Hedonism

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v t e
Hedonism is a school of thought that argues that pleasure is the primary or most
important intrinsic good.[1] In very simple terms, a hedonist strives to maximi
ze net pleasure (pleasure minus pain).
Ethical hedonism is the idea that all people have the right to do everything in
their power to achieve the greatest amount of pleasure possible to them, assumin
g that their actions do not infringe on the equal rights of others. It is also t
he idea that every person's pleasure should far surpass their amount of pain. Et
hical hedonism is said to have been started by Aristippus of Cyrene, a student o
f Socrates. He held the idea that pleasure is the highest good.[2]
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History of development
2.1 Sumerian civilization
2.2 Ancient Egypt
2.3 Carvaka
2.4 Classic schools of antiquity
2.4.1 The Cyrenaic school
2.4.2 Epicureanism
2.5 Greek Mythology
2.6 Mohism
2.7 Christian hedonism
2.8 Utilitarianism
2.9 Contemporary approaches
2.9.1 Michel Onfray
2.9.2 Abolitionism
3 Criticisms
4 See also
5 Further reading
6 References
7 External links
Etymology[edit]
The name derives from the Greek word for "delight" (?d???s?? hedonismos from ?d??
? hedone "pleasure", cognate with English sweet + suffix -?s?? -ismos "ism").
History of development[edit]
Sumerian civilization[edit]
In the original Old Babylonian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh, which was writt
en soon after the invention of writing, Siduri gave the following advice "Fill y
our belly. Day and night make merry. Let days be full of joy. Dance and make mus
ic day and night [...] These things alone are the concern of men", which may rep
resent the first recorded advocacy of a hedonistic philosophy.[3]
Ancient Egypt[edit]
Scenes of a harper entertaining guests at a feast was common in ancient Egyptian
tombs (see Harper's Songs), and sometimes contained hedonistic elements, callin
g guests to submit to pleasure because they cannot be sure that they will be rew
arded for good with a blissful afterlife. The following is a song attributed to
the reign of one of the Intef kings before or after the 12th dynasty, and the te
xt was used in the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties.[4][5]
Let thy desire flourish,
In order to let thy heart forget the beatifications for thee.
Follow thy desire, as long as thou shalt live.
Put myrrh upon thy head and clothing of fine linen upon thee,
Being anointed with genuine marvels of the gods' property.
Set an increase to thy good things;
Let not thy heart flag.
Follow thy desire and thy good.
Fulfill thy needs upon earth, after the command of thy heart,
Until there come for thee that day of mourning.
Carvaka[edit]
Main article: Carvaka
Carvaka was an Indian hedonist school of thought that arose approximately 600 BC
, and died out in the 14th century CE. The Carvakas maintained that the Hindu sc
riptures are false, that the priests are liars, and that there is no afterlife,
and that pleasure should be the aim of living. Unlike other Indian schools of ph
ilosophy, the Carvakas argued that there is nothing wrong with sensual indulgenc
e. They held a naturalistic worldview. They believed that perception is the only
source of knowledge.
Classic schools of antiquity[edit]
Democritus seems to be the earliest philosopher on record to have categorically
embraced a hedonistic philosophy; he called the supreme goal of life "contentmen
t" or "cheerfulness", claiming that "joy and sorrow are the distinguishing mark
of things beneficial and harmful" (DK 68 B 188).[6]
The Cyrenaic school[edit]
Main article: Cyrenaics
Aristippus of Cyrene
The Cyrenaics were an ultra-hedonist Greek school of philosophy founded in the 4
th century BC, supposedly by Aristippus of Cyrene, although many of the principl
es of the school are believed to have been formalized by his grandson of the sam
e name, Aristippus the Younger. The school was so called after Cyrene, the birth
place of Aristippus. It was one of the earliest Socratic schools. The Cyrenaics
taught that the only intrinsic good is pleasure, which meant not just the absenc
e of pain, but positively enjoyable sensations. Of these, momentary pleasures, e
specially physical ones, are stronger than those of anticipation or memory. They
did, however, recognize the value of social obligation, and that pleasure could
be gained from altruism[citation needed]. Theodorus the Atheist was a latter ex
ponent of hedonism who was a disciple of younger Aristippus,[7] while becoming w
ell known for expounding atheism. The school died out within a century, and was
replaced by Epicureanism.
The Cyrenaics were known for their skeptical theory of knowledge. They reduced l
ogic to a basic doctrine concerning the criterion of truth.[8] They thought that
we can know with certainty our immediate sense-experiences (for instance, that
I am having a sweet sensation now) but can know nothing about the nature of the
objects that cause these sensations (for instance, that the honey is sweet).[9]
They also denied that we can have knowledge of what the experiences of other peo
ple are like.[10] All knowledge is immediate sensation. These sensations are mot
ions which are purely subjective, and are painful, indifferent or pleasant, acco
rding as they are violent, tranquil or gentle.[9][11] Further they are entirely
individual, and can in no way be described as constituting absolute objective kn
owledge. Feeling, therefore, is the only possible criterion of knowledge and of
conduct.[9] Our ways of being affected are alone knowable. Thus the sole aim for
everyone should be pleasure.
