Personjob t versus personorganization t as

predictors of organizational attraction and job

acceptance intentions: A longitudinal study
Sally A. Carless*
Monash University, Australia
This longitudinal eld study examined the relationship between perceived personjob
(PJ) and personorganization (PO) t and organizational attraction, intentions to accept
a job offer, and actual job offer decision. Data were collected from 193 graduate
applicants prior to the selection process, during the selection process, at the end of the
selection process, and after job acceptance decision. The ndings showed support for
the hypothesis that perceptions of PJ and PO t inuenced attraction at different stages
of selection. The second hypothesis that the relationship between perceptions of PJ and
PO t and intentions to accept a job offer are mediated by organizational attraction was
partially supported. Mid-selection, the relationship between PJ t perceptions and
intentions to accept a job offer was mediated by organizational attraction; in contrast,
at the end of the selection process, there was a direct relationship between PJ t
perceptions and intentions. PO t perceptions were unrelated to intentions to accept a
job offer. PJ and PO t perceptions (before and during the selection process) were
unrelated to actual job acceptance decision. These ndings highlight the importance of
ensuring that applicants have sufcient information about the job during the
recruitment and selection process.
Personenvironment (PE) t theories propose that positive responses occur when
individuals t or match the environment. For example, PE t theories of vocational
choice propose that higher levels of satisfaction and mental and physical well-being will
occur when there is a good t between the person and the environment (e.g. Dawis &
Lofquist, 1984; Holland, 1997). Extensive research supports the proposition that
individuals are satised with and adjust most easily to jobs that are congruent with their
own career-relevant personality types (Spokane, 1985; Tinsley, 2000).
The notion of PE t is conceptualized as a general term, under which fall more
specic notions of t. In the recruitment and selection domain, two common forms of t
have been identied: personjob t (PJ t), or the match between an individual and the
requirements of a specic job; and personorganization t (PO t), or the match
* Correspondence should be addressed to Sally A. Carless, Psychology Department, Monash University, PO Box 197, Cauleld
East, Australia 3145 (e-mail: Sally.Carless@med.monash.edu.au).
The
British
Psychological
Society
411
Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology (2005), 78, 411429
q 2005 The British Psychological Society
www.bpsjournals.co.uk
DOI:10.1348/096317905X25995
between an individual and broader organizational attributes. The main body of research
on t and recruitment and selection has been on PO t. However, this approach
provides a weak test of the congruence hypothesis. A stronger test of the hypothesis is
to assess PJ and PO t jointly (Barber, 1998). Using this approach we can assess the
relative importance of PJ and PO t perceptions in job choice decisions. Job openings
vary on a range of dimensions, including knowledge, skills and abilities requirements,
and organizational attributes. It is probable that job seekers evaluate the magnitude of
overlap between their own characteristics and those of the job and organization
conjointly (Breaugh, 1992). Hence, assessing PJ and PO t simultaneously provides a
more realistic account of their relative inuence. Hence, the main aim of the study was
to examine the relationship between applicant subjective perceptions of PJ and PO t
and job choice attitudes and intentions at multiple time points during the recruitment
and selection process.
Job seekers t perceptions
PO t
Kristof (1996) dened PO t as the compatibility between people and organizations
that occurs when (a) at least one entity provides what the other needs, or (b) they share
similar fundamental characteristics, or (c) both (pp. 45). Taking this approach
recognizes the distinction between supplementary and complementary t. Supplemen-
tary t occurs when a person has similar characteristics to other individuals, and
complementary t occurs when the individual and the situation meet each others
needs.
The application of PO t to recruitment and selection has emerged from Schneiders
(1987) attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) model. He proposed that attraction to,
selection into, and remaining in an organization are all determined by the perceived
similarity between the person and her/his work environment (i.e. PO t). Specically,
individuals estimate the match between their personality, attitudes and values and the
organizations values, goals, structures, processes, and culture (Schneider, Goldstein, &
Smith, 1995). Studies have shown that PO t inuenced attraction to an organization
(Bretz, Ash, &Dreher, 1989; Keon, Latack, & Wanous, 1982; Tom, 1971), job acceptance
intentions (Bretz & Judge, 1994; Judge & Bretz, 1992) and hiring recommendations
(Cable & Judge, 1997). However, none of these studies jointly examined PJ and PO t
perceptions.
PJ t
PJ t is conceptualized as the match between individual knowledge, skills, and abilities
(KSA) and demands of the job or the needs/desires of an individual and what is provided
by the job (Edwards, 1991; OReilly, Chatman, & Caldwell, 1991). According to the
literature on realistic job previews (RJP; Wanous, 1977, 1980, 1992), accurate and
realistic job information enables applicants to assess the degree of congruence between
their KSA and the job requirements (i.e. PJ t; Breaugh, 1992; Breaugh & Starke, 2000;
Wanous, 1977, 1980, 1992). Applicants who perceive a t between their KSA and the
job requirements are probable to remain in the selection process and accept a job offer.
