. Bandwidth expansion is a form of frequency diversity. The
signal bandwidth, W, is expanded to be greater than f
0
, thus providing the receiver
with several independently fading signal replicas. This achieves frequency diversity of
the order L = W/f
0
. Whenever W is made larger than f
0
, there is the potential for
frequency-selectivedistortion unlesswefurther providesomemitigation such asequal-
ization. Thus, an expanded bandwidth can improvesystem performance(viadiversity)
only if thefrequency-selectivedistortion thediversity may haveintroduced ismitigated.
Spread spectrum is a form of bandwidth expansion that excels at rejecting interfering
signals. Inthecaseof direct-sequencespread-spectrum(DS/SS), it wasshownearlier that
multipath componentsarerejected if they aredelayed by morethan onechip duration.
However, in order to approach AWGN performance, it is necessary to compensate for
thelossin energy contained in thoserejected components. TheRakereceiver (described
later) makes it possible to coherently combine the energy from each of the multipath
components arriving along different paths. Thus, used with a Rake receiver, DS/SS
modulation can besaid to achievepath diversity. TheRakereceiver isneeded in phase-
coherent reception, but in differentially coherent bit detection, asimpledelay line(one
bit long) with complex conjugation will do thetrick [ 44] .
Frequency-hopping spread-spectrum (FH/SS) is sometimes used as a diversity mecha-
nism. TheGSM system usesslowFH (217 hops/s) to compensatefor thosecaseswhere
themobileuser ismovingvery slowly (or not at all) and happensto bein aspectral null.
Spatial diversity is usually accomplished through the use of multiple receive antennas,
separated by a distance of at least 10 wavelengths for a base station (much less for a
mobilestation). Signal processingmust beemployed to choosethebest antennaoutput
or to coherently combine all the outputs. Systems have also been implemented with
multiplespaced transmitters; an exampleistheGlobal PositioningSystem(GPS).
Polarization diversity [ 45] isyet another way to achieveadditional uncorrelated samples
of thesignal.
Anydiversityschememaybeviewedasatrivial formof repetitioncodinginspaceor time.
However, thereexist techniquesfor improving thelossin SNRin afading channel that
aremoreefcient and morepowerful than repetition coding. Error-correction coding
representsauniquemitigationtechnique, becauseinsteadof providingmoresignal energy
it reduces the required E
b
/N
0
in order to accomplish the desired error performance.
Error-correction codingcoupled with interleaving[ 20] , [ 46] [ 51] isprobably themost
prevalent of themitigation schemesused to provideimproved performancein afading
environment.
18.12 Summaryof theKeyParametersCharacterizing
FadingChannels
Wesummarizetheconditionsthat must bemet so that thechannel doesnot introducefrequency-
selectivedistortionandfast-fadingdistortion. Combiningtheinequalitiesof Eqs.(18.14) and(18.23a
18.23b), weobtain
f
0
> W > f
d
(18.27a)
or
T
m
< T
s
< T
0
(18.27b)
In other words, wewant thechannel coherencebandwidth to exceed our signallingrate, which in
turn should exceed thefadingrateof thechannel. Recall that without distortion mitigation, f
0
sets
an upper limit on signallingrate, and f
d
setsalower limit on it.
18.12.1 Fast-FadingDistortion: Example#1
If the inequalities of Eq. (18.27a18.27b) are not met and distortion mitigation is not provided,
distortion will result. Consider thefast-fadingcasewherethesignallingrateislessthan thechannel
fadingrate, that is,
f
0
> W < f
d
(18.28)
Mitigation consistsof usingoneor moreof thefollowingmethods. (SeeFig. 18.13).
Choose a modulation/demodulation technique that is most robust under fast-fading
conditions. That means, for example, avoidingcarrier recovery with PLLssincethefast
fadingcould keep aPLL fromachievinglock conditions.
Incorporatesufcient redundancysothat thetransmissionsymbol rateexceedsthechan-
nel fading rate. Aslong asthetransmission symbol ratedoesnot exceed thecoherence
bandwidth, thechannel can beclassied asat fading. However, even at-fadingchan-
nelswill experiencefrequency-selectivedistortion whenever achannel null appearsat the
band center.
Since this happens only occasionally, mitigation might be accomplished by adequate error-
