American Automobile Advertising, 1930-1980 - An Illustrated History (Posters Graphic Design) PDF

American Automobile Advertising,
19301980
ALSO BY HEON STEVENSON

British Car Advertising of the 1960s
(McFarland, 2005)
American Automobile
Advertising, 19301980
An Illustrated History
H EON S TEVENSON
McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

Jefferson, North Carolina, and London
Dates of advertisement illustrations

In this book, the dates given in picture captions are the cover dates of
the magazines in which the advertisements appeared. In some cases, a magazine
might have been published a few weeks before the beginning of the month of
its cover date. Where the month of publication of an advertisement is
not known, the model year of the campaign is given instead.
American Automobile Advertising, 19301980: An Illustrated History is an extensively revised

and expanded edition of Selling the Dream: Advertising the American Automobile 19301980
which was rst published by Academy Books in England in 1995.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGUING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Stevenson, Heon, 966

American automobile advertising, 19301980 : an
illustrated history / Heon Stevenson.
p.
cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-3: 978-0-7864-3685-9
(illustrated case binding: 50# and 70# alkaline papers)
. Advertising Automobiles United States History
20th century. 2. Automobile industry and trade United
States History 20th century. I. Title.
HF6161.A9S749 2008
659.19'629222097309045 dc22
2008023063
British Library cataloguing data are available
2008 Heon Stevenson. All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying
or recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher.
Cover photograph 2007 Shutterstock.
Manufactured in the United States of America
McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

Box 6, Jeerson, North Carolina 28640
www.mcfarlandpub.com
To my late father,
Stuart D. Stevenson, BSc., C. Eng., A.M.I.E.E.
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgments
This book would have been difcult, if not impossible, to write without the help of many people in
England. I would like to thank the librarians at the British Library in London, at Cambridge University
Library, at the Sutton Libraries and Heritage in Croydon and Wallington, Surrey, and at York City Library,
for making available much rare research material from the pre-war and early postwar periods.
Sincere thanks are also due to Lynda Springate of the National Motor Museum at Beaulieu, Hampshire, for the chance to study dozens of rare catalogs and period documents and for providing copies of
advertisers originals of early Ford, Mercury, and Lincoln advertisements; to Tony Freeman for much useful advice and encouragement in the books early stages; to Margaret Rose, general manager, and Chloe
Veale, curator, of the History of Advertising Trust (HAT) Archive at Raveningham, Norfolk, for information on British advertising for Chrysler, Ford, and General Motors Vauxhall cars; to Taylor Vinson,
editor of the Society of Automotive Historians Automotive History Review, for a selection of postwar
American MG advertisements; to Bernie Weis of the Pierce-Arrow Society for information about the 1935
Pierce-Arrow advertisement seen on page C2 of the color plates; to Paul Veysey for the 1927 Dodge and
1938 Hudson advertisements on page 61, and for the 1935 Ford V-8 on page C3 of the color plates; and to
Mrs. Joan Coombs for a number of the earliest advertisements illustrated in this book. I am also grateful to Pamela Blore for a social historians view of the portrayal of women in early advertising.
The generous support and encouragement of all of the American automobile manufacturers is appreciated, particularly from Ed Lechtzin, Public Relations Director at Pontiac Division of General Motors;
and Public Relations Co-ordinator Alan E. Miller of Chrysler Plymouth, for comprehensive information
on their respective companies products of the early 1990s.
Finally, may I thank my old friend Jeremy Kendall for hospitality and entertainment in Bury St.
Edmunds, Suffolk during the preparation of the manuscript; and my good friends and fellow-students
Clare McCourt, Matthew Shiels, David Higgs, and Jasper Denning for their support and encouragement,
even when their house was temporarily overtaken by a sea of automotive literature, and for helping to
choose many of the advertisements illustrated in this book.
vii
Contents
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Part One: Fueling a Fantasy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.
2.
3.
4.
Igniting Desire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Fantasy by Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Theres Added Joy in Added Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Pushbuttons and Plastic Tops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Part Two: Beyond Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

5. Wouldnt it be nice to have an Escape Machine?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6. A Neurosis Unleashed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7. Plymouth The Car That Likes to be Compared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Between pages 118 and 119 are 16 color plates with 21 images
8.
9.
10.
11.
The Objectivity Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Remember How You Hungered for It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Theres a Ford in Your Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Lady, Relax! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Part Three: Reality Supervenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Justifying the Indulgence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

The Sybarites Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Get More GO From Every Gallon! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Padding and Prejudice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
From Utility to Suburban Chic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
ix
C ONTENTS
17. Back to Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
18. Fantasy Under Siege. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Overview and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Collectors Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Preface
Somewhere west of Laramie theres a bronco-busting, steer-roping girl who knows what Im talking about. She can
tell what a sassy pony, thats a cross between greased lightning and the place where it hits, can do with eleven hundred pounds of steel and action when hes going high, wide and handsome. The truth is the Playboy was built for
her. Built for the lass whose face is brown with the sun when the day is done of revel and romp and race. She loves
the cross of the wild and the tame. Theres a savor of links about that car of laughter and lilt and light a hint
of old loves and saddle and squirt. Its a brawny thing yet a graceful thing for the sweep o the Avenue. Step
into the Playboy when the hour grows dull with things gone dead and stale. Then start for the land of real living
with the spirit of the lass who rides, lean and rangy, into the red horizon of a Wyoming twilight.
Jordan advertisement from the Saturday Evening Post, June 23, 1923
(beginning in 1959) have become famous, and are well documented.

Among conventional advertisements of this period,
Studebakers photographic series of 194650, De Sotos dramatic portraits of the nned Forward Look (1957), and Fords
atmospheric Thunderbird campaigns of the early 1960s are
well remembered today. A few advertisements were controversial, such as Fords Lifeguard promotion during the early
part of the 1956 model year, which, with its emphasis on the
passive safety of the product, anticipated later trends by more
than a decade.
Some advertisements appear retrogressive to modern
eyes one thinks of much Studebaker copy of the early 1960s
which, echoing the functionalism of the earliest automobile
advertising, insisted that the product combined the best of all
possible (prestigious and economical) worlds, which it did
not. There were a few instances of dj vu, the more amusing
for not having been apparent to the advertisers themselves.
Car buyers, meanwhile, usually proved cannier than one might
believe from some of the modern periods more lurid copy.
Most of the themes and techniques evident in copy by
1980 were already apparent, if only in embryo form, at the beginning of the 1930s. Generalizations according to decade can
therefore be misleading. It can be argued that the 1930s were
years of functionalism; the 1940s (wartime prestige advertis-
The aspirations of an era are captured vividly in its advertising, which is the focus of a multitude of human concerns and ambitions. At its best, advertising displays the nest
fruits of engineering and the graphic arts. By their nature
ephemeral, advertisements are compelling freeze-frames of
the times that give them meaning.
The automobile, for its part, as a provider of freedom
and symbol of affluence, and as a projection of its owners
world-view, has enjoyed a uniquely wide-ranging influence
on American life. This is particularly apparent in the advertising of the modern period in the history of the American automobile, beginning with the entrenchment of the Big Three
in the early 1930s, and concluding with the fuel crisis of the
1970s and the establishment of the Japanese automobile in
America.
Individual automobile advertisements are interesting in
their own right, and for what they reveal about the products
that they attempted to sell. Particular campaigns stand out
from the contemporary norm, and are memorable for their
imagination and impact such as J. Stirling Getchells Look
At All Three series for Plymouth in the 1930s, and J. Walter
Thompsons Ford in Your Future campaign of 194547.
David Ogilvys advertisements for Rolls-Royce (195862) and
Doyle Dane Bernbachs long-running, iconoclastic assault
upon conventional automotive values with the Volkswagen
P REFACE
ing apart) of escapism; the 1950s of fantasy; the 1960s of realism; and that the 1970s brought a fragmentation of approaches
along class and size-category lines. There are, however, so
many exceptions to this glib summary that it has only limited
use as a temporary scaffold around which to build a more
complete picture of the subject.
This book therefore follows a thematic rather than strictly
chronological structure, tracing the development of the principal elements in American automobile advertising over fty
years. Advances in advertising layouts and graphics are discussed in Part One, together with the ways in which automobile styling, mechanical improvements, and convenience features were portrayed and highlighted in copy over the years.
Part Two explores the advertising themes which were concerned less with the attributes of the cars themselves, but
rather with the ways in which advertisers hoped that consumers would perceive and identify with their products. The
practical aspects of automobile ownership are addressed in
Part Three, which concludes with an account of the advance
of imported cars into America after World War II. The Overview and Conclusion includes a discussion of advertising
themes revisited and developed since 1980. Snapshots are taken
of representative campaigns from the recessionary year of
1993, and from 2005-2006.
Choosing illustrations for this book has been an enjoyable
but difcult task. As it is not possible to illustrate every campaign launched over fty years, the advertisements selected
have been chosen to be representative of their types, and to illustrate the themes of the text. The majority of the advertisements in this book have been taken from the unusually wide
selection published in the National Geographic, whose clear
print showed them at their best, and whose high-quality paper

has preserved them in good condition. Most also appeared in
several other magazines at the same time, with the layout of
each advertisement, and sometimes the length of its copy,
being adjusted as necessary to the size and shape of a particular publications pages. European advertisements for American cars are included where relevant, as is American advertising for imported cars.
Many parallels can be drawn between press advertisements and contemporary catalogs, particularly where pictures,
slogans, and layouts were carried from one medium to the
other as part of a coordinated marketing strategy. But the advertisement is not an abridged catalog, and the two have distinct, if sometimes overlapping, functions. This account is
conned to the advertising published in the general media,
which was not aimed primarily at car enthusiasts or at those
who had already shown an interest in a particular product.
This emphasis has also meant that a wide variety of advertisements can be shown here, an advantage given that many are
often less easily found than brochures or catalogs which, in
proportion to the numbers originally produced, have in many
cases been more widely preserved.
I hope that this overview of fty years of American automobile advertising will interest automobile enthusiasts, students of advertising and, not least, those who saw the advertisement, bought the car, and thereby sustained that powerful
synthesis of illusion and aspiration which is the American
dream.
Heon Stevenson
Cambridge, England, fall 2008
P ART O NE : F UELING
F ANTASY
Chapter 1
Igniting Desire
accurate photography superseded impressionistic artwork.
In the beginning, it was argued, the consumer was duped by
advertisers fanciful rendering of their products, but later rose
up against the artists who were the cause of his confusion, and
demanded realism instead.
This analysis appears supercially convincing. Its advocates need only produce an impressionistic rendering of a
Chrysler or Lincoln, circa 1930, juxtapose it with a resolutely
realistic portrait of a Chrysler or Lincoln, circa 1970, and point
triumphantly to this supposedly irrefutable evidence of
progress. This myth sustains a belief in progress itself, and
may be attractive to the tastes of professional nostalgists, but
it is not the whole story, not least because no advertisement can
be wholly realistic about its subject, and no portrait is impartial. The strictest impartiality might be said to consist not in
the identication of a single, true perspective to the disdain
of all others, but in the practical and perhaps conceptual absurdity of an unmediated presentation of all possible perspectives simultaneously.
It has been claimed that the inception of color photography in automobile advertising from around 1932 removed the
interpretative artistic middleman who had hitherto stood between the reader and the product; but, in reality, the artist,
including the deceitful elongator, continued to work alongside the photographer until after 1970. And the imaginative
photography that captured the high, wide and heavenly view
enjoyed by Ford Thunderbird buyers in 1969, for example,
was vastly more sophisticated than the simple, faux-color photograph which had been considered adequate for British buyers of the Model A in 1931. Moreover, the impressionism which
was once the preserve of the illustrator was increasingly
achieved not only by the artist and photographer, but by the
copywriter as well.
Photographers and artists sometimes worked simultane-
The beginning of a new model year was always exciting