RJP research has shown that accurate and realistic job information during recruitment
and selection is associated with positive work outcomes (e.g. low attrition from
Sally A. Carless 412
recruitment process, high job satisfaction, low voluntary turnover, high work
performance; Meglino, Ravlin, & deNisi, 2000; Phillips, 1998). However, these studies
provide an indirect test of the PJ t hypothesis, as it is assumed that RJPs enable the
individual to assess the extent of PJ t prior to job choice.
Objective and subjective t
The underlying assumption of the literature on RJP and ASA theory is that applicants
subjective assessments of the match between their own characteristics and those of the
job and organization inuence initial attraction, decision to remain in the selection
process, and job acceptance decision. Schneider and his colleagues stated, Peoples
preferences for particular organizations are based upon an implicit estimate of the
congruence [emphasis added] of their own personal characteristics and the attributes of
potential work organizations (Schneider et al., 1995, p. 749). It is subjective t
perceptions and not objective t that inuences whether or not an individual pursues
work with an organization. Thus, subjective t is a more accurate depiction of personal
reality than objective t (Caplan, 1987). Evidence indicates that compared with
objective t, subjective t is a better predictor of applicant attitudes (Judge & Cable,
1997) and hiring outcomes (Adkins, Russell, & Werbel, 1994; Cable & Judge, 1997;
Kinnicki, Lockwood, Hom, & Griffeth, 1990).
Review of past research and hypothesis development
Only one study that examined applicant perceptions of PJ and PO t and job choice
attitudes and decision could be found. Cable and Judge (1996) surveyed job seekers
(N 96) at three time points: after initial campus interview, after nal job choice and
after the former job seeker had been in the job approximately 6 months. The ndings
showed that intentions to accept a job offer were related to perceptions of PO t, but
not PJ t. Contrary to expectations, PJ t was not related to actual job choice decision
(r 2:18, p . :05), on the other hand PO t was related, and in the expected direction
(r :32, p , :02). In a subsequent study (in which only PO t was examined), Judge
and Cable (1997) found that objective and subjective perceptions of PO t were related
to organization attraction, but not actual job decision.
Together, the Judge and Cable studies suggest that subjective PO t perceptions
inuence job seeking attitudes and intentions, however, the ndings of Cable and Judge
(1996) suggest that subjective PJ t perceptions may be of little importance. On the
other hand, studies of employed individuals have shown that PJ and PO t perceptions
have a signicant impact on job related outcomes (Chatman, 1991; Lauver & Kristof-
Brown, 2001; O Reilly et al., 1991; Saks & Ashforth, 1997). In addition, recent research
by Cable and DeRue (2002) with employed individuals suggests that it is important to
examine both types of t as they may be associated with different outcomes.
Specically, they found that PO t perceptions were related to organization-focused
outcomes (e.g. organizational identication) and PJ t perceptions were associated with
job- and career-focused outcomes (e.g. career satisfaction, job satisfaction, and
occupational commitment). Decision to accept a job offer is based on both job-related
and organizational related issues (Barber, 1998; Breaugh, 1992).
The theory of reasoned action (Ajzen, 1991, 2001; Ajzen &Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein &
Ajzen, 1975) posits that an individuals beliefs about an object will manifest into either
positive or negative attitudes toward that object. Based on whether these attitudes are
Recruitment and t perceptions 413
positive or negative, they will affect the individuals attitude toward behaviours related to
this object. An individuals attitude toward a behaviour is then expected to inuence
whether or not he/she will form an intention to engage in this behaviour. Intentions are
also inuenced by subjective norms.
Applied to the selection context, the theory of reasoned action predicts that
applicant attitudes towards the organization (i.e. attraction to the organization) will
inuence intentions to accept a job offer. Consistent with this line of thinking, Judge and
Cable (1997) speculated that PO t perceptions may inuence job choice indirectly via
attraction. An extension of Judge and Cables argument is that both PJ and PO t
perceptions inuence job choice indirectly via attraction. Based on perceptions of job
and organization congruence, applicants perceive an organization as a desirable place to
work. In turn, this positive perception inuences their intentions to accept a job offer.
Thus, in this study it was proposed that perceptions of PJ and PO t inuence attraction
to the organization, which in turn would directly inuence intentions to accept a job
offer. The hypothesized model is presented in Fig. 1.
The current study
Recruitment and selection is a series of activities over time. Any single activity may
inuence an applicants decision to seek employment with an organization, continue to
remain in the selection process or to accept a job offer. Longitudinal research designs
have several advantages (Barber, 1998; Highhouse & Hoffman, 2001; Ryan & Ployhart,
2000; Schmitt, 1999; Schmitt & Chan, 1998). First, we know little about how attitudes
and intentions change over time as applicants gain new information, or how events
change their attitudes and intentions (Powell & Goulet, 1996). A longitudinal approach
enables us to track applicant perceptions as they move through the recruitment and
selection process. In addition, longitudinal research reduces the possibility of method
bias and gives greater condence to attributions of causality. Thus the current study
assessed attitudes and intentions at multiple time points during the recruitment and
selection process.
