An Introduction to Digital Logic - Signals and

Gates
What Are You Going To Learn?
Logic Signals And Gates
AND
OR
NOT (Inverter)
NAND

Wiring A Gate

A NAND Simulation

An Example Problem
Boolean Algebra
Problems

You are at: Elements - Logic Circuits - Gates

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Introduction - Why Do You Want to Learn This Material?

In this lesson you're going to be introduced to Digital Logic. There are
lots of reasons to learn digital logic. Here are some of those reasons.

Digital logic is the foundation for digital computers. If you want to

understand the innards of computers you need to know digital logic.
Digital logic has relations to other kinds of logic including:
o Formal logic - as taught by many philosophy departments
o Fuzzy logic - a tool used to design control systems and many
other systems.
o So, in learning digital logic you learn something that helps you
elsewhere.
For many students, learning digital logic is fun.

What Are You Going to Learn?

There are at least two general areas you need to become familiar with.

First, there's background you need to know - the basics of digital

logic - things like zeros and ones (0s and 1s) and how you can

represent signals as sequences of zeroes and ones. Eventually you will

want to know how large arrays of zeroes and ones can be used in
computer files to store information in pictures, documents, sounds and
even movies and you'll want to learn about how information can be
transmitted, between computers and digital signal sources.
You will also need to know things about digital circuits - gates, flipflops and memory elements and others - so that you can eventually
design circuits to manipulate digital signals.

Here is a short list of the topics you will learn.

Learn what logic signals look like

Model logic signals
Learn Boolean algebra for logic analysis
Learn about gates that process logic signals
Learn how to design some smaller logic circuits
Learn about flip-flops and memory elements that store logic signals

Objectives For This Lesson

Here's what we are after in this lesson - what you should be able to do.
Given a system that uses logic signals
Be able to specify what the output will be when the input is zero (0) and
what the output will be when the input is one (1).
Given an AND, OR, NAND or NOT gate,
Be able to determine the output of the gate given the input logic signals.
Given a system that requires gates,
Be able to wire a chip correctly, and to check that the chip is functioning
properly.

Logic Signals
There are a number of different systems for representing binary
information in physical systems. Here are a few.

A voltage signal with zero (0) corresponding to 0 volts and one (1)
corresponding to five or three volts.

A sinusoidal signal with zero corresponding to some frequency, and one

corresponding to some other frequency.
A current signal with zero corresponding to 4 milliamps and one
corresponding to 20 milliamps.
And one last way is to use switches, OPEN for "0" and CLOSED for
"1".
(And there are more ways!)

Characteristics of Logic Signals

We should note that all of these signals can and usually will change in
time, so that we really are looking at dynamic situations. However, we will
start by looking at these signals as though they were not changing in time.

We will pick a voltage signal as a working example. It can take on two

values corresponding to 0 and 1.
We can associate a variable with that logic signal, and we can assign a
symbol to represent that variable - like the symbol A.

Think Binary!
Let's examine a typical situation. You have some sort of device that
generates a logic signal.

It could be a telephone that converts your voice signal into a sequence

of zeros and ones.
It could be the thermostat on the wall that generates a 1 when the
temperature is too low, and a 0 when the temperature is above the set
point temperature.

The logic signal, A, takes on values of 0 (FALSE, OFF) or 1 (TRUE,

ON). That signal might really be a voltage, a switch closure, etc. However,
we want to think in terms of zeros and ones, not in terms of the values of
the voltage.

Operations on Logic Signals

Once we have the concept of a logic signal we can talk about operations
that can be performed on logic signals. Begin by assuming we have two logic
signals, A and B. Then assume that those two signals form an input set to
some circuit that takes two logic signals as inputs, and has an output that is
also a logic signal. That situation is represented below.

The output, C, depends upon the inputs, A and B. There are many
different ways that C could depend upon A and B. The output, C, is a
function, - a logic function - of the inputs, A and B. IWe will examine a few
basic logic functions - AND, OR and NOT functions and start learning the
circuitry that you use to implement those functions.

Logic Gates
If we think of two signals, A and B, as representing a truth value of two
different propositions, then A could be either TRUE (a logical 1) or FALSE (a
logical 0). B can take on the same values. Now consider a situation in which
the output, C, is TRUE only when both A is TRUE and B is TRUE. We can
construct a truth table for this situation. In that truth table, we insert all
of the possible combinations of inputs, A and B, and for every combination of
A and B we list the output, C.

False False False

False True False
True False False

True True True

An AND Example
Let's imagine a physician prescribing two drugs. For some conditions
drug A is prescribed, and for other conditions drug B is prescribed. Taken
separately each drug is safe. When used together dangerous side effects
are produced.
Let

A = Truth of the statement "Drug 'A' is prescribed.".

B = Truth of the statement "Drug 'B' is prescribed.".
C = Truth of the statement "The patient is in danger.".