for Americans. In Europe, cars trickled onto the market when
they were ready, and motor shows boosted enthusiasm for
motoring as much as for particular cars. By contrast, the
American automobile market was rejuvenated annually. After
1923, a years new model was rarely exactly the same as what
had gone before, and the new car buyers rst point of contact
with the new model was usually an advertisement.
An advertisement is, and has always been, evangelical. It
must cajole, bully, and entice its reader to spend on the
strength of its promise, to partake of the enchanted life that the
product will bring. Only after the potential buyer has been at
least partly convinced does he ll in the coupon or enter the
sanctuary of the showroom for a brochure. The brochure may
conrm a consumers desire for a car, but it is the advertisement which must ignite it. A brochure can run to several pages
if necessary; the advertisement must do its job on one page,
within seconds. It must make the reader stop and look, then
read, then dream, and then become convinced, so that ownership of the automobile is integrated into his idealized selfimage.
An advertisement therefore either succeeds or fails within
a few seconds, after which its job is done, and it is thrown
away and forgotten. Throughout the modern period in American automobile advertising it was an advertisements appearance that had to make a reader stop; the car, as illustrated, had
to persuade him to look; and the copy and backdrop against
which the car was set invited him to read and, perhaps, to
dream. Against this background, automobile advertisers manipulation of layout and illustration reached new heights of
subtlety and, sometimes, of elaboration.
There was a myth, widely perpetuated, that early advertisements were unrealistic, even dishonest, and that later copy
was realistic, presenting the product in its true colors; that
F ANTASY
adequately attractive without exaggerating its length. In the

1950s, photographs and illustrations were sometimes combined in individual advertisements, as in 1955 when a painted
Studebaker President sedan, elongated at the front and resplendent in pink and black, was surrounded by photographs
of similar cars in scenic settings to show off the designs useful features.
The artistic elongator, who portrayed an automobile realistically in its details, but not in its proportions, was particularly popular among aspiring middle-market advertisers
from 1933 onwards. The exaggerated illustrations deployed by Nash during 1934 recalled the proportions of earlier Cords and
Duesenbergs, while adding embryonic suggestions of streamlining suggestions that
were taken up more fervently by Hudson,
Studebaker and, notably, Hupmobile, who
had a genuinely streamlined car to work with
in 1934s Aerodynamic sedan.
The advance of the elongator represented a natural synthesis of two existing
schools in automobile advertising. On the
one hand, Nashs socially optimized architectural backdrops recalled the static, neoclassical tableaux favored by Lincoln,
Packard, Cadillac, and Marmon in the late
1920s. On the other hand, the modern elongators preoccupation with the horizontal elements in car design, together with an emphasis on speed and power, recalled the
dynamic impressionism imported from Europe, initially by Chrysler through its distinctive Bauhaus-pastiche idiom, at the same
time.1 Though innovative and influential,
this idiom rarely strayed beyond Chrysler
Imperial advertising in the automotive eld
in America, and was by no means universal
in publicity even for that marque. Dynamic
impressionism in general was more frequently encountered in Europe, notably in
Fiats home-market advertising for its larger
models from 1927 to 1936, and with copy for
the streamlined 1937 Panhard Dynamic in
France.
The aim of both neo-classicist and dynamic impressionist was to convey the totality of the automotive experience by visual
means rather than to show the product realistically in a technical sense. In 1954, G.H.
Saxon (Bingy) Mills, copywriter for W.S.
Crawford Ltd., Chryslers British and conMild impressionism from Chrysler in 1926. More extreme forms would follow tinental European advertising agent from
1925 until the early 1930s, recalled:
(December 1926).
ously on separate campaigns, and in several cases they worked
together. In 1939, for instance, Oldsmobile used paintings in
advertisements which highlighted styling features and the novelty of the years range, while black and white photographs
appeared in advertisements for low-priced variants which were
promoted on their realistic, down-to-earth merits of low
cost and economical running. Plymouth used both media in
the same year. The marques black and white photographs
were unequivocally dull, but paintings, in which about ve
inches were removed from the height of the car, made it look
1. I GNITING D ESIRE
The elongator versus artist-as-realist. Backgrounds in both cases were realistic, but Oldsmobiles fun-oriented illustration was
more typical of its period than Plymouths sober practicality (November 1938 and March 1939).
Ashley [Havinden, the agencys advertising artist and, from
1929, art director] argued that an ordinary half-tone photograph in black and white would scarcely make the [Chrysler]
look different from any other make. In other words, it was
impossible to convey glamour by reproduction methods.
Therefore he devised impressionistic drawings of a car being
driven at high speed, plus a free dynamic layout, plus exciting and exclamatory headlines. So striking were these advertisements that ... people in England were shortly [afterwards]
talking about Rolls Royces, Chryslers and Bentleys.... [T]his
advertising style was ... to prove additionally valuable in the
difcult circumstances of European reproduction.... [T]he few
black and white lines embodied in the drawings survived even
the abominable paper and printing characteristics of most of
the foreign newspapers. [And] the arresting and almost childishly-simple presentation was equally effective in countries
ranging from the Baltic to the Balkans.... It sold exhilaration
associated with the name of Chrysler internationally.2
The artistic elongator sought the best of both worlds, reinstating accurate detail, but retaining the necessary dynamism through modied proportion. Only rarely could an
adequate emotional and sensual content be combined with

dimensional realism before the advent of atmospheric color
photography in the 1960s.
By 1939-40, Nashes were shown in paintings by the Connecticut artist Steven Dohanos in bright yellows, greens and
reds, longer, lower and much wider than in life; a vertical
grille, vaguely reminiscent of an earlier LaSalle, acquired a
rakish, forward-leaning appearance which had no basis in fact.
The car looked most attractive in front three-quarter view,
taken at ground level, and this angle was consistently chosen.
Little was made of the cars trunk, which was concealed on
fastback torpedo shapes, but which appeared apologetically
as an indeterminate hump on trunkback sedans. It actually
looked more attractive on the real car, to whose dumpier proportions it was better suited.
So entrenched was the elongator by the late 1930s that
Ford, announcing the new Mercury marque in 1938, felt it
necessary to reassure buyers that The size of the Mercury is
not an illusion. This is a big, wide car, exceptionally roomy,
with a large luggage compartment. The cars shape was familiar to Ford buyers, and there was a real danger that devotees
of the parent marque would mistake the Mercury 8 for an optimistically drawn Tudor sedan. British monochrome illustrations of the smaller Ford V-8 suggested that it was as long
as a Lincoln-Zephyr, which was far from the case.
In America, realism was achieved more often with monochrome photography than with the color illustrations suitable
for glamour pieces. Buick published many such realistic advertisements in the late 1930s, displaying more flair and imagination, within the constraints of the chosen medium, than
Plymouth. The views chosen were not always those that would
be natural to the car buyer. A particular favorite was the ground-level shot, taken with
a wide-angle lens, with buildings receding
dramatically into the background. The effect
was of dominance, length, and mastery of
the modern world which was the Buicks natural environment. It was anything but realistic, yet conviction was achieved by the accurate rendition of detail which was possible
with the camera. By colluding with the copywriter, both artist and photographer co-operated in the creation of an automotive fantasy for the moment, igniting the consumers
desire for a product laden with personal and
social potentialities.
It was argued by many that the adoption of photography as an illustrative medium had banished fantasism forever. Harold Costain, a British commentator, wrote
in 1935:
F ANTASY
[The Americans] appreciate the fact that the great buying

public is intelligent and will recognize and appreciate dependable representations in advertising. They are generally
proud of their merchandise and proud to show it as it is, and
even though it is photographed in a dramatic manner in
order to arrest the readers attention and create interest in the
descriptive text ... no attempt is made to mislead the public.4
Except, of course, when unsightly aspects of the product

were carefully concealed by the angle and composition of the
photograph. Costains view was, at best, simplistic. What was
evident was increasing subtlety and a careful integration of
copy and artwork to create a compelling overall impression.
We have become purists in that the subject is photographed faithfully with the
idea of appealing to the intelligence of the
buyer rather than to his imagination or
emotions, whether his need is for apples,
shoes or automobiles.3
This was true of a great many British

advertisers in the 1930s, but it was not always true on the other side of the Atlantic,
and the American practitioner was more
than once mistakenly cast in the role of
benevolent ingnu:
American advertisers no longer tolerate
photographs which require photo retouching or indeed any alteration before use.
This was not always the case, as a cursory look at 1939s artwork for the Oldsmobile 60, among others, conrms. Costain
continued:
Chryslers dynamic impressionism entered its mature phase in the middle of the
Depression. Copy styles and typefaces were suitably artistic or pretentious
(1931 campaign).
Nashs angled block layout was a masterpiece of ingenuity. No other manufacturer combined a multitude of illustrations with
more than a dozen typefaces to such elegant effect (June 1939).
F ANTASY
Contrast of styles. Mercury combined realistic illustration with factual copy in 1939, while Fords British advertising for the 1937
V-8 30 was sometimes cluttered. The angled block headline derived from an earlier, more exuberant idiom, and tted badly
with the portentous copy and hum-drum, if elongated, picture (April 1937 and March 1939).
A theory of new-found public wisdom presupposed an earlier stupidity, and on neither count was this early form of the
progressivist myth wholly supported by the reality.
Nevertheless, as motoring became ever more popular and
widely accessible, advertisers had to cater to a wider audience:
wider in outlook, in aspiration, in geographical extent. The Depression, and the popularization of the automobile, signaled
an end to Bauhaus-pastiche and other instances of what has
been called
...an epidemic of freak advertising, masquerading under the
banner of the progressively modern movement, which has
brought no commensurate results to any but its perpetrators.5
In fairness to advocates of the freakish, such copy had