Cyrenaicism deduces a single, universal aim for all people which is pleasure. Fu
rthermore, all feeling is momentary and homogeneous. It follows that past and fu
ture pleasure have no real existence for us, and that among present pleasures th
ere is no distinction of kind.[11] Socrates had spoken of the higher pleasures o
f the intellect; the Cyrenaics denied the validity of this distinction and said
that bodily pleasures, being more simple and more intense, were preferable.[12]
Momentary pleasure, preferably of a physical kind, is the only good for humans.
However some actions which give immediate pleasure can create more than their eq
uivalent of pain. The wise person should be in control of pleasures rather than
be enslaved to them, otherwise pain will result, and this requires judgement to
evaluate the different pleasures of life.[13] Regard should be paid to law and c
ustom, because even though these things have no intrinsic value on their own, vi
olating them will lead to unpleasant penalties being imposed by others.[12] Like
wise, friendship and justice are useful because of the pleasure they provide.[12
] Thus the Cyrenaics believed in the hedonistic value of social obligation and a
ltruistic behaviour.
Epicureanism[edit]
Main articles: Epicureanism and Epicurus
Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of Epicurus (c.
341c. 270 BC), founded around 307 BC. Epicurus was an atomic materialist, followi
ng in the steps of Democritus and Leucippus. His materialism led him to a genera
l stance against superstition or the idea of divine intervention. Following Aris
tippusabout whom very little is knownEpicurus believed that the greatest good was
to seek modest, sustainable "pleasure" in the form of a state of tranquility and
freedom from fear (ataraxia) and absence of bodily pain (aponia) through knowle
dge of the workings of the world and the limits of our desires. The combination
of these two states is supposed to constitute happiness in its highest form. Alt
hough Epicureanism is a form of hedonism, insofar as it declares pleasure as the
sole intrinsic good, its conception of absence of pain as the greatest pleasure
and its advocacy of a simple life make it different from "hedonism" as it is co
mmonly understood.
Epicurus
In the Epicurean view, the highest pleasure (tranquility and freedom from fear)
was obtained by knowledge, friendship and living a virtuous and temperate life.
He lauded the enjoyment of simple pleasures, by which he meant abstaining from b
odily desires, such as sex and appetites, verging on asceticism. He argued that
when eating, one should not eat too richly, for it could lead to dissatisfaction
later, such as the grim realization that one could not afford such delicacies i
n the future. Likewise, sex could lead to increased lust and dissatisfaction wit
h the sexual partner. Epicurus did not articulate a broad system of social ethic
s that has survived but had a unique version of the Golden Rule.
It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and just
ly (agreeing "neither to harm nor be harmed"[14]), and it is impossible to live
wisely and well and justly without living a pleasant life.[15]
Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism, though later it became the
main opponent of Stoicism. Epicurus and his followers shunned politics. After t
he death of Epicurus, his school was headed by Hermarchus; later many Epicurean
societies flourished in the Late Hellenistic era and during the Roman era (such
as those in Antiochia, Alexandria, Rhodes and Ercolano). The poet Lucretius is i
ts most known Roman proponent. By the end of the Roman Empire, having undergone
Christian attack and repression, Epicureanism had all but died out, and would be
resurrected in the 17th century by the atomist Pierre Gassendi, who adapted it
to the Christian doctrine.
Some writings by Epicurus have survived. Some scholars consider the epic poem On
the Nature of Things by Lucretius to present in one unified work the core argum
ents and theories of Epicureanism. Many of the papyrus scrolls unearthed at the
Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum are Epicurean texts. At least some are though
t to have belonged to the Epicurean Philodemus.
Greek Mythology[edit]
The Greek god Dionysus, could be considered the Greek embodiment of Hedonism.
Mohism[edit]
Main article: Mohism
Mohism was a philosophical school of thought founded by Mozi in the 5th century
BC. It paralleled the utilitarianism later developed by English thinkers. As Con
fucianism became the preferred philosophy of later Chinese dynasties, starting f
rom the Emperor Wu of Han, Mohism and other non-Confucian philosophical schools
of thought were suppressed.[citation needed]
Christian hedonism[edit]
Main article: Christian hedonism
Christian hedonism is a controversial Christian doctrine current in some evangel
ical circles, particularly those of the Reformed tradition.[16] Christian Hedoni
sm may describe the theology of Jonathan Edwards.[17] In the 17th century, the a
tomist Pierre Gassendi adapted Epicureanism to the Christian doctrine.