A problem that plagues much of the t studies of job choice is the heavy reliance on
college students as a source for research data (Barber, 1998, p. 106). In addition, with
few exceptions (Cable & Judge, 1996; Judge & Cable, 1997; Tom, 1971), studies have
used hypothetical companies and information that has been closely controlled by the
researchers. Asking students for their perceptions does not appear to be a sufcient
surrogate for asking actual applicants (Ryan & Ployhart, 2000, pp. 601-602). The
subjective estimate approach to t assumes that the perceived t and attraction ratings
given in an experimental situation reect the values attached to these during an actual
job search. Breaugh (1992) stated that such an assumption seems implausible (p. 83).
In summary, there are concerns about the generalizability of ndings based on samples
of college students. The current study addressed this problem by surveying actual job
applicants.
Figure 1. Model of the relationship between t perceptions, attraction and intentions.
Sally A. Carless 414
The vast majority of applicant reaction research has emphasized attraction to an
organization and intentions to accept a job offer as dependent variables. However,
intentions are not the same as real job choices (Rynes, 1991). Thus, in addition to
organizational attraction and job acceptance intentions, the current study examined
actual job acceptance decision.
There are both strengths and limitations to Cable and Judges (1996) study. In terms
of strengths, the sample consisted of genuine applicants involved in the job search
process. Second, the authors assessed attitudes at three time points. This approach
enabled them to examine the links between initial attitudes and actual job choice
decision. Finally, the study examined the relationship between PJ and PO subjective t
perceptions and actual job choice decision. There have been very few studies that have
examined the links between applicant attitudes and actual behaviour.
In terms of limitations, although the Cable and Judge study collected data at multiple
time points, Time 1 data were collected after the initial interview. Hence, pre-selection
process perceptions of PJ and PO t were not assessed. Thus it is unknown whether or
not pre-selection perceptions of PJ and PO t inuence attraction and intentions.
Second, Cable and Judge used single items to assess perceived PJ and PO t. The authors
acknowledged that a disadvantage of this approach is that the variance in these
measures may have been constrained. In addition, it is uncertain whether the domains
of the constructs were fully sampled. Furthermore, PJ and PO t perceptions and job
acceptance intentions were assessed at the same time. It is possible that common
method variance may have inated the relationship between these variables. The
current study addresses these limitations.
The design of the study was to survey applicants at four time points: before the
selection process (Time 1), during the selection process (Time 2), at the conclusion of
the selection process (Time 3), and after actual job offer (Time 4). Based on the
aforementioned literature, the following hypotheses were formulated:
Hypothesis 1. Subjective perceptions of PJ and PO t assessed prior to, and during the selection
process predict organizational attraction prior to, and mid-selection.
Hypothesis 2. Subjective perceptions of PJ and PO t assessed prior to, and during the selection
process predict intentions to accept a job offer mid- and end-of-selection.
Hypothesis 3. Perceptions of organizational attraction mediate the relationship between
perceptions of PJ and PO t and intentions to accept a job offer
Due to the lack of research on t perceptions and actual job choice, the study also aimed
to explore whether perceived PJ and PO t inuenced job choice decision.
Control variable
It is reasonable to expect that number of alternative job offers would inuence
employment seeking attitudes (e.g. job acceptance intentions). That is, applicants
with fewer alternative offers would be more likely to accept a job offer compared with
those who have more alternatives. Powell and Goulet (1996) found that the number of
alternative job offers (including current and expected job offers) inuenced job
acceptance intentions. Other studies have also reported that alternative employment
options inuence job acceptance intentions (Cable & Judge, 1996; Liden & Parsons,
1986). In the current study, total number of alternative job offers (expected and current)
was controlled for.
Recruitment and t perceptions 415
Method
Sample
Graduate applicants for an Australian national telecommunications company were
invited to participate in the study. For Stage 1, 193 applicants agreed to participate in the
project. The sample consisted of a similar number of females (N 95, 49%) and males
(N 98, 51%). The average age of applicants was 26 years (SD 4:2). Applicants
applied for a range of positions, including information technology (27%), engineering
(20%), human resources (15%), marketing (14%) and research (12%). The initial
questionnaire was mailed by an external consulting organization. Due to changes in
personnel, the number of applicants who were sent the questionnaire is unknown, and
therefore, so is the response rate to the rst questionnaire.
Procedure
Data were collected at four time points: Time 1 after application was received and
prior to any selection procedures; Time 2 after rst selection interview; Time 3 after
all selection procedures had been completed; and Time 4 after job acceptance
decision was made. The current study was part of a larger study of applicants
(see Carless, 2003).
The selection process was managed by an external consulting rm. On receipt of an
application, the individual was either invited for an interview with a representative of
the consulting rm or informed that his/her application was unsuccessful. Those who
were invited for an interview were sent a questionnaire (Time 1). Instructions asked
applicants to complete the questionnaire before their selection interview.
A cover letter on University letterhead attached to each questionnaire informed
participants that the research was intended to help the consulting organization and the
sponsoring organization to improve the effectiveness of their selection procedures.
They were assured that participation was voluntary and would not affect their
application for employment in any way. They were assured of condentiality and that
only myself and my assistant would see their responses. A reply-paid self-addressed
envelope was supplied. Participants were informed that I was interested in looking at
the links between initial attitudes and job acceptance intentions and tracking their
perceptions throughout the selection procedure. Participants were asked to identify
themselves in order that responses from different points of time could be linked.