Then, the truth table below shows when the patient is in danger.
A

False False False

False True False
True False False
True True True
Notice that C is TRUE when both A AND B are true and only then!

AND GATES
An AND function can be implemented electrically using a device known
as an AND gate. You might imagine a system in which zero (0) is
represented by zero (0) volts, and one (1) is represented by three (3) volts,
for example. If we are going to use electrical devices we need some sort of
symbolic representation. There is a standard symbol for an AND gate shown
below.

Often in lab work it's helpful to use an LED to show when a signal is 0
or 1. Usually a 1 is indicated with an LED that is ON (i.e. glowing). You can
use the buttons below to check out this AND gate (Note what an AND gate
symbol looks like!) with a simulated LED. Note the following in the simulation
(and you can use this in your lab experiments).

To get a logical zero, connect the input of the gate to ground to have
zero (0) volts input.
To get a logical one, connect the input of the gate to a five (5) volts
source to have five volts at the input.
Each button controls one switch (two buttons - two switches) so that
you can control the individual inputs to the gate.
Each time you click a button, you toggle the switch to the opposite
position.

Question
Q1. You have an AND gate. Both inputs are zero. What is the output?

We now have two ways of representing an AND gate, the truth table
and the circuit diagram. However, there is a third way of representing this
information - a symbolic way - that will take us toward Boolean algebra.
Let us consider our variables, A, B and C to be algebraic variables, but
algebraic variables that can only take on two values, 0 and 1. Then we
represent the AND function symbolically in either of two ways.
C = AB or C = AB

Some will prefer always to insert the dot between the variables so that
the AND operation is clearly indicated. Many times, the context will allow
you just to use AB, without a dot between A and B, but if there is a variable
named AB, then confusion can arise.
Problems
Assume you have an AND gate with two inputs, A and B. Determine the
output,
C, for the following cases.

P1. A = 1, B = 0
P2. A = 0, B = 1

P3. If either input is zero, what is the output?

P4. A = 1, B = 1

Once we introduce Boolean variables, we can rethink the concept of a

truth table. In the truth table below, if A, B and C are truth tables and we
have an AND gate with A and B as inputs and C as the output, the truth
table would look like this.
A

OR Gates
Consider a case where a pressure can be high and a temperature can be
high Let's assume we have two sensors that measure temperature and
pressure.. The first sensor has an output, T, that is 1 when a temperature in
a boiler is too high, and 0 otherwise. The second sensor produces an output,
P, that is 1 when the pressure is too high, and 0 otherwise. Now, for the
boiler, we have a dangerous situation when either the temperature or the
pressure is too high. It only takes one. Let's construct a truth table for
this situation. The output, D, is 1 when danger exists.

False False False

False True True
True False True
True True True
What we have done is defined an OR gate. An OR gate is a gate for
which the output is 1 whenever one or more of the inputs is 1. The output of
an OR gate is 0 only when all inputs are 0. Shown below is a schematic
symbol for an OR gate, together with the simulated LEDs and input buttons
so that you can explore OR gate behavior.

In terms of Boolean variables, the truth table for an OR gate looks like this.

Problems
Assume you have an OR gate with two inputs, A and B. Determine the
output, C, for the following cases.
P5. A = 1, B = 0

P6. A = 0, B = 1

P7. If either input is one, what is the output?

NOT Gates (Inverters)

A third important logical element is the inverter. An inverter does
pretty much what it says. If the input is 0, the output is 1. Conversely, if
the input is 1, the output is 0. The symbol for an inverter is shown
below. Again, you can putter with this inverter with the simulated LEDs. X
is the input to the inverter. The output is NOT-X represented as ~1 or:

The truth table for an inverter is pretty simple since there is only one
input. Call the input A, and the output C, and the truth table is:
A

Example Problem
You need to control two pumps that supply two different
concentrations of reactant to a chemical process. The strong reactant is
used when pH is very far from the desired value, and the weak reactant
when pH is close to desired.
You need to ensure that only one of the two pumps runs at any
time. Each pump controller responds to standard logic signals, that is when
the input to the pump controller is 1, the pump operates, and when that input
is 0, the pump does not operate.
You have a bunch of two-input AND gates (IC chips), OR gates and
Inverters, and you need to design a logic circuit to control the pumps. You
can generate a signal that is 1 when Pump S is ON, and 0 when Pump W is
ON. Can you design the circuit?
In order to solve the problem, consider that the pump controls should
receive logical inverse signals. When one pump signal is one, the other is
zero. Given that recognition this circuit should work. Here, if X is 1, Pump S
pumps.

Notice the simple way we can use a switch and a five volt supply to produce a
single logic signal that is ""0"" (ground) or 1 (5 volts).
NAND Gates
There is another important kind of gate, the NAND gate. Actually, the
way to start thinking about a NAND gate is to think of it as an AND gate
with an inverter on the output. That's shown below.