Utilitarianism[edit]
Main article: Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism addresses problems with moral motivation neglected by Kantianism
by giving a central role to happiness. It is an ethical theory holding that the
proper course of action is the one that maximizes the overall "good" of the soci
ety.[18] It is thus one form of consequentialism, meaning that the moral worth o
f an action is determined by its resulting outcome. The most influential contrib
utors to this theory are considered to be the 18th and 19th-century British phil
osophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Conjoining hedonismas a view as to
what is good for peopleto utilitarianism has the result that all action should be
directed toward achieving the greatest total amount of happiness (see Hedonic c
alculus). Though consistent in their pursuit of happiness, Bentham and Mill's ve
rsions of hedonism differ. There are two somewhat basic schools of thought on he
donism:[1]
One school, grouped around Bentham, defends a quantitative approach. Bentham bel
ieved that the value of a pleasure could be quantitatively understood. Essential
ly, he believed the value of pleasure to be its intensity multiplied by its dura
tion - so it was not just the number of pleasures, but their intensity and how l
ong they lasted that must be taken into account.
Other proponents, like Mill, argue a qualitative approach. Mill believed that th
ere can be different levels of pleasure - higher quality pleasure is better than
lower quality pleasure. Mill also argues that simpler beings (he often refers t
o pigs) have an easier access to the simpler pleasures; since they do not see ot
her aspects of life, they can simply indulge in their lower pleasures. The more
elaborate beings tend to spend more thought on other matters and hence lessen th
e time for simple pleasure. It is therefore more difficult for them to indulge i
n such "simple pleasures" in the same manner.
Contemporary approaches[edit]
Contemporary proponents of hedonism include Swedish philosopher Torbjrn Tnnsj[19] a
nd Fred Feldman.[20]
Michel Onfray[edit]
Main article: Michel Onfray
Michel Onfray, contemporary hedonist philosopher
A dedicated contemporary hedonist philosopher and writer on the history of hedon
istic thought is the French Michel Onfray. He has written two books directly on
the subject (L'invention du plaisir : fragments cyraniques[21] and La puissance d
'exister : Manifeste hdoniste[22]). He defines hedonism "as an introspective atti
tude to life based on taking pleasure yourself and pleasuring others, without ha
rming yourself or anyone else."[23] "Onfray's philosophical project is to define
an ethical hedonism, a joyous utilitarianism, and a generalized aesthetic of se
nsual materialism that explores how to use the brain's and the body's capacities
to their fullest extent -- while restoring philosophy to a useful role in art,
politics, and everyday life and decisions."[24]
Onfray's works "have explored the philosophical resonances and components of (an
d challenges to) science, painting, gastronomy, sex and sensuality, bioethics, w
ine, and writing. His most ambitious project is his projected six-volume Counter
-history of Philosophy,"[24] of which three have been published. For him "In opp
osition to the ascetic ideal advocated by the dominant school of thought, hedoni
sm suggests identifying the highest good with your own pleasure and that of othe
rs; the one must never be indulged at the expense of sacrificing the other. Obta
ining this balance my pleasure at the same time as the pleasure of others presum
es that we approach the subject from different angles political, ethical, aesthe
tic, erotic, bioethical, pedagogical, historiographical."
For this he has "written books on each of these facets of the same world view."[
25] His philosophy aims "for "micro-revolutions, " or revolutions of the individ
ual and small groups of like-minded people who live by his hedonistic, libertari
an values."[26]
Abolitionism[edit]
Main articles: Abolitionism (bioethics) and David Pearce (philosopher)
The Abolitionist Society is a transhumanist group calling for the abolition of s
uffering in all sentient life through the use of advanced biotechnology. Their c
ore philosophy is negative utilitarianism. David Pearce is a theorist of this pe
rspective and he believes and promotes the idea that there exists a strong ethic
al imperative for humans to work towards the abolition of suffering in all senti
ent life. His book-length internet manifesto The Hedonistic Imperative[27] outli
nes how technologies such as genetic engineering, nanotechnology, pharmacology,
and neurosurgery could potentially converge to eliminate all forms of unpleasant
experience among human and non-human animals, replacing suffering with gradient
s of well-being, a project he refers to as "paradise engineering".[28] A transhu
manist and a vegan,[29] Pearce believes that we (or our future posthuman descend
ants) have a responsibility not only to avoid cruelty to animals within human so
ciety but also to alleviate the suffering of animals in the wild.
Criticisms[edit]
There is a critical point where the value of hedonistic properties is affected b
y actual age and the depreciation schedule turns upward.[citation needed]
It is argued that if social constructionism is going to come to grips with moral
ity and agency, it must abandon explanations that invoke the necessary causation
of metaphysical abstractions such as hedonism.[30]
See also[edit]
Affectionism
Hedonistic relevance
Libertinism
Paradox of hedonism
Pleasure principle (psychology)
Psychological hedonism
Further reading[edit]
Fred Feldman (2006). Pleasure and the Good Life: Concerning the Nature, Varietie
s, and Plausibility of Hedonism. Oxford University Press.