almost invariably been conned to upmarket automobiles.
When Chrysler in America adopted dramatic angles, stylized
speedlines, and vivid tonal contrasts in the late 1920s, this
copy, was addressed to an upper-class elite in such magazines
as House and Garden. It was assumed that readers would be
familiar with Bauhaus and, latterly, Cubist and Art Decoinspired visual motifs, and the strategy was simply a visually
dramatic manifestation of the snobbery that had often per-
vaded upmarket automobile advertising. Most car advertisements of the period were simple and functional, like the cars
that they depicted. Copy for the Model T Ford was consistently down-to-earth, and even deliberately stylized renderings of the Model A, Model B, and V-8 which followed in the
1930s were comparatively innocuous.
Esoteric artistic motifs were criticized as much for their
implicit elitism on the basis that the majority of the public
did not understand and therefore would supposedly not like
them as for any failure to sell upmarket cars. Their advocates,
commercially rather than socially motivated, wondered
whether it mattered that those who would not buy Chrysler
Imperials disliked or were mystied by copy for such cars. Did
the critical, self-appointed, guardians of public taste within
the advertising industry forget that it was as patronizing to try
to protect the public from artistic excess as to inflict pretension on it in the rst place? And were those critics secretly
dismayed to see art purloined by avowedly commercial interests, notwithstanding that the Bauhaus was a school of the
machine age, which sought to integrate art and three-dimensional design?
Advertisers delightedly foisted asymmetrical layouts and
Realistic photography was not conned to utilitarians. In 1938, Buick evoked an earlier neo-classical style, long favored by upmarket advertisers (March 1938).
10
F ANTASY
The artistic debate was never resolved, and in any event

was rapidly subsumed within a general need to create new,
flexible advertising styles for successive model years in order
to bring the products of an expanding industry as close as possible to the viewpoints and aspirations of a widening consumer base. Not all upmarket manufacturers had succumbed
to the transient allure of the Bauhaus fetish. In its advertising, as in its automobiles, Marmon in particular exhibited a
flair and restraint which were closer in spirit to the Bauhaus
ideal than Chryslers graphic exuberance.
Any academic debate, as such, was peripheral to the business of selling cars, and a
new realism came to the fore after the onset
of Depression in 1929. Such fanciful renderings as did recur in the late 1930s were rarely
as bizarre as the Bauhaus pastiches of ten
years earlier. Optimism and national condence had brought extremes of style, while
cautious retrenchment was apparent in later,
less whimsical copy.
If there was a discernible movement towards increased visual realism in the 1930s,
it did not always entail unappealing and dogmatic authenticity. There were pedantic exceptions, but even they should perhaps be
evaluated according to their effectiveness in
selling automobiles, and not scorned simply
because they are aesthetically unpalatable.
The elongatorwhether armed with palette,
airbrush, or wide-angle lenshad an important role to play in enhancing the automobile
itself, but the backdrops against which the
cars were highlighted were predominantly
realistic, rather than self-consciously surreal
or abstractly atmospheric. Stylization in
detail, perspective, and coloring was inevitable, but it was an optimized reality
rather than contrived fantasy that prevailed
by 1935.
Visual effects were carefully aligned
with accompanying copy, with the result that
specic codes for upmarket, popular, and
middle-class automobiles could be detected
without reference to the substance of the
copy itself, or even to the marque depicted.
These graphic codes were inherited from an
earlier period, even if the mechanics of advertisers visual language had changed radically
since the 1920s. Low-priced automobiles
were usually shown in small-town provincial and rural settings, while upmarket modPhotographic anti-realism from Buick. The wide-angle, ground level shot was a els could be encountered at recognizably sophisticated venues.
favorite with advertisers at all levels of the market (March 1939).
minimalist representation on automobiles which had been designed with scant regard for the ideals that sired those distinctive Bauhaus signatures. It was perhaps understandable that the
purists should shudder; less so that they expected their purism
to alight upon the aesthetic consciences of the advertisers and
paralyze them into disregard of a potent and sales-catching
innovation. Asymmetry caught the eye easily in a medium
where symmetry was the norm; strong tonal contrasts could be
reproduced faithfully in color or monochrome, the latter being
particularly effective in newsprint of indifferent quality.
11
A distanced backdrop for the stylish Lincoln-Zephyr coupe. Care was taken not to submerge this middle-class car within a
socially constricted visual environment (March 1937).
12
F ANTASY
This Plymouth advertisement was typical of the catalogs in miniature that enjoyed a brief vogue among low and lower-middle
priced marques in the 1930s (November 1937).
13
Throughout the 193641 period, a time of sometimes

In both cases, the automobile itself was often shown at
fragile but increasing prosperity, established ne cars the
rest, creating a freeze-frame of the desired social image. The
big Lincolns, Chrysler Imperials, Packards, and Cadillacs
greatest variety was reserved for the traditionally unstable
stayed aloof from the turbulent middle market. But the midmiddle-ground: the territory of Nash, Hudson, the smaller
dle ground was expanding, with Oldsmobile, Dodge, De Soto,
Buicks, and Lincoln-Zephyr. Dynamism and power were
Nash, and (from October, 1938) Mercury leading the way out
dominant visual themes; ostensibly indicating mechanical poof low-priced simplicity, while new small Packards and
tency, they also vivied the social and cultural pretensions of
Chryslers invaded the upper strata of the sector from above.
the targeted consumer.
Even in the sub-$800 range, where common-sense virtue
Compared with those of the upper and lower price secand value for money were most persuasive, advertisers sometors, these cars were anchored less solidly into a static physitimes looked balefully upward, with occasionally unfortunate
cal and social environment. It was this fluid middle ground
which provided the most fertile soil for the
neutral backdrop, against which the lines of
the automobile in question could be displayed without distraction. In 1938, a green
Lincoln-Zephyr sedan was shown in front
of a blue-grey background which faintly
suggested sky and earth; in the same year, a
blue Zephyr coupe could be seen against almost total darkness, which brought out its
smooth, avant-garde lines convincingly,
while allowing the reader to create his or her
own preferred environment around the car.
Such layouts also suited the LincolnZephyrs consciously rationalist copy.6 The
middle-class buyer might be inspired by the
styling of the car and all the connotations,
mechanical and social, of its V-12 engine,
but he needed to justify his choice, to be reassured that what he desired was attainable.
This selective rationality was perceived to be
the hallmark of middle-class values and was
thus reflected in illustration. Within the
constraints of this rationale, Lincoln also
used stylized landscapes (occasionally similar to Adlers in Germany) and, in 1939,
more obviously quasi-naturalistic studio
poses. In one advertisement, the car was
posed on a grass-green floor with a lilac
panel behind. Rural serenity and its psychological parallel, peace of mind were
suggested by cherry blossom hanging over
the roof of the car.
Apart from neutral and stylized-naturalistic portraits, there were also distanced
backdrops, as in 1937 when an authentically
proportioned Lincoln-Zephyr coupe was superimposed upon a monochrome aerial view
of New York, patron city of the newly affluent. Yet in all of these advertisements the
copy was never submerged within a con- Pre-war minimalism was revived in copy for the most expensive cars, such as this
stricting visual environment, and a deliber- $5,000 Buick Skylark, in the early postwar years. This illustration was one of the
ate, underlying open-endedness remained. rst for General Motors by Arthur Fitzpatrick (1953 campaign).
14
F ANTASY
Modest and realistic photography, used in much Studebaker advertising since the mid1930s, continued into the late 1940s, reflecting the clean-lined modernity of the car itself. This is a top-line Commander Land Cruiser (September 1948).
consequences for layout and illustration. The exigencies of
depression led manufacturers to put as much information as
possible in every advertisement, and the catalog in miniature
enjoyed a brief vogue.
The best-known exponents of this genre were the lowand middle-priced marques in the Chrysler Corporation lineup, with Plymouth leading the way. A typical advertisement
for the 1938 models used six typefaces and ve captioned photographs, while in 1939s copy ten typefaces, augmented by a
large photograph and one or two auxiliary pseudo-technical
diagrams illustrating gearshifts and suspension assemblies,
were the norm. Plymouths backdrops were visually realistic,
but unadventurous in content, showing unglamorous but
comfortable vignettes of small-town American life in both
photographs and paintings. In several 1939 advertisements
the car was shown in sober, dark colors and, for added realism, even the cars chromium was dull, suggesting a hard-used
car which had not been washed for weeks.
Thus not only were the cars themselves shown authentically; they were seen in plausible surroundings and as worthy
accessories to real life, rather than life-as-aspired-to. This visual style complemented the themes explored in copy, which
centered around durability, value for money, and testimonials from contented users. The Plymouth was portrayed as a
good, working car rather than as an expression of a desirable
lifestyle, and, in this marketing context, the layouts chosen
were sensible, rather than inept. It was questionable, however,
whether the use of similar visual themes with more exciting,
aspirational copy in Dodge and De Soto advertising was
equally effective, as, whatever the advantages of continuity
within the Corporations range in reassuring buyers who could
afford to trade up from Plymouth, mere mechanical competence
was not enough for middle-market aspirants.
Small diagrams were not conned to the Chrysler Corporation, however, and they worked effectively in large-format
advertisements published in Sunday newspapers. In January,
1938, Ford showed a DeLuxe coupe in one such piece, surrounding the main illustration with eighteen drawings of features included in the Ford price of $689. These ranged from
a lockable glove compartment to an attractive, dependable
clock. An appearance of clutter was avoided by the sheer size
of the advertisement 24 inches by 16 inches and Ford
wisely eschewed the diagram idiom in smaller magazine advertisements.
Mercury also favored miniature auxiliary diagrams. A
late 1938 advertisement for 1939s two-door sedan used one
to show the trunk capacity of the car, while another in the
same series depicted the stylish dashboard and steering wheel
of the convertible. It was recognized that one extra illustration was enough, even when color was used, in cases where
only a small magazine page was available. The Ford Motor
Companys agency, N.W. Ayer & Son, did not usually attempt
to cram visually complex copy or illustrations into media ill-
15
designed to accommodate them. In Britain, N.W. Ayers color