correction codingand interleaving.
Theabovetwo mitigation approachesshould result in thedemodulator operatingat the
Rayleigh limit [ 20] (seeFig. 18.12). However, theremay bean irreducibleoor in the
error-performancevs. E
b
/N
0
curvedueto theFM noisethat resultsfrom therandom
Doppler spreading. Theuseof an in-band pilot toneand afrequency-control loop can
lower thisirreducibleperformancelevel.
Toavoidthiserror oor causedbyrandomDoppler spreading, increasethesignallingrate
abovethefadingratestill further (100200fadingrate) [ 27] . Thisisonearchitectural
motivebehind time-division multipleaccess(TDMA) mobilesystems.
Incorporate error-correction coding and interleaving to lower the oor and approach
AWGN performance.
18.12.2 Frequency-SelectiveFadingDistortion: Example#2
Consider thefrequency-selectivecasewherethecoherencebandwidth islessthan thesymbol rate;
that is,
f
0
< W > f
d
(18.29)
Mitigation consistsof usingoneor moreof thefollowingmethods. (SeeFig. 18.13).
Since the transmission symbol rate exceeds the channel-fading rate, there is no fast-
fadingdistortion. Mitigation of frequency-selectiveeffectsisnecessary. Oneor moreof
thefollowingtechniquesmay beconsidered:
Adaptiveequalization, spread spectrum(DSor FH), OFDM, pilot signal. TheEuropean
GSM system usesa midambletraining sequencein each transmission timeslot so that
thereceiver can learn theimpulseresponseof thechannel. It then usesaViterbi equalizer
(explained later) for mitigatingthefrequency-selectivedistortion.
Once the distortion effects have been reduced, introduce some form of diversity and
error-correction codingand interleavingin order to approach AWGN performance. For
direct-sequencespread-spectrum(DS/SS) signalling, theuseof aRakereceiver (explained
later) maybeusedfor providingdiversitybycoherentlycombiningmultipathcomponents
that would otherwisebelost.
18.12.3 Fast-FadingandFrequency-SelectiveFadingDistortion:
Example#3
Consider thecasewherethecoherencebandwidth islessthan thesignallingrate, which in turn isless
than thefadingrate. Thechannel exhibitsboth fast-fadingand frequency-selectivefadingwhich is
expressed as
f
0
< W < f
d
(18.30a)
or
f
0
< f
d
(18.30b)
RecallingfromEq. (18.27a18.27b) that f
0
setsan upper limit on signallingrateand f
d
setsalower
limit on it, thisisa difcult design problem because, unlessdistortion mitigation isprovided, the
maximum allowable signalling rate is (in the strict terms of the above discussion) less than the
minimumallowablesignallingrate. Mitigation in thiscaseissimilar to theinitial approach outlined
in example#1.
Choose a modulation/demodulation technique that is most robust under fast-fading
conditions.
Usetransmission redundancy in order to increasethetransmitted symbol rate.
Providesomeformof frequency-selectivemitigation in amanner similar tothat outlined
in example#2.
Once the distortion effects have been reduced, introduce some form of diversity and
error-correction codingand interleavingin order to approach AWGN performance.
18.13 TheViterbi Equalizer asAppliedtoGSM
Figure 18.14 shows the GSM time-division multiple access (TDMA) frame, having a duration of
4.615 msand comprising 8 slots, oneassigned to each activemobileuser. A normal transmission
burst occupyingoneslot of timecontains57messagebitson each sideof a26-bit midamblecalled a
trainingor soundingsequence. Theslot-timeduration is0.577ms(or theslot rateis1733slots/s).
Thepurposeof themidambleistoassist thereceiver inestimatingtheimpulseresponseof thechannel
in an adaptiveway (duringthetimeduration of each 0.577msslot). In order for thetechniqueto be
effective, thefadingbehavior of thechannel should not changeappreciably duringthetimeinterval
FIGURE18.14: TheGSM TDMA frameand time-slot containinganormal burst.
of oneslot. In other words, thereshould not beany fast-fadingdegradation duringaslot timewhen
thereceiver isusingknowledgefromthemidambleto compensatefor thechannelsfadingbehavior.
Consider the example of a GSM receiver used aboard a high-speed train, traveling at a constant
velocity of 200km/hr (55.56m/s). Assumethecarrier frequency to be900MHz, (thewavelength is
= 0.33 m). FromEq. (18.21), wecancalculatethat ahalf-wavelengthistraversedinapproximately
thetime(coherencetime)
T
0