Fred Feldman (1997). Utilitarianism, Hedonism, and Desert: Essays in Moral Philo
sophy. Cambridge University Press
Fred Feldman (2010). What Is This Thing Called Happiness?. Oxford University Pre
ss
Michel Onfray (2002). L'invention du plaisir : fragments cyraniques. Le Livre de
Poche.
Michel Onfray (2006). La puissance d'exister : Manifeste hdoniste. Grasset & Fasq
uelle
David Pearce. The Hedonistic Imperative
Torbjrn Tnnsj (1998). Hedonistic Utilitarianism. Edinburgh University Press
References[edit]
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b Hedonism, 2004-04-20 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics 6. p. 567.
Jump up ^ ????? ???????? (2012). "?????? ??? ???????? ? ???????????: ??? ???????
??????? ?? ???????????????? ??????". ?2. ????????? ?????????. pp. 184185. Missin
g or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Wilson, John A. (1969). "Egyptian Secular Songs and Poems". Ancient Ne
ar Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. New Jersey: Princeton University
Press. p. 467.
Jump up ^ ????? ???????? (2012). "?????? ??? ???????? ? ???????????: ??? ???????
??????? ?? ???????????????? ??????". ?2. ????????? ?????????. p. 185. Missing o
r empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ p. 125, C.C.W. Taylor, "Democritus", in C. Rowe & M. Schofield (eds.),
Greek and Roman Political Thought, Cambridge 2005.
Jump up ^ Diogenes Lartius, ii. 86
Jump up ^ Reale & Catan 1986, p. 274
^ Jump up to: a b c Copleston 2003, p. 121
Jump up ^ Reale & Catan 1986, pp. 2745
^ Jump up to: a b Annas 1995, p. 230
^ Jump up to: a b c Annas 1995, p. 231
Jump up ^ Copleston 2003, p. 122
Jump up ^ Tim O'Keefe, Epicurus on Freedom, Cambridge University Press, 2005, p.
134
Jump up ^ Epicurus Principal Doctrines tranls. by Robert Drew Hicks (1925)
Jump up ^ Christian Hedonism Forgive the Label, But Don't Miss the Truth - Desir
ing God
Jump up ^ Jonathan Edwards, A treatise concerning religious affections (Dublin:
J. Ogle, 1812)[1](accessed on Google Book on July 26, 2009)
Jump up ^ , Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology for Edexcel A2 Biology 2009.
Jump up ^ Torbjrn Tnnsj; Hedonistic Utilitarianism. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press (1998).
Jump up ^ Fred Feldman(2006). Pleasure and the Good Life: Concerning the Nature,
Varieties, and Plausibility of Hedonism. Oxford University Press and (1997). Ut
ilitarianism, Hedonism, and Desert: Essays in Moral Philosophy. Cambridge Univer
sity Press
Jump up ^ http://www.amazon.es/Linvention-plaisir-Fragments-cyr%C3%A9na%C3%AFque
s-Biblio/dp/2253943231
Jump up ^ http://www.amazon.fr/gp/product/2290054526/ref=pd_lpo_sbs_dp_ss_2?pf_r
d_p=479289967&pf_rd_s=lpo-top-stripe&pf_rd_t=201&pf_rd_i=2253083976&pf_rd_m=A1X6
FK5RDHNB96&pf_rd_r=055JCMT72GK8V673HPSR
Jump up ^ http://newhumanist.org.uk/1421 "Atheism la mode"
^ Jump up to: a b Introductory Note to Onfray by Doug Ireland
Jump up ^ Michel Onfray: A philosopher of the Enlightenment
Jump up ^ France, Media, Michel Onfray, A self labeled Anarchist
Jump up ^ "The Hedonistic Imperative".
Jump up ^ "The Genomic Bodhisattva". H+ Magazine. 2009-09-16. Retrieved 2011-11-
16.
Jump up ^ "Criao animal intensiva. Um outro Holocausto?". Revista do Instituto Hum
anitas Unisinos. 2011.
Jump up ^ Gantt, Edwin. "Social constructionism and the ethics of hedonism". US:
Division 24 of the American Psychological Association, the Division of Theoreti
cal and Philosophical Psychology.
Sources
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hedonism". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambr
idge University Press.
External links[edit]
Look up hedonism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
Manifesto of the Hedonist International
Wikisource-logo.svg Grace Neal Dolson (1920). "Hedonism". Encyclopedia Americana
.
The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, volume 6, page 567
[show] v t e
Philosophy
Categories: HedonismMotivationUtilitarianismEthical theoriesPhilosophical moveme
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