advertising for both V-8 and Lincoln-Zephyr was unusually
clear and elegant.
Perhaps the best and worst examples of a generally uninspired school were placed by two of the independents, Hudson and Nash, in 1939.7 Any monochrome advertisement covering a mere 60 square inches which included a painting and
a diagram of an entire car, together with seventeen blocks of
print in thirteen typefaces, was bound to be less than elegant,
and by cramming so much into a small magazine page, Hudson did not show the years Six Touring Sedan in the best possible light. Nash, however, with a color painting, three auxiliary diagrams, and only seven blocks of print in a similar
number of typefaces, conveyed a sense of style and escapism
by artfully using diagonal columns of print which moved from
top-right to bottom-left to complement the cars forwardleaning grille. The blocks survived into the postwar Airflyte
era.
Nash copy and illustration acquired a distinctive style
during 1939-40. Each piece showed a car (usually a sedan) in
the center of the page, with smaller stylized renderings, in different colors, positioned around the main illustration. These
smaller pictures showed cars in various escapist settings:
speeding along highways, parked beside lakes or illuminated
by the moon as their occupants slept within. In each case, copy,
layout, and illustration were carefully integrated into a euphoric whole. As a car, the Nash did not have a strong identity; grilles and body styles changed every two or three years,
but continuity and consequently a measure of marque identity were achieved by a consistent copy style and visual harmony within each advertisement, together with heavy emphasis on particular features such as, from 1938, the famous
Weather Eye ventilation system.
From 1946, new methods of presentation gained ground,
with every feature reinterpreted as fantasy potentially fullled.
Unlike earlier Bauhaus-pastiche, the new fantasy was not concentrated in any particular niche of the market. For a few short
years, some advertisements for the nest cars, particularly for
Lincolns during 194648 and for Continental, as a discrete
marque with the Mark II in 1956-57, returned to a neo-minimalism which had its roots in the 1920s and which was consciously retrospective, promising at least a pale re-enactment
of diminished certainties. The Lincoln Continental, born of the
old Zephyr and retaining much of that cars mechanism, was
shown in side prole against a white background with yellow,
green, or gold borders, evoking an earlier elegance. Buick preferred to set the 1953 Skylark against a jet-black background;
the car itself was bright yellow, and the script below pompously
laconic, offering to reveal the price on request. Copy for the
lesser Buicks was more conventional, reinforcing the Skylarks
status as a car apart. A similar strategy was adopted for the
Cadillac Eldorado.
The shambolic excesses of the 1930s had departed, but
16
F ANTASY
Above and opposite: Evolution of a genre. Cadillac advertising retained a distinctive flavor throughout the 1950s, reinforcing its
marque identity (1952 campaign, April 1955, May 1958, and 1959 campaign).
rows of auxiliary diagrams, ever more frequently in color, persisted. Studebakers announcement copy of the late 1940s was
modest and well laid out, but when the new Loewy range had
become established, miniature photographs of seat cushions,
brakes, and other mundanities appeared, together with sentimental portraits of Studebakers father-and-son production
line teams to suggest quality control, the personal touch, and
a humane (and therefore enterprisingly American at its best)
working environment in one go. The latter contrasted starkly
with the increasingly public turmoil at Ford, and with industrial relations problems throughout the industry.8 In another
contrast, impressionistic and colorful watercolor illustrations
appeared in Frazers distinctive, upmarket advertising for 1949.
In the 1950s, advertising followed style. When a car
looked dowdy, it was promoted as a provider of fun and economical transportation; it was the means to a desirable end. If
an automobile was stylish and avant-garde, copy and illustration highlighted design features. Cadillac, in particular, consolidated its marque identity not only with a visible evolution
in design, but with illustrations and layouts which, though
developing steadily from year to year, nevertheless retained

elements of what had gone before. In 1952, Sixty Specials and
Coupe de Villes were shown at country clubs and ski resorts,
or in neutral settings that suggested affluence. The Cadillac
V and crest were prominently displayed, and decorated with
exotic jewelry. The upmarket visual impression was complemented by the copy, which was never written in obtrusive
typefaces, or allowed to distract from the impact of an illustration.
In its continuity and restraint, Cadillacs advertising was
essentially conservative, but in 1955 the latest models were illustrated in paintings which, unlike 1952s touched-up photographs, exaggerated the cars already considerable length.
The main illustration in each advertisement showed a social
scene such as a family at home, a board meeting, or a dinner
party. Below the main illustration, which took up half a page
or more, would be shown the Cadillac with a few paragraphs
of copy. A year later, both car and social scene were combined
in many pieces, enabling the Cadillac (often a convertible) to
be admired by the sophisticates assembled at a private swim-
ming-pool or exclusive club. Roman columns and elaborate

porticos were particular architectural favorites which had a
long history in upmarket automobile advertising. The social
scenes were photographed, while the cars were illustrated in
their entirety in separate paintings.
In 1957, a single illustration sufced for most pieces, each
of which might either be a social scene or an artistic impression; among the most dramatic was an elongated pink Sixty
Special, set against a deep blue background, with the Cadillac
V in jewels by Harry Winston shown at the top of the
page. Another advertisement showed a metallic green car
against a gold cloth background. For 1958, social settings similar to 1957s continued, albeit with temporary desertion of
the jewelry.
For the 1959 model year, Cadillac ran a series of advertisements which in many ways resembled the copy of three years
earlier. In each piece, a grille or taillight would be shown, with
an elegant model or venue in the background. Beside the photograph there would be a column of copy, and below both was
a slogan with an elongated illustration of the car and an
elongated 1959 Cadillac was very long indeed. The 1959 car
represented a greater stylistic break with the past than any
previous model since 1948, but continuity was retained with
17
a now-familiar advertising style and unmistakably Cadillac

detailing on the car itself.
A preoccupation with stylistic details characterized much
Cadillac advertising of the late 1950s. One 1957 Cadillac advertisement, for instance, showed not only the regular Sixty Special sedan, but also the unique and instantly recognizable tail
n of an Eldorado parked nearby. Stylistic details, and tail ns
in particular, were also highlighted by Lincoln in 1955,
Chevrolet during 195759, and several Chrysler divisions between 1955 and 1960. Once power features had become commonplace across all sectors of the market, the shape of a new
cars tail n was one of its principal distinguishing characteristics, whether that car was cheap or prestigious. Can you
identify them? asked Diamond Chemicals in 1957 about nine
different n-mounted taillight clusters, photographed closeup, whose bases were chrome-plated with the help of an additive developed by the company.
It was a game which Cadillac had started in 1948 and, by
the early 1950s, Chevrolet owners could buy accessory Cadillac-style n and taillight assemblies to t onto 194852 models. In 1956-57, a Detroit millionaire, Reuben Allender, offered the El Morocco, a new Chevrolet which was carefully
customized to resemble a Cadillac Eldorado Brougham. It sold
18
F ANTASY
Above and opposite: Chevrolets layouts reflected its advertising themes, ranging from practical virtue in 1952 through performance in 1955 to styling in 1959 (September 1952, 1955 campaign, and December 1958).
in minuscule numbers, and hoped-for support from General

Motors did not materialize, but the project vividly illuminated the automotive climate of the time, and explained what
might otherwise have appeared to have been a peculiar narcissism among advertisers.
Advertising for General Motors low-priced marque offered an interesting contrast to that deployed by Cadillac.
Chevrolets styling did not evolve with Cadillacs measured
pace, and neither did its advertising. Continuity was expressed
more in an overall philosophy to provide the most car for
the least moneythan in a consistent style of illustration. The
only visual link between 1950 and 1959 was a continued emphasis on fun, sociability, and a modern, though not exclusive, lifestyle.
Chevrolets last year for miniature diagrams, whether arranged around a single painting of the car or in a line underneath
the body copy, was 1952. In many 1952 Chevrolet advertisements, paintings of the car in realistic settings were shown, together with three or four postage-stamp sized auxiliary pictures
which emphasized a models versatility by placing it in a vari-
ety of settings, or which demonstrated the wide variety of body

styles available. There were exceptions to this trend, but the ten
pseudo-technical illustrations which appeared in an announcement advertisement for the Bel Air Sport Coupe were unusual.
Sunshine and happy faces predominated in 1953. New
Bel Airs and Two-Tens were shown on beaches and at rodeos,
historic monuments, and cities. There was also the occasional
studio-style pose, although paintings rather than photographs
were used, all of which made the new model look longer,
lower, and wider than it really was. The same applied in 1954,
when the majority of the settings chosen were realistic, and
the future was only lightly hinted at in one piece, which
showed an orange and ivory sedan at a city airport with jets flying overhead. There was also at least one very dull advertisement, which used a painting of a sky-blue sedan set against a
plain orange background. For no obvious reason a smaller
picture of the cars rear was added, and the accompanying
copy, in seven typefaces, was uninspired and old-fashioned.
The piece would have looked much better in a catalog, and
was not representative of its year.
A change of image in 1955 led to more dynamic and condent advertising for Chevrolet. The new car, with a V-8 engine, was shown on freeways and at fashionable resorts. While
1953s Bel Air convertible had been illustrated on a beach,
driven by two mature ladies, the 1955 convertible was shown
at a sports-car club meeting, admired by enthusiasts thirty
years younger. If a 1954 sedan looked good at an airport, the
1955 model looked even better with a ghter plane. For 1956,
layouts were similar, as were preferred pictorial settings, which
reinforced Chevrolets newly vigorous image. Paintings continued to be used except for a photographic series placed in female-oriented publications. A year later, the message was the
same, albeit with plenty of new features in the car itself.
Chevrolets second major change of the decade came in
1958, when a decision by all manufacturers to de-emphasize
performance in advertising resulted in greater stress being
placed on effortless cruising and comfort. The steep hills and
fast freeways of 1957 gave way to flat country roads, and admiring neighbors replaced envious ghter pilots. Many illustrations showed only the car itself, perhaps with a few admirers scattered about, in preference to a complete tableau.
The 1959 Chevrolet was much larger and plusher than
the 195557 models, and was instantly recognizable by its dra-
19
matic bat-wing ns. The artistic elongators skill was employed to the full, particularly with the Impala Sport Coupe.
Later in the model year photographers took over and sedans,
sports sedans, and station wagons were shown in larger illustrations than had been adequate in the early 1950s. During
1959 and 1960 there were more photographs than paintings
(the reverse having been true in 1958), and although paintings featured in range advertising for full-size models and Corvairs in 1961, those range pieces were modest and sober. The
overall effect was of greater realism, bringing the product
closer to the consumer. To some extent, the role of the fantasist was adopted as much by the copywriter as by the illustrator, and this development represented a natural progression
from the increasingly integrated presentations of 195557. Settings were traditional Chevrolet leisure venues: lakes, country
parks, rural stores, and suburban homes.
The progress of Cadillac and Chevrolet advertising
typied the principal developments in layout and illustration
during the 1950s, and other marques followed similar paths.
Mercury made extensive use of color photography in 1954; it
was particularly effective with metallic paint, and added clarity to the myriad smaller illustrations which demonstrated the
cars new handling and power features. It was not unusual for
a single advertisement to use ve or six photographs including, inevitably, poses alongside modern aircraft. Surprisingly,
not all of the aircraft were jets.
Oldsmobile was the best-known exponent of aeronautical imagery, showing stylized rockets in abundance in the early
1950s. Nash preferred rural panoramas for its main illustrations
during 1953, but their impact was diminished by an insistent
retention of 1939-style diagrams, albeit without 1939s angled block effect. The photographer took over in 1954, and
achieved eye-catching results with 1956s three-tone color
schemes.
Chrysler tried a watered-down version of Cadillacs approach in 1954, showing couples in evening dress to suggest sophistication. In one piece, a metallic red and white New Yorker
was seen from above on what might have been brick-red gravel
outside a house, but which looked like a pink carpet surrounded by indoor plants. The cars owner seemed much more
interested in his partner than in the car, and even the unusual
angle of the photograph could do little for an outmoded shape.
In 1955, the male owner disappeared, and his partner became
a fashionable model while the car itself, modern and more dynamic than its predecessors, was shown in studio poses which
suggested romantic summer evenings. Chrysler suffered from
the lack of a stable image nurtured carefully over the long term
and, in this respect, Cadillac reigned supreme. Lincoln, whose
photographic illustrations were well composed but who had
no overall theme for 1955, suffered similarly.
Dullest of all in 1955 was Pontiac, whose lack of direction, not to mention dynamism, was painfully obvious. While
many middle-market advertisers had adopted photography
20
F ANTASY
Multiple illustrations were popular until the mid1950s. Photographers were beginning to take over from artists by 1954 (April
1954).
21
Lincolns 1955 advertising was condent and eye-catching, but otherwise lacked a consistent theme. This layout, with photograph,
headline, and body copy clearly segregated, would become more common in the 1960s (May 1955).
22
F ANTASY
The car with a Built-in Future was advertised in a style of twenty years past. This layout and style of illustration were carried
through a series of similar pieces, all lacking impact and conviction when compared with the 1955 norm (May 1955).
23
Ford used distinctive, atmospheric photography to promote the Thunderbird from 1959 onwards (May 1959 and January 1964).
in the early 1950s (lending instant novelty), Pontiac continued