The Time 2 questionnaire was mailed to applicants approximately 4 months after the
rst questionnaire. Of the 193 applicants who were sent the second questionnaire, 140
were returned (73% response rate). The sample consisted of 78 females (55%) and 62
males (45%). The next stage of the selection process consisted of personality and ability
testing, followed by an interviewwith an internal line manager and representative of the
human resource department. Scores for selection procedures (e.g. psychological test
scores) were used to reduce slightly the applicant pool at each successive stage of the
selection process.
The third questionnaire (Time 3) was sent to applicants after psychological testing
and the internal interviews were completed. This was approximately 1 month after the
second questionnaire. Of the 140 questionnaires sent out, 81 responses were received
(58% response rate). Again, the sample consisted of a similar number of females
(N 45, 56%) and males (N 36, 44%).
Approximately 34 weeks after the nal questionnaire, 81 applicants were
contacted about whether they had received a job offer and whether they had accepted it
Sally A. Carless 416
(Time 4), 65 responses were received. Of these, 34 received a job offer and 31 did not,
20 accepted the offer (59%) and 14 declined the offer (41%).
As concerns have been raised about the effects of subject attrition on the relationship
among variables in longitudinal analyses (Goodman &Blum, 1996), two types of analyses
were used to check for differences between respondents and non-respondents. These
were students t test and multiple regression. t Test analyses were conducted todetermine
if there were any differences between respondents and non-respondents at Time 2 and
Time 3. Scores on all of the variables under consideration were examined. The rst set of
analyses compared scores on Time 1 variables for respondents and non-respondents at
Time 2. No signicant differences were found. The second set of analyses compared
scores on Time 2 variables for respondents and non-respondents at Time 3. Again, no
signicant differences were found.
Goodman and Blum (1996) recommend comparing a multiple regression model for
the whole sample to a model including only those who responded to both data
collections. Two sets of analyses were performed. In the rst set of analyses the
dependent variable was attraction to the organization at Time 1, in the second set the
dependent variable was attraction to the organization at Time 2. The rst set of analyses
involved comparing the signicance of the standardized beta weights of the independent
variables (alternative offers T1, PJ and PO t T1) for the full sample at Time 1 compared
with Time 2 sample. There was no difference in signicance for the coefcients. The
second set of analyses involved comparing the signicance of the standardized beta
weights of the independent variables (alternative offers T2, PJ and POt T2) for the Time
2 sample compared with Time 3 sample. Again, there were no differences in signicance
for the coefcients. Thus, attrition does not appear to have affected the underlying
relationships among the variables of interest.
The rst questionnaire (Time 1) asked for applicants demographic information and
assessednumber of expectedandreceivedalternative joboffers, perceptions of PJ andPO
t and organizational attraction. The second questionnaire (Time 2) assessed number of
expected and received alternative job offers, attraction to the organization, job
acceptance intentions and perceptions of PJ and PO t. The nal questionnaire (Time 3)
assessed job acceptance intentions. Table 1 provides a summary of the data collection.
Measures
Organizational attraction was assessed by three items adapted from Smither, Reilly,
Millsap, Pearlman, and Stoffey (1993). These items assessed perceptions of the
attractiveness of working for the company (a :77, .77, Time 1 & 2, respectively).
A sample item is, X is one of the best places to work. The response format was a 7-point
Likert scale with 1 representing strongly disagree and 7 representing strongly agree.
Job acceptance intentions were measured by two items developed by Harris and
Fink (1987). These were, If you were offered the job, would you accept it? and, If you
were offered the job would you accept it immediately?. The response format was
a 7-point Likert scale with 1 representing not at all likely and 7 representing extremely
likely (a :79, .83, Time 2 & 3, respectively).
PJ t perceptions were assessed by four items developed by Saks and Ashforth
(1997). A sample item is, To what extent do your knowledge, skills, and abilities
match or t the requirements of the job?. The response format for both t scales was a
7-point Likert scale with 1 representing not at all and 7 representing completely
(a :83, Time 1 & 2).
Recruitment and t perceptions 417
POt perceptions were assessed by four items developed by Judge and Cable (1997).
The items were slightly adapted to reect the current organization. A sample item is, To
what extent do your values, goals and personality match or t the current employees
of X?.
Questions have been raised about the distinctiveness of perceived PJ and PO t
(Kristof-Brown, 2000; Lauver & Kristof-Brown, 2001; Werbal & Gilliland, 1999) so
exploratory factor analysis was used to assess the underlying dimensionality of measures
of PJ and PO t. Analyses showed that the eight items assessed two factors at Time 1 and
2. However, the rotated solution showed that one item from the PO t scale also loaded
highly on the PJ t scale. This item was removed. The nal analyses showed that 66% of
the variance at Time 1 was explained by a two-factor solution and 67% at Time 2.
Reliability analysis of the three-item PO t scale showed that although the scale
reliability was adequate (a :69 Time 1, .68 Time 2), it could be improved with the
removal of an additional item. The reliability of the two-item PO t measure was .79 at
Time 1 and .84 at Time 2. The items were: Do you think the values and personality of
X employees reect you own values and personality?, To what extent do your values,
goals and personality match or t the current employees of X?.