Actually, however, the symbol for a NAND gate compresses the inverter
down to a dot at the output of the NAND gate as shown below.

Here is a simulated NAND gate. Check it out.

Wiring a Quad-NAND Chip

If you want to use gates, you will need to learn something about their
physical characteristics. In this section we'll walk you through wiring a
simple gate circuit using one specific integrated circuit (IC) the 7400
chip. It's a good introduction to some of the more complex logic chips that
you'll probably be using later.
Here's a picture of the 7400 chip in a circuit board. This chip is
actually an N74LS00P. The LS tells you that it is a low power Schottky
chip. Every manufacturer will embed the 7400 or 74LS00 in other part
numbers.

Notice that this chip has fourteen pins.

If you want to use an IC chip, then you will always need to know the
pinout. That's electrical engineering lingo for describing the way the pins
are connected to the internal circuitry of the chip. You need to know where
the power supply is connected and where the gate inputs and outputs are
connected. Here's the pinout for a 7400 chip.

The first step in wiring the 7400 is to connect the positive power
supply. Use a five volt (5v) power supply and don't turn it on yet. Connect a
lead to pin 14 as shown below, and connect the other end of that lead to a 5v
supply. Keep the power supply turned off until you have everything
connected. Here's what that looks like when the positive supply voltage to
the chip is wired.

The next step in wiring the 7400 is to connect the ground

connection. Connect a lead to pin 7 as shown below, and connect the other
end of that lead to ground.

Notice the pattern to this connection. The power to this digital logic
chip goes to the corners. Remember, power to the corners for logic chips.
Now you can connect the two inputs to one of the gates on the
chip. You're going to put 5v on either of these inputs for a 1 and ground the
input for a 0. There are two wires in the picture below that connect to pins
1 and 2 on the chip. Those pins are the inputs for one of the NAND gates on
the chip.

Now you can connect the output of the gate. You will need to connect
this output to something like a voltmeter or an oscilloscope so that you can

measure and observe the output of the gate. (And the voltmeter or
oscilloscope will also have to be connected to the ground. You will measure
output voltage with respect to ground.) The output will be near 5v when the
output is a 1 and near 0v when the output is a 0.

Actually, you can often connect LEDs to give a visual indication of a 1

(LED lighted) or a 0 (LED dark). Here some LEDs are shown, together with
1kW current limiting resistors. If you connect LED indicators to your circuit
remember that an LED is not the same in both directions, and you have to
get the correct end connected to the resistor. The other end of each LED
is connected to ground (or just "grounded"). Here's the circuit to show the
output of a NAND gate:

When the output of the gate is a 1, the output voltage will be five (5)
volts. Current will flow through the series combination of the resistor and
the LED, so the LED will light. When the output of the gate is a 0, the
output voltage will be zero (0) volts and the LED will not be lit. Thus, the
LED lights up when the output is a 1, and doesn't light when the output is a

0. You can use this indication scheme to show the status for any signal. (It
doesn't have to be the output of a gate.)
Click here for an introductory laboratory on the 7400 chip.
Question
Q1
In the picture above, (shown again here) is the power turned on for
the chip power supply?

A NAND Gate
Here is a photo of a NAND gate wired to display the input signals and
output signals. In this simulation you can manipulate the inputs and see the
inputs and outputs. Note the following.

The input voltage can be set to either 5v or 0v (ground) for each input
to one of the NAND gates on the chip. Five volts is a logical 1, and
zero volts is a logical zero.
o Note how the push buttons move a connection from 5v to
ground when the button is pushed.
When an signal is a 1, there is an LED that lights to show that the
input is 1. When the LED is not lit, the signal is 0.
o Note that there is a current limiting resistor in series with
each LED. If the voltage at the output becomes 5v and the

LED "saturates" around 1.8v, you need a current limiting

resistor. These resistors look to be 1k.
The power supply connection and the ground connection to the chip
are both shown. The vertical line of connection points on the circuit
board is ground.

Check out how the circuit works and note all of the connections that you
need to make to ensure that the chip works as it is supposed to work.
Example Problem
Let's reconsider the pump problem. What happens if there are times
when you don't want either pump to pump? Assume you have a digital signal
that is 1 when one of the two pumps is to pump, and 0 when neither pump is
to pump. For example, if the pH was very close to desired you wouldn't want
to do anything at all so you wouldn't want either pump to turn on..
You still have the other signal that determines which pump is to pump
whenever one of the pumps should pump.
Devise a circuit that will ensure that both pumps are OFF when the
Pumpsignal is 0 and that the correct pump pumps when the Pump signal is 1.