with uninteresting paintings. Where Chevrolets painted settings were exciting and evocative, Pontiacs were unadventurous. Rarely was a car even seen in motion. A yellow and black
Series 870 hardtop was shown in a forest; yet this was not a romantic, moody forest on a summers evening, but a halfcleared commercial timber forest with children playing nearby
who took no notice of the car. When you buy a Pontiac you
make a solid investment in the future, promised the copy,
which reinforced the dullness of the illustration.
The overall layout of the piece was unimaginative, too,
with a few paragraphs of prose and a superfluous painting of
an engine which, even if it was the most modern, most advanced engine you can buy (and others could reasonably dispute this self-bestowed accolade), did not look like it. Consistency within the years copy was achieved with a whole
series of similar pieces, although not all used complete scenes.
It was advertising of a kind that would have been more than
adequate in 1935, but which was far from suitable for the market of twenty years later. At least one of 1956s pieces used a
photograph, and a few others depicted cars in motion. One
even showed a hardtop on a test track, but, taken as a whole,

the years effort appeared half-hearted. A new car and a new,
more dynamic advertising style eventually arrived for 1957.
The 1960s were marked by an increase in the use of photography and atmospheric depictions, of which the most
elaborate were Fords tableaux for the Thunderbird from 1964
onwards. Each Thunderbird piece was color-toned into its
background, suggesting an aura around the car and giving a
new perspective to otherwise realistic surroundings. All divisions of General Motors used paintings as well as photographs
during the decade, both often appearing in a marques advertising for any one model year.
To a large extent, Cadillacs copy became less instantly
recognizable. In 1960, a single illustration sufced, with copy
below and a jeweled crest and V above. This layout was used
for both regular sedans and the more exclusive Eldorado convertible, nished, in one piece, in bright metallic emerald
green. The jeweled crest, naturally, was executed in emeralds,
while diamonds and platinum by Cartier had to sufce for
a Sixty Special. In 1961, copy was reduced to a single, if pretentious, sentence. A new Cadillac car is one of the few ma-
24
F ANTASY
25
Opposite and above: Typical Cadillac advertisements of the early 1960s. For 1963, the marque adopted the kind of photographic
realism that predominated elsewhere (February 1960, May 1961, and November 1962).
terial possessions for which there is no completely acceptable

substitute described the 1961 Coupe de Ville.
Illustrations, which were sometimes photographic and
sometimes painted, grew larger and more garish, as jeweled
crests were mounted on color-matched, embroidered cloth,
with the car standing in the foreground. Gold, pink, and
turquoise were typically favored colors. In 1962, Cadillacs layouts remained similar, as did the style of the car itself, but
embroidery gave way to vignettes of affluent life, and to more
modest jewelry. Wrought-iron gates and stone columns
echoed the aristocratic visual references which had been popular among upmarket advertisers in the 1920s.
In 1963, realism suddenly took over, as dream settings in
turn gave way to modest depictions of the new models that actually looked like conventional photographs. Evening dresses
were replaced by less formal clothes, and the copy began to describe technical features which had been largely unmentioned
since the early 1950s; pre-eminence had to be fought for and
demonstrated, and could no longer simply be asserted by portentous language and improbable surroundings.
This new, more relaxed, and less overtly snobbish style

was continued for 1964. Cadillac advertising consequently lost
much of its individuality as it was brought into line with the
styles of rival marques. With the demise of the tail n (which
disappeared entirely from Cadillacs in 1965), luxury cars increasingly resembled medium-priced automobiles while fullsize low and medium-priced models grew larger and more
luxurious. Indeed, earlier price and size categories were no
longer reliable indicators of status. Compact and subcompacts
took the lower ground while Chevrolet Impalas and Ford
Galaxies inltrated the medium-priced arena, almost by default.
In the early 1960s, increasing convergence was apparent
between advertisements for different luxury cars, as Lincoln developed a stable image and Cadillac shed the formalized settings and social scenes of the 1950s. Moreover, downmarket
marques began consciously to imitate the advertising motifs
hitherto reserved for their ne-car siblings. The seeds of this
trend had been sown in 1958, when copy for low-priced cars
began to emphasize comfort and size rather than perform-
26
F ANTASY
Pontiacs 1960 campaign combined upmarket elegance with Thunderbird atmosphere. The cars width, rather than its length, was
exaggerated (February 1960).
27
ings. Whereas earlier artists had conned their license to a

cars proportions, rather than to its detailing or to the background scenery, Pontiacs illustrators frequently employed
stylized illustrations that made no claim to technical realism.
The advent of Wide Track styling in 1959 allowed
width, rather than length alone, to be exaggerated. Photographs were more often used for smaller Tempest models, and
for scenes where motion and dynamic power were highlighted
over the static elegance which was claimed for full-size Bonneville sedans and convertibles. Chevrolet also reverted to
paintings in 1963, but the majority of Chevrolet advertisements in the 1960s used the photography which had predominated since 1959-60. In the late 1960s, Pontiac countered
Fords photographic Thunderbird atmosphere with similarly anti-realist paintings of the GTO and Firebird.
The underlying innovation of the nal years of the decade
was a new flexibility. Undoubtedly, the photographer had the
upper hand, as the camera could be stoutly realistic about interior and other details in quality control promotions such as
Fords campaign of 196264, yet dreamy and almost surreal
Fords quality control promotions of 196264, spanning all of

the companys products, used photography at its most detailed
and realistic (May 1963).
ance. When Chevrolet deliberately imitated Cadillacs layouts

in 1966-67, the convergence resulted in a uniformity within the
full-size eld which would have been inconceivable ten years
earlier.
For the rst time, it seemed that a standard layout for
family car copy had emerged. This archetype comprised a
photograph of the car against a realistic if socially optimized background, a slogan, and a few paragraphs of copy
at the foot of the page. Technical and status differentiation
were increasingly established within the copy itself, rather than
by illustration. This process was highlighted by the use of
cleanlined body styles at all levels, which were not easily distinguished by the layman, and which lacked the design gimmicks that artists and photographers had latched onto in earlier years. No one had ever mistaken a Lincoln tail n for that
of a De Soto, even if both cars, in engineering terms, were
technically similar. But, by 1964, anonymity threatened.
It couldnt last. Pontiac reacted by deserting 1957s photographs and reverting, in selected advertisements, to paint-
Buicks art nouveau series of 1967 recalled upmarket advertising of fty years earlier (October 1966).
28
F ANTASY
The highly innovative work of Detroit photographers during

the 1950s and 60s ... advanced the ability to capture the desired effects on lm and allowed photography to supplant illustration in automotive advertising. Such shooting techniques as tent lighting; cove construction to eliminate the line
where wall meets floor; motion mechanisms; liquid light; the
use of various lenses, particularly anamorphic and wideangle; and most importantly the ability to reproduce the
stretch effect on lm made a new look in automotive photography possible.10
Dark backgrounds were popular in sporty-car advertising during the 1970s. This piece combines the prevailing idiom with
upmarket neo-minimalism from an earlier period (January
1976).
in its depiction of a personal-luxury coupe. Paintings could

never be wholly realistic, and improvements in printing techniques meant that photographs in magazines could be much
more detailed and lifelike than the static portraits of the 1930s,
or even of the 1950s. Color denition, particularly for romantic twilight scenes, grew ever more precise and, therefore,
evocative. Boulevard Photographics 1963 Ford Thunderbird,
seen at sunset on its own miniature island in a deep blue
ocean, became a minor classic.9 As Bill Rauhauser, retired professor of photography at Detroits Center for Creative Studies, recalled in 1996:
Other techniques were developed during the late 1960s