1
Alternative job offers. This was assessed by two items used by Harris and Fink
(1987). These assessed the number of job offers expected to be received and the
number received so far. The response format was a 9-point Likert scale, ranging from 0
to 8 or more (a :68, .74, Time 1 & 2, respectively).
Job acceptance decision. Applicants were asked if they had been offered a position
with the organization and wheather they accepted the offer (1 yes, 2 no).
Missing data. Eight individuals had missing data for one item in the variable job
acceptance intentions at Time 3. In order to maximize the number of cases and ensure
equivalent comparisons were made at each stage of the mediation analyses, the
expectationmaximization algorithm or EM procedure for replacing missing data was
used. This procedure involves estimating the mean, the covariance matrix and
the correlation of variables with missing data using an iterative process (SPSSX
Version 11).
Table 1. A summary of the data collection
Pre-selection
(Time 1)
Mid-selection
(Time 2)
End-of-selection
(Time 3)
After job acceptance
decision (Time 4)
Number of alternative
job offers
Number of alternative
job offers
Intentions to accept a
job offer
Job acceptance
decision (yes/no)
PJ & PO t perceptions PJ & PO t perceptions
Organizational attraction Organizational attraction
Demographics Intentions to accept a
job offer
Note. The time interval between Time 1 and 2 was approximately 4 months, between Time 2 and 3 it
was approximately 1 month and between Time 3 and 4 it was approximately 34 weeks.
1
Items removed were: To what extent do your values, goals and personality match or t X?, To what extent do your values
and personality prevent you from tting in at X because they are different from most other employees values and
personality?.
Sally A. Carless 418
Results
Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations for all the study variables are reported in
Table 2.
According to Baron and Kenny (1986) several steps are required to test for
mediation. First, the independent variable (PJ and PO t) must be related to the
mediating variable (attraction to the organization). Hierarchical regressions were used to
examine the relationship between perceptions of PJ and PO t and the dependent
variable of organizational attraction at Time 1, pre-selection; and Time 2, mid-selection.
The variable alternative job offers was entered at Step 1 as a control variable in the
analyses. At Step 2, PJ and PO t perceptions were entered.
It can be seen in Table 3, that pre-selection PJ and PO t perceptions explained
unique variance in attraction to the organization (Time 1; c R
2
:28, p , :001). The
standardized beta weights show that both PJ and PO predict attraction (b 0:41,
t 5:82, p , :001; b 0:18, t 2:57, p , :01, respectively). At mid-selection (Time 2)
the ndings were similar. PJ and PO t perceptions explained unique variance in
attraction to the organization ( c R
2
:37, p , :001). Again, both PJ and PO t
perceptions predicted attraction (b 0:45, t 5:86, p , :001; b 0:26, t 3:42,
p , :001, respectively). Thus, the rst hypothesis that PJ and PO t predicted attraction
was supported.
The second requirement for mediation is to show that the independent variable (PJ
and PO t) affects the dependent variable (intentions to accept an offer). The results of
the hierarchical regression analyses are presented in Table 4. It can be seen that after the
number of alternative job offers is controlled, PJ and PO t perceptions explain unique
variance in intentions to accept a job offer mid-way through selection (Time 2;
c R
2
:18, p , :001). However, the standardized beta weights show that only PJ t
perceptions are a signicant predictor of intentions (b 0:41, t 4:68, p , :001).
Again, a similar pattern of ndings was found at the end-of-selection (Time 3). PJ and PO
t perceptions explained unique variance in intentions to accept a job offer end-of-
selection ( c R
2
:13, p , :01), however, only PJ t perceptions are a signicant
predictor (b 0:33, t 2:72, p , :01). Thus, there was partial support for the second
hypothesis; PJ and not PO t predicted intentions to accept a job offer.
The third step of testing a mediation hypothesis is regressing the dependent variable
(intentions to accept) on the mediating variable (attraction), with the independent
variable included in the equation (PJ t). Mediation exists if the effect of the
independent variable is less than it was without the mediating variable. In order to
mitigate concerns about multicollinearity, predictor variables measured prior to the
dependent variables were analysed in the same equation (e.g. IV PJ t T1,
mediator attraction T1, DV intentions to accept T2). As PO t perceptions were
not related to intentions to accept mid- and end-of-selection (Time 2 and 3), this was not
included in the nal equation.
The results are presented in Table 5. At mid-selection (Time 2) it can be seen that
when the joint effects of attraction and PJ t are examined, pre-selection PJ t
perceptions are signicant (b 0:21, t 2:67, p , :01) and the effect is less than when
attraction is not controlled (see Table 4). The Sobel test (Sobel, 1982) was conducted to
determine whether attraction was a signicant partial mediator of the relationship.
The Sobel Test revealed that the link between PJ t perceptions and intentions to accept
was partially mediated by attraction (z 5:50, p , :05).
Recruitment and t perceptions 419
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Sally A. Carless 420
At the end-of-selection (Time 3) a slightly different pattern of results was found. PJ t
perceptions are a signicant predictor of intentions (B 0:27, t 2:16, p , :01),
however, attraction is not a signicant predictor. Hence, mid-selection, the relationship
between PJ t and intentions to accept is mediated by attraction to the organization. On
the other hand, at the end of selection processes, no support was found for a mediating
effect. Rather, PJ t has a direct effect on intentions to accept. Although PO t was
related to attraction, the ndings suggest that PO t was not related to intentions to
accept at either mid- or end-of-selection.