/2
V
3 ms (18.31)
Therefore, thechannel coherencetimeisover 5timesgreater thantheslot timeof 0.577ms. Thetime
neededfor asignicant changein fadingbehavior isrelativelylongcomparedtothetimeduration of
oneslot. Note, that thechoicesmadein thedesign of theGSM TDMAslot timeand midamblewere
undoubtedly inuenced by theneed to precludefast fadingwith respect to aslot-timeduration, as
in thisexample.
The GSM symbol rate (or bit rate, since the modulation is binary) is 271 kilosymbols/s and
the bandwidth is W = 200 kHz. If we consider that the typical rms delay spread in an urban
environment ison theorder of
= 2s, then usingEq. (18.13) theresultingcoherencebandwidth

isf
0
100 kHz. It should thereforebeapparent that sincef
0
< W, theGSM receiver must utilize
some form of mitigation to combat frequency-selective distortion. To accomplish this goal, the
Viterbi equalizer istypically implemented.
Figure 18.15 illustrates the basic functional blocks used in a GSM receiver for estimating the
channel impulseresponse, whichisthenusedtoprovidethedetector withchannel-correctedreference
waveforms[ 52] . In thenal step, theViterbi algorithmisused tocomputetheMLSEof themessage.
Asstatedin Eq. (18.2), areceivedsignal can bedescribedin termsof thetransmittedsignal convolved
withtheimpulseresponseof thechannel, h
c
(t ). Weshowthisbelow, usingthenotation of areceived
trainingsequence, r
t r
(t ), and thetransmitted trainingsequence, s
t r
(t ), asfollows:
r
t r
(t ) = s
t r
(t ) h
c
(t ) (18.32)
FIGURE18.15: TheViterbi equalizer asapplied to GSM.
where
denotesconvolution. At thereceiver, r
t r
(t ) isextracted from thenormal burst and sent to
alter having impulseresponse, h
mf
(t ), that ismatched to s
t r
(t ). Thismatched lter yieldsat its
output an estimateof h
c
(t ), denoted h
e
(t ), developed fromEq. (18.32) asfollows.
h
e
(t ) = r
t r
(t ) h
mf
(t )
= s
t r
(t ) h
c
(t ) h
mf
(t ) (18.33)
= R
s
(t ) h
c
(t )
where R
s
(t ) is the autocorrelation function of s
t r
(t ). If R
s
(t ) is a highly peaked (impulse-like)
function, then h
e
(t ) h
c
(t ).
Next, usingawindowingfunction, w(t ), wetruncateh
e
(t ) to form acomputationally affordable
function, h
w
(t ). Thewindow length must belargeenough to compensatefor theeffect of typical
channel-induced ISI. Therequired observation interval L
0
for thewindow can beexpressed asthe
sumof twocontributions. Theinterval of lengthL
CISI
isduetothecontrolledISI causedbyGaussian
lteringof thebaseband pulses, which arethen MSKmodulated. Theinterval of length L
C
isdueto
thechannel-induced ISI caused by multipath propagation; therefore, L
0
can bewritten as
L
0
= L
CISI
+L
C
(18.34)
TheGSM system isrequired to providemitigation for distortion dueto signal dispersionsof ap-
proximately 1520 s. Thebit duration is3.69 s. Thus, theViterbi equalizer used in GSM has
amemory of 46 bit intervals. For each L
0
-bit interval in themessage, thefunction of theViterbi
equalizer is to nd the most likely L
0
-bit sequence out of the 2
L
0
possible sequences that might
havebeen transmitted. Determining themost likely L
0
-bit sequencerequiresthat 2
L
0
meaningful
referencewaveformsbecreatedbymodifying(or disturbing) the2
L
0
ideal waveformsinthesameway
that thechannel hasdisturbed thetransmitted message. Therefore, the2
L
0
referencewaveformsare
convolved with thewindowed estimateof thechannel impulseresponse, h
w
(t ) in order toderivethe
disturbed or channel-corrected referencewaveforms. Next, thechannel-corrected referencewave-
formsarecomparedagainst thereceiveddatawaveformstoyieldmetriccalculations. However, before
thecomparisontakesplace, thereceiveddatawaveformsareconvolvedwiththeknownwindowedau-
tocorrelation function w(t )R
s
(t ), transformingthemin amanner comparableto that applied to the
referencewaveforms. Thisltered messagesignal iscompared to all possible2
L
0
channel-corrected
referencesignals, and metricsarecomputed asrequired by theViterbi decoding algorithm (VDA).
TheVDA yieldsthemaximumlikelihood estimateof thetransmitted sequence[ 34] .
18.14 TheRakeReceiver AppliedtoDirect-Sequence
Spread-Spectrum(DS/SS)Systems
InterimSpecication 95(IS-95) describesaDS/SScellular systemthat usesaRakereceiver [ 35] [ 37]
toprovidepathdiversity. InFig. 18.16, veinstancesof chiptransmissionscorrespondingtothecode
sequence10111areshown, with thetransmission or observation timeslabeled t
4
for theearliest
transmission and t
0