and early 1970s. For example, the photographer Warren O.
Winstanley would often accentuate the vehicle through the
use of large black mesh screens placed between the car to be
photographed and the background scene.... This diffused and
reduced the light intensity of the background and placed the
main emphasis on the car.11
Yet until the early 1970s, paintings had their place, and
were used in deliberate contrast to photography, particularly
in campaigns such as Pontiacs, which sought to differentiate
the images of mid-size and compact models, on the one hand,
from the traditional full-size Wide-Tracks on the other. Pontiacs 195971 series of illustrations by Arthur Fitzpatrick
against aspirational, often European, backgrounds by Van
Kaufman, became famous.12
During 196870, advertisers of high-performance muscle cars reverted occasionally to paintings of cars being driven
hard on winding roads, while humorous, distorted color drawings, particularly from Plymouth and Dodge, and in milder
forms from Ford and Chevrolet, appealed to teenaged and
twenty-something readers of high-selling specialist magazines
such as Motor Trend, Car Life, Car and Driver, and Hot Rod.
And similar, if simpler, color drawings also appeared in turnof-the-decade advertising for the new Chevrolet Vega.13
This new flexibility of outlook and medium allowed illustration to be tailored ever more closely to copy, the combination dening the market niche to be targeted. All this took
place in the context of a new car arena which had changed
radically since the advent of the modern compacts in 1959.
The American automotive market had become subdivided
into prioritized, and often mutually exclusive, segments. After
a brief flirtation with near-uniformity in 196367, advertising styles once again diverged, now visibly consolidating along
size-category and niche rather than traditional, but now obsolete, marque boundaries.
Chapter 2
Fantasy by Design
You turned your Head. Of course you did when you rst saw one of these beautifully, scientically stream-lined
Chrysler Airflows. For this is real beauty the beauty of true functional design.
Lets speak of value beneath the style. Asked to name the one car responsible for todays handsome designs, most
people would say Lincoln-Zephyr.... The influence of this car has been great.... From the beginning, the LincolnZephyr has pioneered. The rst forward-looking feature that set the car apart was the unit-body-and-frame.... The
results are efcient, economical operation.... Why not enjoy a car modern in all its ways?
The rst of these cars was a Chrysler Airflow, as promoted to British motorists in advertising with an American flavor in 1935; the second was a 1939 Lincoln-Zephyr. The Airflow was a sales disaster with only around 29,500 Chrysler and
25,700 De Soto Airflows sold over four seasons, but the
Zephyr, though inherently a more specialized car, was a successful product whose styling was widely copied. Both were
sold on the strength of streamlined design; the difference lay
in the marketing approaches used. The Airflow was designed
to be streamlined, and declared to be attractive simply because it was aerodynamically more efcient than the opposition. The Zephyr was intended to be both streamlined and attractive. Although it proved to be even more efcient
aerodynamically than the Airflow, its designer, Eugene Gregorie, developing earlier and more radical ideas by John
Tjaarda, realized that any scientic advance had to be made
palatable to the consumer.
The need for compromise was widely realized by industrial designers of the period. In 1934, Herbert Read put the
point concisely:
In an automotive context, the compromise was not between any xed idea of aesthetic quality and an immutable
notion of function. Streamlining was ostensibly adopted to
reduce wind resistance in the name of efciency, but it also
gave a new design a dramatically modern look that allowed
the consumer to feel that he was participating in progress. Automobile design reflected a broader trend. As one later critic
remarked:
The curvilinear forms or streamlining that came to the fore
in the 1930s had European roots, but in America were extended in application to all manner of design....15
Even pencil sharpeners and refrigerators, which remained immobile all their lives, adopted streamlined forms. This general movement was seen, and promoted, as the outward sign
of technological and, by extension, social advancement. Perhaps more than any other artifact of its time, the streamlined
automobile vitalized and nurtured the consumers sense of
the wider progress by being the object with which he engaged
most closely. The automobile was meaningless without motion,
direction, without intimate involvement with the consumer.
In this, it was unique.
Against such a background, it was not surprising that
successful individual examples of streamlined design were not
always aerodynamically efcient. Provided that a design was
symbolically efcient to the consumer, it did not need to be
empirically efcient. Whatever the legitimate preoccupations
of Chryslers aerodynamicists, an automobile had to conform
One false theory [of design] assumes that if [an] object ... performs its function in the most efcient way possible, it will
ipso facto possess the necessary aesthetic qualities. To this argument we must reply that an object which functions perfectly may, and probably will, possess aesthetic qualities, but
that the connection is not a necessary one.14
29
30
F ANTASY
Chrysler hoped that the readers heart would follow his head, while Lincoln assured him that his head could safely follow where
his heart already wanted to go. The Lincoln was more attractive, shrewdly advertised and successful (May 1934, and 1939 campaign).
to the consumers visual expectations, which may have been

determined not by any scientic criteria, but simply by what
he had come to expect in car design. And the consumers eye
was largely trained by the appearance of earlier cars whose
proportions had not been determined by aerodynamics at all.
For Chrysler, the adoption of empirically efcient streamlining involved such a radical departure from the automotive
norm that the new car buyer could not be relied upon to integrate the Airflows design into his expectations. MoToR realized this in January, 1934:
At rst glance, these cars will look strange to most people, but
... after you have looked at them for two or three days you become accustomed to them, and sooner or later you begin to
admire them. Finally, you ... come round to the viewpoint
that these cars look right and that conventional cars look
strange.
Most car buyers, however, were not prepared to pay for this
aesthetic reorientation, and advertisers enthusiasm for scientically streamlined design was not enough to persuade
them. This was realized at the outset by those who promoted

the Lincoln-Zephyr two years later.
Advertisers also realized that when the consumer bought
a car for its appearance he needed to rationalize his decision,
and to be convinced that he was not sacricing practicality
and functional transportation-value. Throughout the late
1930s, Lincoln-Zephyr advertising always mentioned the practical advantages, as well as the styling, of the various body
types available. Chrysler, on the other hand, having designed
a robust and advanced type of body frame, did not always
mention it in advertisements. Nor was attention always drawn
to the advantages of rigidity, weight distribution, and interior
space that accrued from the cars novel proportions. The consumer was often left with the mistaken impression that he was
being sold a strange design for which much else had been
sacriced. The Times in England wrote in 1935:
There is much that is logical in the advanced design of the
Airflow ... chassis and body, and it results in sports performance with standard saloon comfort.16
2. F ANTASY
BY
D ESIGN
31
experts describe as the most highly rened expression of

the modern motif.
It became clear that motorists would accept progressive

innovation, and that consumers were eager to endorse
futuristic design ideals, but that popular taste required
gradual, rather than sudden, conditioning.
Harley Earl of General Motors is considered by
many to be the father of styling in its modern sense, and
while he neither invented the concept, nor was alone in
realizing its importance, he was uniquely responsible
for developing a pragmatic philosophy of automobile
design that was able to accommodate all the variable
factors involved within a continuing corporate new
model program. Body design and advertising were integrated under Earls regime as never before.
As early as 1921, General Motors product policy
program acknowledged the very great importance of
style in selling17 at a time when styling, as a facet of a
products initial conception, was widely disregarded. In
1920, design was decided largely by engineers, and the
overall form of an automobile was determined by its
immediate function as mechanism. By 1925, it was apparent that car buyers were no longer content with simple, unadorned transportation; the market was dividing into many price sectors, and every purchaser wanted
a product with a measure of individuality commensurate with its owners status, and which was conspicuously more modern than its predecessors.
The annual model change had been de facto policy
within General Motors divisions since 1923 but, two
I cannot say that this form of streamlining is attractive to me in years later, it was explicitly endorsed and made a permaappearance, said the motoring correspondent of The Times in England
in 1935. But he admitted that the stability and smooth travel of the nent feature of the Corporations product planning strat[eight-cylinder] saloon are out of the ordinary in their excellence (1935 egy. The need for a competitive edge against Ford and the
newly emergent Chrysler Corporation reinforced the
campaign).
importance of styling, and in July, 1926 the president of
But in Britain, as in America, few car buyers felt inclined to
General Motors, Alfred Sloan, wrote to Buicks general maninvestigate.
ager:
Hupmobile was much more cautious in 1934, and British
I am sure we all realize ... how much appearance has to do
advertising for that marques Aerodynamic sedan carefully
with sales ... and in a product such as ours where the individreconciled the futurism of Raymond Loewys design to more
ual appeal is so great, it means a tremendous influence on our
conventional ideas of automotive excellence:
future prosperity....18
To this Hupmobile belongs a new interpretation of motoring.... Yet if the spirit of the car is of the sky ... its lines are
sanely down to earth air-moulded without freakishness or
exaggeration.
Home market copy perused a similar theme in a Saturday Evening Post advertisement of November 9, 1935:
The car that was some day to come is here!... The moment
you see the new Hupmobile, you will know that its the car
you have wanted and waited for. You will see its smoothlymoulded, stream-line beauty. Here is nothing bizarre or
freakish. Instead, a harmony, symmetry and grace which
Cadillacs general manager, Lawrence P. Fisher, visited a

number of dealers and distributors in order to gain a general
appraisal of the current design trends which would soon percolate down to the mass-market. He also visited Cadillacs
west coast distributor, which in 1919 had purchased the Earl
Automobile Works, at which Harley Earl, son of the owner,
continued to design custom bodies for wealthy clients. During the spring of 1926, as a consultant to General Motors, Earl
produced a low and attractive body design for the upper middle-class LaSalle of 1927, and it sold so well that Fisher soon afterwards brought Earl to Detroit to head GMs new Art &
32
Colour section (which he rechristened the Styling Section in

1937). Earl had studied European design but concluded that,
owing to the different conditions under which American and
European cars operated, European ideas had only very limited application within the mainstream American market.
The LaSalle was followed by a modest restyling of the
contemporary Buick for the 1929 model year, but that car,
which looked modern and elegant in the form outlined by
Earls studios, became a laughing-stock when it was introduced, as the exigencies of mass-production had destroyed its
original proportions, while retaining a characteristic bulge
below the waistline. Earl recalled the resulting asco in 1954:
The Styling Section then had not been as well integrated into
other company operations as it is now, and I was unaware of
what had happened until I saw the completed cars. Of course,
I roared like a Ventura sea lion, but it was too late to keep
buyers from having a lot of fun naming the poor enceinte
Buick.19
Following the failure of the pregnant Buick, Earl was

careful to ensure that production engineers did not alter the
proportions of his designs without the necessary consultation;
moreover, such a public repudiation of self-consciously modern design meant that designers throughout the industry were
cautious a skepticism which was reinforced by the Airflow
dbcle ve years later.
There appeared to be no obvious solution to the problem.
How was innovation to be made palatable? Consumers liked
a car to be in some way scientic and demonstrably modern,
but appeared to object when scientic principles were applied
to its design. Car buyers also liked the idea of a streamlined automobile, provided that it remained visibly related to earlier,
familiar forms which themselves owed little to aerodynamics; many had been more efcient traveling backwards than
forwards.
General Motors solution to the complexities of consumer
taste in the 1930s was elegantly simple. The one-piece solid
steel Turret Top Body by Fisher, new for 1935 and heavily
advertised throughout the rest of the decade, looked modern,
yet largely retained familiar proportions. Streamlining was
suggested by the use of rounded contours, smoothly integrated
grilles and strategically placed chromium trim.
Fisher Body advertising not only emphasized the functional aspects of streamlining, but also promoted the practicality of the design and pointed to the genuinely scientic
construction of the Turret Top body structure. The new car
buyer was offered a product which was attractive, yet also
demonstrably in the forefront of technological progress. Moreover, the availability of the Turret Top on all of GMs six passenger car marques underlined the parent companys corporate identity and image, while marque differentiation was left
to the marque advertisements. Copy for Fisher Body concentrated on the beauty and safety offered by the Turret Top, and
each advertisement was illustrated with a suitable car, from
F ANTASY
Chevrolet to Cadillac, with any number of Buicks, Oldsmobiles, Pontiacs, and LaSalles in between.
Fisher Body advertisements were invariably eye-catching, and close-up color photographs were frequently employed from 1934 onwards. In March, 1937, a bright yellow
Pontiac Eight sedan was shown on a vast, part-completed iron
bridge, its owner admiring the architectural colossus that was
taking shape above him. The body frame of the most beautiful thing on wheels was illustrated in a small diagram at the
foot of the page, its complex construction of steel panels and
girders visibly reminiscent of the bridge. Security gets a lift!
said the headline, Its nice to know that youre riding surrounded by steel.... Like other Fisher Body advertisements
in the series, the piece combined emotive and stylish photography with a functional, yet dynamic, theme.
The Lincoln-Zephyr was specically intended and acknowledged as one of the most futuristically styled cars on
the road at the time of its launch in November, 1935, and copy
for the car was more overtly futuristic than Fishers, particular during the Zephyrs early years. In May, 1937, a blue twodoor sedan was shown under a concrete bridge, with the famous Burlington Zephyr streamlined train speeding over the
track above. The car and train were described as:
... the newest things on wheels.... One is a streamlined train,
rolling up new records on the rails. One is a motor car ...
rolling up new records on the roads. Common to both is a
break with the past ... a new point-of-view towards travel.
The accompanying artwork was tastefully stylized, exhibiting