In summary, mid-selection, attraction to the organization mediates the relationship
between PJ t perceptions and intentions to accept a job offer. At the end of selection, PJ
t perceptions have a direct effect on intention to accept a job offer; there was no
evidence of attraction mediating the relationship. Contrary to expectations, PO t was
unrelated to intentions to accept a job offer. Thus, mixed support for the mediation
hypothesis was found.
Table 3. Mediators regressed on independent variables
Attraction (Time 1) Attraction (Time 2)
b c R
2
b c R
2
Step 1
Alternative job offers (T1) 20.04 0
Alternative job offers (T2) 20.12 .02
Step 2
PJ t (T1) 0.41*** .28*** .37***
PO t (T1) 0.18**
PJ t (T2) 0.45***
PO t (T2) 0.26***
(df ) R
2
(3,189) .28*** (3,133) .40***
T1 Time 1; T2 Time 2;
*
p , :05,
**
p , :01,
***
p , :001; b standardized beta weights of the
nal equation.
Table 4. Dependent variables regressed on independent variables
Intentions to accept (Time 2) Intentions toaccept (Time 3)
b c R
2
b c R
2
Step 1
Alternative job offers (T1) 20.17* .02
Alternative job offers (T2) 20.12 .01
Step 2
PJ t (T1) 0.41*** .18***
PO t (T1) 0.02
PJ t (T2) 0.33** .13**
PO t (T2) 0.03
(df ) R
2
(3,136) .19*** (3,75) .39***
T1 Time 1; T2 Time 2;
*
p , :05,
**
p , :01,
***
p , :001; b standardized beta weights of the
nal equation.
Recruitment and t perceptions 421
Thirty-four applicants indicated they had received a job offer. Of these, 20 accepted
and 14 declined. The correlations showed that Time 1 perceptions of PJ (r 2:01,
p . :05) and PO t (r :12, p . :05) were unrelated to actual job acceptance, as were
Time 2 perceptions of PJ (r 2:01, p . :05) and PO t (r 2:17, p . :05).
Discussion
Applicant perceptions of PJ and PO t and job choice attitudes and intentions were
examined at multiple stages throughout the selection process: prior to selection, during
selection, at the completion of selection and after job offer decision. The rst hypothesis
that PJ and PO t perceptions would predict organizational attraction was supported.
Prior to and during selection, applicant perceptions of the match between their skills,
knowledge, and abilities and those of the job, and the match between their values,
needs, and goals and those of the organization positively predicted their perceptions of
the organization as a desirable place to work. The second hypothesis that PJ and PO t
perceptions would predict job acceptance intentions was partially supported; PJ, and
not PO t perceptions were related to acceptance intentions. Thus, it seems that while
both types of t inuence attraction to the organization, PJ t perceptions are the key
determinant of intentions to accept a job offer.
The third hypothesis that organizational attraction would mediate the relationship
between PJ and PO t perceptions and intentions to accept a job offer was partially
supported. Mid-selection, attraction mediated the relationship between PJ t and
acceptance intentions. At the end of selection, PJ t directly inuenced intentions to
accept. Thus, attraction did not mediate the relationship. These ndings reect the
stronger relationship between attraction and intentions early in the selection process
compared with later in the selection process (r :55 attraction Time 1 and intentions
Time 2; r :36 attraction Time 2 and intentions Time 3). This suggests that as
individuals move through the selection process and gain greater knowledge about the job
and organization, variables other than affective attitudes towards the organization
inuence intentions to accept a job offer, for example, job and organizational
characteristics (Cable & Judge, 1996; Lawler, Kuleck, Rhode, & Sorensen, 1975;
Table 5. Dependent variables regressed on mediators (with independent variables included)
Intentions to accept (Time 2) Intentions toaccept (Time 3)
b c R
2
b c R
2
Step 1
Alternative job offers (T1) 20.14* .02
Alternative job offers (T2) 20.08 .01
Step 2
PJ t (T1) 0.21** .18***
PJ t (T2) 0.27*** .13***
Step 3
Attraction (T1) 0.44*** .15***
Attraction (T2) 0.19 .03
(df ) R
2
(3,137) .34*** (3,76) .17**
T1 Time 1; T2 Time 2;
*
p , :05,
**
p , :01,
***
p , :001; b standardized beta weights of the
nal equation.
Sally A. Carless 422
Taylor & Bergmann, 1987). According to the elaboration likelihood model of persuasive
communication (ELM; Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) as applicants become more informed
about the job and closer to job acceptance decision, they are more likely to utilize central
processing compared with peripheral processing and thus rely on actual job and
organizational characteristics (for a more detailed explanation of the application of ELM
see Larsen & Phillips, 2002). It has also been argued that during the job search
process attitudes change from being unrealistically positive to more realistic and
objective (Osborn, 1990).