The circuit you devise in this section will be simple enough that you can
probably implement it with a few chips although you will need to look for
chips with AND gates and inverters. You should be able to handle that
now. Work through the solution in this lesson and try it out in lab if you can.
Example Solution
Let's look at this problem with a truth table. Here's the truth table.
Pumps
On
1=
ON

Pump
Choice Pump Pump
0=S S
W
1=W

00

1 0

21

31

In English, we say to turn Pump S (Strong reactant) ON when the

pumps are ON, and the strong reactant is chosen (Choice 3) and to turn
Pump W (Weak reactant) ON when the pumps are ON and the weak reactant
is chosen (Choice 2). Otherwise, do nothing.
If we examine it closely we see that there is exactly one term in each
function. S is 1 only for choice 3, that is when you want PUMPS ON and you
want the strong reactant. Similarly, W is 1 only for choice 2. Here's the
truth table again. Note the following:

We have defined Boolean variables here for the various signals, P, C,

S, and W.
We have indicated the inputs by shading them green, and the outputs
by shading them orange.
P

Looking at the statement "S is 1 . . . when you want Pumps ON AND you
want the strong reactant" then you can generate a logic expression directly
from the statement.

and also:

Finally, realize that it doesn't take much to implement these

functions. Note you only need one inverter and two AND gates. Here's the
circuit that turns the pumps on at the proper time. This is an interactive
simulation of the circuit, so you can toggle the switches with the push
buttons. Check it out.
Question
Q2 To check out the circuit you should what?

A QUICK QUESTION

Within the simulated circuit, determine the part of the circuit that
genrates a 1 when the pumps are ON, and a 0 when they both are OFF.

What If The Problem Isn't So Simple?

Not all functions are as simple as this one, and certainly not all can be
implemented with just a few gates. However, implementing this simple
function gives us a clue how to implement more complex functions.
In the next lesson we'll look at a more general method for implementing
functions - a method that uses only AND and OR gates and inverters - but a
method which can also be implemented with only NAND gates. We hope that
sounds intriguiging to you and that you are looking forward to the next
lesson. Click here to go to the lesson on logic functions.

Boolean Algebra
Clearly at this point we are entering a realm of a different kind of
algebra. We have encountered some example terms in this algebra.

and:

The algebra is unusual because the variables in the algebra (S, P, C and
W in the example) can take only two values, 0 and 1. In this section we will
examine some of the properties of this algebra, and the implications of what
we have already learned.
There are some simple things we need to establish before we can
proceed.

An AND gate has this truth table when the inputs are A and B, and
the output is C:
A

So, clearly we have:

o 00 = 0, and
o 11 = 1, and
o 01 = 0
Which may be exactly what you expected.
We also need to consider an OR gate.

An OR gate has this truth table when the inputs are A and B, and the
output is C:

So, clearly we have:

o 0 + 0 = 0, and
o 1 + 1 = 1, and
o 0+1=1

Now, if you are taking a college course, and you write home that 1 + 1 =
1 is what you just learned, your parents may want your tuition refunded.
Now, if you accepted what was claimed above, then you also have to
accept the following:
AA = A

Just let A be either zero or one and remember the truth table for an AND.
We also have:
A+A=A
Again, just let A be either zero or one and remember the truth table for an
OR.
And - - - believe it or not, this result for A + A is very useful because it
is a fundamental result that will let us build circuits with fewer gates. We'll
come back to that later.
There are some interesting theorems that can be proved. Note the
following:

These two little theorems will prove to be useful. To prove these theorems
you only need to know about the properties of AND, OR and NOT
gates. That is left as an exercise for you.

When we want to prove a theorem we will take the approach that we

can prove the theorem by examining all possible combinations of the
appropriate variables. We can do that because the possible
combinations are finite.

Here is a truth table. It lists all possible combinations for two variables.

AB
0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 0

1 1 0

This truth table proves the following theorem.

Theorem (de Morgan)

Proof
The proof of this theorem is contained in the truth table above which
lists every possible combination of A and B, and shows that this result is
true.
One final note. There are some further simple facts that come in
useful. Note the following:

and:

Boolean Algebra can be a confusing and misleading business. De

Morgan's theorem above seems almost trivial. However, there is a very
interesting consequence of this theorem. Here it is:

If you have a Boolean function that is a sum-of-products form it can

be implemented using a two layer circuit with the first layer composed
of AND gates, and the second layer composed of OR gates.
Applying deMorgan's theorem to the function the circuit can be built
using the same structure, but replacing every AND and OR gate with a
NAND gate.

First, you need to understand how to expand a function in terms of

minterms. Click here to go to that lesson.
Problems

Problem Logic1P01 - Building a Three-Input AND.

Links to Other Lessons on Digital Logic

o
o
o
o
o
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Gates
Minterms
Karnaugh Maps
Flip-Flops
Counters
Memory Elements
Digital Logic Laboratories

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