the cars Art Deco design features to maximum effect. When
an improved 1939 model was announced, the bridge analogy
was reworked to reinforce the connection between styling,
body engineering, and the wider parallels in contemporary
industrial technology which characterized much automobile
advertising of the period.
A newspaper advertisement for the 1939 Lincoln-Zephyr
built upon a reputation consolidated since 1936:
Style alone does not make a motor-car.... For beneath this
outward beauty ... is a framework of steel trusses the famous arch-bridge construction. You have stood on such a
bridge, spanning some wide valley, and marveled that so light
a structure could support great weight. Here is the same principle body and frame a rigid unit combining lightness and
strength.
The copy appealed to the readers personal experience and

thus cemented the product into his imagination. A small, but
highly detailed, diagram of the body frame was included to
reinforce the consumers appreciation of the cars important
features. It was noticeable that, throughout a long-running
campaign, a few points were stressed again and again, driving
home a consistent message. Lincolns copywriters appreciated
that an appeal to personal experience, together with the reiteration of facts recalled from past advertisements and imagery
2. F ANTASY
Above and right: Three interpretations of the popular bridge

analogy which allied automobile styling to general technological developments of the postDepression era (April and May
1937 and 1939 campaign).
derived from areas not directly connected to the automobile,

if suitably blended, would add up to a potent sales message.
During the 1940s, and particularly after World War II,
the technical connection between a cars styling and its structural integrity, and the wider association between the automobile and other accessible products of the technological revolution, became ever more tenuous. The elements of that
idealistic triumvirate of aesthetic, technical, and social growth,
whose potency had been strikingly evident at the New York
Worlds Fair in 1939, lost much of their earlier cumulative impact upon the public mind. In the 1940s, the symbolic element
of automobile body design was increasingly separated from
any theoretical connection it once had with genuine scientic
developments in other spheres.
This divergence of technologies, and of symbol from
empirical science, was partly an unavoidable result of technical progress and functional specialization within diverse industrial and design elds, but it was accelerated by the need for
BY
D ESIGN
33
34
F ANTASY
novelty of the Edsel concept a glamorous car that would

perpetual innovation in automobile design. By 1948, the social
cover the middle price rangeand promised special features.
idealism which had underpinned the earlier movement toA Teletouch pushbutton transmission was unusual in that
wards a futuristic homogeneity in industrial design no longer
the operating buttons were tted in the steering wheel hub,
existed in its original form.
but self-adjusting brakes, heavily promoted, had been offered
The postwar consumer wanted to sustain his own fanby Studebaker ten years earlier.
tasy with symbols that evoked, but did not necessarily conOnce revealed, the Edsel was sold mainly on its styling,
tribute to, the industrial and socio-technological advances of
which was claimed to be predictive Edsel styling leads the
the new era. If the 1950s are traditionally viewed as the years
way. It was not, however, here to stay, whatever the copyin which the American dream matured, the elements of that
writers might have wished. Pseudo-classical grille apart, the
all-enveloping dream (or the autocracy of progress as some
Edsel itself was not inherently innovative; it was far less radskeptics called it) had begun to dissipate some years previically conceived than, say, the Lincoln-Zephyr. More imporously. The consumerist dream which took its place was the
tantly, it lacked those stylistic flourishes that gave a design its
inevitable product of a broader national aspiration, but its
all-important symbolic content. It had no ns; its taillights
focus was narrowed, before an arguably fatal implosion among
self-enclosing, personal fantasies in the
1960s and beyond.
There were, however, signicant
developments that impinged more visibly on automobile advertising. The rapid
development of jet and rocket propulsion, and the possibilities of space travel
that came with them, gave rise to a new
kind of symbol. The visual characteristics of space-rockets and jet aircraft were
appropriated by automobile stylists,
even though they had no directly scientic application to any aspect of a production automobiles function. Designers
and the advertisers who collaborated
with them were careful to maintain a
visible, sensual link between car design
and the aeronautical revolution. This
was particularly necessary after American self-condence was undermined by
the successful launch of Sputnik by the
Russians on October 4, 1957. The consumer who drove his (optionally air-suspended) Air Born B-58 Buick to town
every day participated vicariously in the
greater progress; his was a personal, individualized fantasy, but it was dened
by the conscious anticipation of a better
America. This microcosm of a larger expectation was revitalized for the consumer every time he got into his car.
The continuing potency of such an
apparently fanciful approach to design
was demonstrated by the failure of Fords
Edsel Division in 1958. Advertising for
the Edsel was carefully planned, and
began long before the cars launch in
late 1957. Foote, Cone & Beldings pre- Conventional advertising for a generally conventional car. A cynical marketing exerlaunch press advertisements stressed the cise, the Edsel failed to sell, and consumers had the last laugh (1958 campaign).
2. F ANTASY
evoked nothing, while nevertheless being self-consciously stylized. The radiator grille, lacking elegance, also lacked aeronautical connotations.
Measured against functional parameters, the Edsel was
no more peculiar than many of its contemporaries, but, unlike them, it stated no allegiance to a wider American aspiration. By aping the anti-functional form of contemporary automobile design, while visibly remaining removed from what
the consumer saw as its underlying raison dtre, it was a parody, and as such was rejected by car buyers. In one New Yorker
cartoon, a woman looked up from her newspaper and remarked happily to a less than cheerful-looking husband: My,
its a big week for everybody! The Russians have the Intercontinental Ballistic Missile, and we have the Edsel. The psychological point was sharply made. Only 110,847 Edsels were sold
between September, 1957 and November, 1959, and the car
reputedly lost its makers $250 million.
An elaborate, noisy, and protracted sales and advertising
effort did little for the cars fortunes, and was toned down
when it became apparent that sales would not pick up. Most
surprising of all, however, was that the car, hyped up in the
summer of 1957 in a series of taster ads and heavily promoted after launch, was not advertised at rst as a 1958 model.
As all involved licked their wounds, other advertisers watched
the affair with close interest, and were content to fuel the established fantasy. Within that context, new styling features
were introduced that were far removed from utility, yet they
seemed demonstrably effective in capturing public taste.20
The Edsel affair proved effective in demonstrating that no
amount of ingenuity on the part of copywriters could rescue
an unpopular design. It was a lesson that would not readily be
forgotten.
A few cars of the early postwar period appealed to the
public while also retaining a substantial element of European functionalism. One of these was the 1947 Studebaker,
introduced in the spring of 1946. Early advertisements were
triumphant: First by far with a post-war car! ran the introductory slogan. Your dream car is hereand in production!
continued the copy in July 1946. The full-width styling of the
Commander Regal De Luxe 5-Passenger Coupe was simple
and clean, and was illustrated with an actual color photograph to dispel any doubts that might have lingered if paintings had been used.
In August of the same year, a Champion Regal De Luxe
four-door sedan was hailed as:
Sweet and low ... a melody in metal.... That picture of it you
see above is a color photograph of the real thing the new
1947 Studebaker in person.... Heres more than a car out
ahead in point of time its unmistakably far ahead in distinctive post-war styling completely new from every view.
The color photograph of a pastel green car had been lightly airbrushed to give added sleekness, but the Champions compact
BY
D ESIGN
35
yet elegant proportions were accurately depicted. In October,

1946, a blue Commander Regal De Luxe sedan was shown in
a similar piece, styled to step up your spirits. The makers
rammed their point home:
You may be an unpretentious person about most other
things. But youre sure to like the envious attention your car
receives everywhere you go in a stunningly styled new 1947
Studebaker.
By September, 1947, the Big Three had still not caught up

with Studebakers lead, and in a piece for the top-line Regal De
Luxe Land Cruiser the copywriter unashamedly gloated:
Most people know that theres just one showpiece among
todays cars.... This is the fresh, new kind of style that people
hoped to see in all automobiles by now.... [The Land Cruiser]
is a photogenic dream car that proudly leads a Studebaker fashion show of equally distinctive Champions and Commanders.
Studebaker did not need to lend glamour to the product by

employing the elongator with his airbrush aerodynamics, even
if a little tinkering was considered helpful alongside, one suspected, a sandbag or two in the trunk and under the hood to
make the car look lower and sleeker on its springs. If there
was no mention of a European look as such, it was perhaps
because in 1946 the Studebaker looked more modern than any
mainstream European production car, the more so for displaying an almost European compactness and restraint in decoration. America, and Studebaker in particular, still held the
international stylistic lead in 1948, although others would
catch up by 1950. The car was still in production, virtually unmodied, in 1948:
Vision produced this car of vision!... Studebaker engineers
and stylists knew you wanted a better view in back as well as
in front when youre driving. So they envisioned a car with
panoramic windows all round spent years in designing and
redesigning it came up with this dreamlined new Starlight
Coupe!... First in style ... rst in vision ... rst by far with a
postwar car.
The copywriters claims were hardly modest, but they were

valid. Until the introduction of the 1949 Fords in June, 1948,
the Studebaker was stylistically Americas most advanced automobile, and it had a lasting impact. The 1947 Kaisers and
Frazers, even with flush sides, looked leaden by comparison,
an effect compounded by their designs high, domed hood,
bulbous trunk and relatively small window area. Unadorned
straight-through sides were notoriously difcult to get right,
and even Howard Dutch Darrin, who had largely conceived
the shape, dissociated himself from its eventual production
form, which lacked the Darrin dip in the rear fender line
with which he had originally solved the problem.
The 1947 Studebaker was designed by Robert Bourke and
Virgil Exner of Raymond Loewy Associates, Bourke having
worked for Studebaker before Loewy hired him formally to
work with Exner on the 1947 proposals. Although the version
36
F ANTASY
Advertising for the rst generation of postwar Loewy Studebakers capitalized on the cars role as an international style leader
(July 1946 and February 1948).
nally announced in 1946 was prepared independently of