Contrary to expectations, PO t was not related to acceptance intentions either mid-
or end of selection. Inspection of the correlation matrix (see Table 2) shows that
perceptions of PJ t tended to have a stronger relationship with attraction and
intentions to accept compared with PO t. For example, the correlation between PJ t
perceptions and intentions to accept mid-selection was .62 (p , :01) and PO t
perceptions and intentions to accept was .41 (p , :01); later in the process the
respective correlations were .39 (p , :01) and .21 (p . :05). Note that the rst set of
correlations is cross-sectional and the second set is not.
The nding that PJ t, and not PO t perceptions, predict job acceptance intentions
suggests those who invest in their human capital (i.e. graduates) are more interested in
ensuring that the job they choose to accept utilizes their KSA rather than working in an
environment that is congruent with their values and goals. Similar ndings with
employed individuals have been reported by Cable and DeRue (2002). They found that
perceived needs-supply t (i.e. PJ t) was related to career satisfaction and occupational
commitment, whereas perceived PO t was not related. Studies of recruiter perceptions
of t have also shown that perceived PJ t compared with PO t is more closely related
to hiring recommendations (Kristof-Brown, 2000) and general perceptions of applicant
t (Bretz, Rynes, & Gerhart, 1993). Together, these ndings suggest that career related
decisions are strongly inuenced by perceived match between individual capabilities
and the job requirements (i.e. PJ t) rather than their match with an organizations
cultural values (i.e. PO t).
In contrast to the current ndings, Cable and Judge (1996) reported that job
acceptance intentions after initial interview were related to perceptions of PO t, but
not PJ t perceptions. There are several possible explanations for the differing ndings.
First, sample differences may be partly responsible. Over half of Cable and Judges
sample were seeking internships and less than half were looking for full-time work.
Analyses showed that the magnitude of the relationship between perceived PO t and
job choice intentions was different for the two groups; a stronger relationship was found
for the full-time job seekers. The current study sample consisted of genuine applicants
seeking a range of full-time positions.
Second, measurement issues may account for the differences. The current study
used four items to assess applicants perceptions of PJ t, whereas, Cable and Judge
(1996) used a single item. In addition, the current study used two items to assess job
acceptance intentions, whereas Cable and Judge used a single item. Single items restrict
the range of variance and therefore the relationship between t perceptions and job
choice intentions may have been underestimated in Cable and Judges work; a point
acknowledged by the authors. The extent to which single items capture the full
meaning of a construct is also unclear.
Third, recruitment and selection stage differences may explain the differences. Cable
and Judge (1996) surveyed potential applicants early in the job seeking process;
questionnaires were completed immediately after initial campus interview. On the other
Recruitment and t perceptions 423
hand, the current study assessed applicant attitudes at later stages of the selection
process, during, and at the completion of selection. Related to this point, it is also
possible that the selection procedures inuenced applicant perceptions of PJ and PO t,
for example, structured interviews (Judge, Higgins, & Cable, 2000). In the current study,
the selection procedures of psychological testing and line managers interviews were
conducted between Time 2 and 3 data collection.
Fourth, stage differences may also be related to other differences. From
correspondence with my American colleagues, I understand that the applicant pool
varies widely across campus interviews. In some instances everyone who applies is
interviewed, in other situations, a screening process is used to determine who is
interviewed. It is unknown whether the Cable and Judge sample had already been
screened. Finally, the current sample applied for specic positions (e.g. human
resources). Application for a specic position together with an interview by your
potential manager would enable an applicant to better assess their PJ t compared with
application for a graduate position. Details about the application process for the Cable
and Judge sample were not given.
Actual job choice was not inuenced by initial or mid-selection perceptions of PJ or
POt. This nding is consistent with Cable and Judge (1996). It is important to note that
these ndings should be regarded as tentative, pending further investigation, due to the
small sample size. It is possible that theory of reasoned action (Ajzen, 1991, 2001; Ajzen
& Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) is a more useful theoretical framework for
understanding job acceptance decision (Lawler et al., 1975; Powell & Goulet, 1996;
Stevens, 1997) compared with ASA theory.
Limitations and strengths
There are several limitations and strengths of the study that need to be acknowledged.
The sample consisted of genuine applicants for a range of positions. There has been a
lack of eld studies on applicant t perceptions (Barber, 1998; Highhouse & Hoffman,
2001; Ryan & Ployhart, 2000). However, the applicants were all applying to join the one
organization. Thus, although perceptions of PJ t assessed how well applicants matched
with a variety of positions, perceptions of PO t measured how well employees
matched with a single organization in a single industry. Thus, the generalizability of
these results to other organizations and industries is unknown.
At each stage of data collection the sample was slightly reduced. This was an
inevitable outcome of the longitudinal research design. As noted earlier, I was able to
showthat sample attrition did not lead to sample bias. The rst data collection point was
prior to interview, but only those who were selected for an initial interviewwere invited
to participate in the study. Unknown is the extent that this group differed from rejected
applicants, and if the study sample was biased. It is feasible that recruiter perceptions of
PJ and PO t inuenced the decision to invite to interview (Cable & Judge, 1997).
Thus, it is possible that the variance in early perceptions of PJ and PO t was restricted.
The most common effect of range restriction is attenuation of correlation coefcients.