for thelatest. Each abscissashowsthreengers of asignal that arriveat the
receiver with delay times
1
,
2
, and
3
. Assumethat theintervalsbetween thet
i
transmission times
and theintervalsbetween the
i
delay timesareeach onechip long. From this, onecan conclude
that thenger arriving at thereceiver at timet
4
, with delay
3
, istimecoincident with two other
ngers, namely thengersarrivingat timest
3
and t
2
with delays
2
and
1
, respectively. Since, in
thisexample, thedelayedcomponentsareseparatedbyexactlyonechiptime, theyarejustresolvable.
At thereceiver, theremust beasounding devicethat isdedicated to estimating the
i
delay times.
Notethat for aterrestrial mobileradio system, thefadingrateisrelatively slow(milliseconds) or the
channel coherencetimelargecompared to thechip time(T
0
> T
ch
). Hence, thechangesin
i
occur
slowly enough so that thereceiver can readily adapt to them.
Oncethe
i
delaysareestimated, aseparatecorrelator isdedicated to processing each nger. In
thisexample, therewould bethreesuch dedicated correlators, each oneprocessingadelayed version
of thesamechip sequence10111. In Fig. 18.16, each correlator receiveschipswith power proles
representedbythesequenceof ngersshownalongadiagonal line. Eachcorrelator attemptstomatch
thesearrivingchipswiththesamePNcode, similarlydelayedin time. At theendof asymbol interval
(typicallytheremaybehundredsor thousandsof chipsper symbol), theoutputsof thecorrelatorsare
coherently combined, and asymbol detection ismade. At thechip level, theRakereceiver resembles
an equalizer, but itsreal function isto providediversity.
Theinterference-suppression natureof DS/SSsystemsstemsfrom thefact that a codesequence
arrivingat thereceiver merely onechip timelate, will beapproximately orthogonal to theparticular
PN codewith which thesequenceiscorrelated. Therefore, any codechipsthat aredelayed by oneor
morechiptimeswill besuppressedbythecorrelator. Thedelayedchipsonlycontributetoraisingthe
noiseoor (correlation sidelobes). Themitigation provided bytheRakereceiver can betermed path
diversity, sinceit allowstheenergyof achipthat arrivesviamultiplepathstobecombinedcoherently.
Without theRakereceiver, thisenergy would betransparent and thereforelost to theDS/SSsystem.
In Fig. 18.16, looking vertically abovepoint
3
, it isclear that thereisinterchip interferencedueto
different ngersarrivingsimultaneously. Thespread-spectrumprocessinggain allowsthesystemto
enduresuch interferenceat thechip level. No other equalization isdeemed necessary in IS-95.
18.15 Conclusion
In thischapter, themajor elementsthat contributeto fadingin acommunication channel havebeen
characterized. Figure18.1waspresentedasaguidefor thecharacterizationof fadingphenomena. Two
typesof fading, large-scaleandsmall-scale, weredescribed. Twomanifestationsof small-scalefading
(signal dispersion and fading rapidity) were examined, and the examination involved two views,
time and frequency. Two degradation categories were dened for dispersion: frequency-selective
FIGURE18.16: Exampleof received chipsseen by a3-nger rakereceiver.
c
1
9
9
9
b
y
C
R
C
P
r
e
s
s
L
L
C
fadingand at-fading. Two degradation categoriesweredened for fadingrapidity: fast and slow.
Thesmall-scalefadingdegradation categoriesweresummarized in Fig. 18.6. Amathematical model
usingcorrelation and power density functionswaspresented in Fig. 18.7. Thismodel yieldsanice
symmetry, akind of poetry to help usview theFourier transform and duality relationshipsthat
describethefadingphenomena. Further, mitigation techniquesfor amelioratingtheeffectsof each
degradation category were treated, and these techniques were summarized in Fig. 18.13. Finally,
mitigation methods that have been implemented in two system types, GSM and CDMA systems
meetingIS-95, weredescribed.
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Rayleigh Fading Channels

Small-ScaleFading: Statisticsand Mechanisms

denotesconvolution. In thecaseof mobileradios, r(t ) can bepartitioned in termsof two

denotesazero-mean, Gaussian random variable(in decibels) with standard deviation

issiteand distancedependent. Thechoiceof avaluefor X

to takeon valuesashigh as610 dBor greater. Thus, the

Thereareseveral good referencesdealing with themeasurement and estimation of propagation

havean innitepower spectral density isnot

(t )g(t )dt (18.26)

= 2s, then usingEq. (18.13) theresultingcoherencebandwidth

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