Hence, it is possible that the relationship between early perceptions of PJ and PO t and
outcomes was underestimated.
At the later stage of data collection, it is possible that applicants who had already been
rejected responded to the questionnaire. Although it is more probable that rejected
applicants did not complete the questionnaire, a few may have completed the
Sally A. Carless 424
questionnaire at Time 2 or 3. Future researchers should ensure that they have mechanisms
in place that enable them to check respondents outcomes in the selection process.
A strength of this study was the longitudinal design. Taking this approach meant that
I was able reduce the problem of common method bias. However, the ip side of this is
sample attrition. Sample attrition may have occurred for multiple reasons, including self-
selection and recruiter perceptions of lack of t or unsuitability. Thus, it is possible that
the variance in perceived t was reduced because of the constrained sample. It is
unlikely, however, that range restriction would change the direction of the coefcients
obtained. It is more probable that the magnitude of the relationship between t
perceptions and job choice attitudes and intentions was underestimated.
Implications and future research
This study contributes to the small body of evidence that perceptions of PJ and PO t
explain unique variance in the selection context (Bretz et al., 1993; Kristof-Brown,
2000). Most past research has assessed only one type of t (e.g. Bretz et al., 1989;
Dineen, Ash, & Noe, 2002; Judge &Bretz, 1992; Judge &Cable, 1997). Assessing the two
types of t simultaneously provides a stronger test of the congruence hypothesis and a
more realistic representation of the job search process. Given the limited research in this
area and the conicting ndings between this study and that of Cable and Judge (1996),
there is a need for research that replicates and extends these ndings. For example,
researchers have yet to examine the impact of different recruitment and selection
procedures on applicant ability to assess perceived t. This raises the following research
questions. Does advertising for a specic position compared with generic advertising
(e.g. graduates) inuence ability to assess perceived t? Do different selection
procedures differentially affect applicant perceived t?
Selection studies have consistently shown that subjective t is a better predictor of a
range of outcomes compared with objective t. It is possible that applicant subjective t
may be more inuential at organizational entry due to lack of experience and
opportunity to observe the actual organization (Verquer, Beehr, & Wagner, 2001). The
ndings of Cable and Judge (1996) suggest that subjective PO t perceptions are based
on perceived value congruence (i.e. congruence based on applicants perceptions of
organizations values and their own values). Future research should investigate the links
between applicant objective congruence (i.e. t assessed by including someone elses
perception), perceived congruence and subjective t perceptions.
Research in the vocational choice domain suggests that identication of the core job
aspects of an occupation compared with general aspects may improve the prediction of
attraction and intentions to accept an offer (Gati, Garty, &Fassa, 1996). For example, the
core aspects for political scientist were using verbal ability, analytical ability, and
intellectual curiosity. The median within-occupation correlation between PE t and
occupational satisfaction was .27 when all aspects were considered and .85 when only
the core aspects were considered. This is consistent with the speculation of Breaugh
and Billings (1988) that RJP information has stronger effects if the information-targeted
aspects of the job are seen as important by applicants. Gati et al.s (1996) methodology is
an innovative approach to the problem of specifying applicant t content and may be
worth further exploring.
Practically, organizations seeking to recruit individuals would be well advised to
provide detailed and specic information that would enable applicants to evaluate their
PJ t, for example, the nature of the work, training opportunities, level of responsibility,
Recruitment and t perceptions 425
the KSA required (Barber & Roehling, 1993) and how the job might change over time
(Schein, 1978). As well, it is recommended that organizations provide information about
their values, policies, and culture so that individuals can assess their PO t. This is based
on the nding that initial attraction is inuenced by perceived PO t. It has also been
recommended that organizations use a standardized common metric to assess applicant
t for selection purposes (Cable &DeRue, 2002). An alternative perspective that follows
fromthe research of Ganzach, Pazy, Ohayun, and Brainin (2002) is to facilitate applicants
ability to assess the degree of PJ and PO t. For example, an instrument could be
developedthat enabledapplicants toassess the magnitude of t prior toapplyingfor a job,
or the same instrument couldused as a basis for discussionabout the magnitude of their t
with the job and organization during the selection process. The ndings of Ganzach et al.
suggest that inducing a perception of a caring organization has considerable positive
impact on individuals. Behaviour that demonstrates a genuine interest in helping the
applicant choose a job that tted their KSA and values, needs and abilities is probable to
result in perceptions of a caring organization.
In summary, slightly mixed results were found regarding the mediating role of
attraction. Mid-selection, the relationship between PJ t and acceptance intentions was
mediated by attraction; in contrast, at the end of selection, PJ t directly inuenced
acceptance intentions. A clearer picture emerged regarding applicant PO t
perceptions; this was unrelated to acceptance intentions (mid-selection and end-of-
selection). Further research is needed that jointly examines perceptions of PJ and PO t
in the context of recruitment and selection.
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the constructive and helpful suggestions made by Dan Turban,
Amy Kristof-Brown, Annelies van Vianen, John Arnold and three anonymous reviewers. An earlier
version of this paper was presented at the 17th Annual Conference Society for Industrial and
Organizational Psychology, Toronto, Canada 12-14 April 2002.
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