Loewys studios, and was chosen over Loewys ofcial proposal, it was advertised as the New 1947 Studebaker with Raymond Loewy body designing, and became known as the
Loewy Studebaker. It was widely advertised as a revolutionary concept in automobile body design. A 1949 advertisement
showed a red Starlight coupe on a beach and outlined the designs rationale:
Studebakers the stand-out in savings that count and style
that sings.... You start cutting your car operating costs right
away, thanks to Studebakers trim, sleek dream lines.
The copy, and the design, were unusual for achieving an

apparently successful synthesis of conflicting design priorities. Only rarely in America was attractive styling, which
gained general approval amongst new car buyers, combined
with good fuel consumption. Loewy was aware of the iconoclastic nature of such a concept for 1947. In a paper presented
at the beginning of World War II to the Society of Automotive
Engineers, he declared:
Weight is the enemy. The average automobile weighs thirtyve hundred pounds. Thirty-ve hundred pounds of materials
to transport one or two people just does not make sense. Statistics show that ninety-two per cent of the cars on the highways travel with empty rear seats. The weight trend in the
past years, I believe, has been decidedly retrogressive. This
must change.21
In 1979, Loewy recalled:

I had felt for the last forty years that the American automobile
was too bulky and heavy.... I lectured about it, wrote articles
about it, said it on the radio, and achieved only one thing:
Detroits resentment and hostility.... Finally, when gasoline
shortages developed [in the 1970s] ... Detroit was forced to
accept the fact that weight is the enemy.22
Yet although in later years Loewy was proved right, a successful design studio does not achieve renown in its own time
by designing what ought to be made if the public does not
want it. Whatever rationale might, with hindsight, be imputed
to the design, it was the cars appearance which gathered sales
of over 160,000 in the extended 1947 model year, at least
184,000 in 1948 and approximately 129,000 in 1949. Studebakers copywriters were well aware of the effect that even a
cursory glimpse of the new model had on automobile enthusiasts. In 1990, Bruno Sacco, Director of Design for passenger
2. F ANTASY
cars at Mercedes-Benz, recalled seeing a 1950 Regal De Luxe
Starlight Coupe in Italy:
It was the year 1951, late spring in Tarvisio, in the Italian
Alps. I was cycling along the main street of the town.... Suddenly I became aware of a car coming the other way. I think
it was electric blue it was certainly something out of the ordinary. I realized in that moment of encounter that I had
seen something that put everything else in the shade. I
stopped, looked back, and got another surprise: the rear
view of this vehicle was also different from anything I had
seen before....23
The design was a unique amalgam of European functionalism and that quintessentially American obsession with the
technically superfluous, but visually dramatic, design feature.
It was not necessary, for adequate visibility, to use such a dramatic rear window, yet it was this feature above all others that
captured the public imagination. Like Harley Earls Cadillac tail
n of 1948, it was an aesthetic reinterpretation of utilitarian aircraft design in this case, a canopy. The genuine functionalism of lightweight body design was combined with the quasifunctionalism of the aeronautical motif, while at the same time
a lack of added decoration gave the car an international feel,
with an element of Eurochic on which copywriters, explicitly or implicitly, could capitalize.
Studebaker was among the few automobile manufacturers of the late 1940s that tried to break away from the herd by
claiming leadership in design, or by endeavoring to rise above
the need for annual restyling by questioning the presuppositions that lay behind it. Not all who attempted the break were
successful but, armed with a genuinely novel product with
practical and aesthetic advantages over the opposition, a copywriter could self-consciously jump off the bandwagon without being forced to rely on functionalist rhetoric alone, whose
limited effectiveness in mainstream automotive advertising
had been proven.
Unable to retool for substantial annual styling changes,
Studebaker was able to make a virtue out of necessity in the
late 1940s. A February, 1948 advertisement was clever:
All over America the word for style is Studebaker.... Time flies
faster than most of us realize. Its just a little more than eighteen months since you rst read the thrilling Studebaker announcement, Your postwar dream car is here and in production. Now the 1948 version of that dream car has arrived....
Theyre more than fresh 1948 interpretations of the new
look in cars thats a Studebaker style mark. Theyre the dramatic encore....
In fact, the 1948 models were almost exactly the same as

before, and were not even fresh interpretations. The car remained advanced, however, and the bold, disingenuous approachan approach that would not save many of the independents once the postwar sellers market had subsided
worked for Studebaker in this instance, even if it would not always do so in the future.
BY
D ESIGN
37
The car was updated in 1950. All eyes are on this next
look in cars, crowed one advertisement for the Land Cruiser
sedan. You get thrift plus luxury in this new Studebaker!
said another headline, the thrift because theres no bulging excess bulk to over-burden a Land Cruisers trim, sleek structure. Claims that it was dynamically new in form and substance were untrue, but with restyled rear fenders and a new
spinner-nosed front, it was undoubtedly different.
By the time that the 1950 model was conceived, Robert
Bourke was working for Loewy, and his version was chosen
by Studebakers management over an independent proposal
from Virgil Exner, who subsequently left Studebaker to work
for Chrysler. In 1981, Bourke recalled:
We were impressed with ghter aircraft and wanted to
impart some of that flavor to the Studebaker. It was basically
the old 1947 body, but the new nose really set Studebaker
apart.24
By 1950, aeronautical design motifs had appeared on Ford

and General Motors cars as well, and it was clear that such
features, regardless of whatever else a car offered, were important to consumers. They contributed to the motorists fantasy that he was not only driving his car, but participating in
the aeronautical revolution: He could pretend he was controlling something created in the spirit of a ghter aircraft, rather
than chugging along the highway behind a 102h.p. Lhead
six. An optional spinning propeller could be tted into the
Studebakers nose to complete the illusion.
The 1950 recipe was a success, and the 1947 original was
outsold more than two to one. The American car buyers desire for innovation had robbed the car of its earlier, semiEuropean appearance, but 1953 marked a return to simplicity
with a new pair of coupes, called the Starlight and Starliner
the latter a pillarless hardtop. The new American car with
the European look aimed to bring buyers the continental
charm of Europes most distinguished cars according to one
advertisement. Independent critics agreed. In November, The
Autocar commented that:
One of the lowest and certainly one of the best-balanced and
beautifully styled cars ... in the United States, this [car] reflects the Italian styling influence that is becoming increasingly popular in that country as well as in Europe.
The car proved to be something of a false dawn for Studebakers fortunes, and it did not herald a signicant adoption
of European styling in America; rather, American stylists
occasionally appended European-seeming design features
to an indigenous idiom. Even the 195254 Nash, styled in
the continental manner by Pinin Farina according to a 1953
advertisement, remained, as eventually produced, essentially
a Nash design which incorporated some exterior and interior
touches from a Pinin Farina proposal. Yet the Italian designers
name made it more saleable. Nash presents for 1954 New
Continental Dream Cars by Pinin Farina announced the
38
F ANTASY
Aeronautical design motifs were commonplace by 1950, but Studebakers spinner nose was not followed elsewhere (November
1949).
2. F ANTASY
BY
D ESIGN
39
marque in a double-spread in which four paintings of different models appeared alongside a

small black and white photograph of the designer
himself. The genius of Pinin Farina sparkles in
every line of the new Nash Ambassador Country
Club, added the copy. No one familiar with Farinas designs for European chassis believed a
word of it.
Unlike its 1950 sedans, Studebakers new
coupe did look genuinely European, even to
Europeans. In Italy the American advertising slogan was repeated: La nuova vettura Americana
nella Linea Europa .... Ecco la machina allavanguardia della produzione automobilistica del
mondo, announced a Milanese distributor in
1953.
Both Loewy designs gave rise to cross-fertilization with European manufacturers. The
1947s style was easily discernible in the 1949
Rover 75, and an early Rover development chassis was tted with a Studebaker body and inevitably called the Roverbaker. It was not surprising to nd elements of the same design in the
Rootes Groups 1948 Hillman Minx and Humber
Hawk, which were styled by Loewys London studios. The 1953 Starliner was reinterpreted in 1955
for the Groups Sunbeam Rapier of that year, and,
when the Studebaker sprouted ns for 1957, so
did the Sunbeam in 1958. The copywriters enthusiastic prose was not just cynical marketing. It
was amusing, however, to see the 1948-shape
Minx marketed in 1954 in its home country, in
Californian hardtop form, on the strength of a
fashionable Detroit-and-soda style.
By 1958, Loewys original coupe had been so
heavily modied that to European eyes it was in- Widely regarded as the best of postwar American designs, the 1953 Studedistinguishable from the American norm. Rarely baker coupe was sold on its European look even in Europe (1953 campaign).
ever, such glamour in an automobile began one
advertisement for that years Starlight, now
alism could never be truly accommodated to the American
sedan-based and heavily chromed while retaining the earlier
consumers desire for constant change. Walter Dorwin Teague
name:
was among those who changed the face of American industrial design during the 1930s, but he felt ill at ease with the
Here is a star of the rst magnitude in the constellation of
constant and apparently directionless innovation that preocStudebaker-Packard automobiles ... an entirely new hardtop
cupied Detroit. In 1963, he wrote:
of perfect proportions crafted to high standards of workmanship and styled to standards of high fashion.
All pretense of European sophistication had been given up,

and only a few thousand buyers were persuaded to try the new
version. The advertisement, in monochrome, was now more
distinctive than the car.
It was signicant that each Loewy design was progressively Americanized during successive years of production,
suggesting that, in the climate of the 1950s, European function-
If you must do something different, you are apt to do something bad, something bizarre. That is why car design has
grown so extreme in this country.25
Harley Earl, who continued to head the Styling Section

at General Motors until his retirement in December, 1958,
called the process dynamic obsolescence. Critics, with varying degrees of disparagement, referred to it as planned or
built-in obsolescence.26 The latter term was misleading.
40
By 1958, the restraint of Loewys 1953 original had been

deserted. This sedan-based Starlight, like the years Hawk
coupes, was heavily decorated (March 1958).
Early critics of the strategy, whose sympathies in many cases

lay with the supposedly European design virtues of simplicity
and resistance to change once an ideal solution to a design
problem had been found, believed that dynamic obsolescence
consisted in designing a product that would break down after
a period of use predetermined by its manufacturer, so that the
consumer would be forced to buy a replacement. Not only was
such a policy dishonest, argued the critics; it was also wasteful and, by extension, inimical to those ethical (if not always
economic) bedfellows, stability and progress.
Such an analysis was oversimplistic and naive. The American automobile was intrinsically robust and, as Packard found
to its cost in 1956, consumers were quick to desert manufacturers whose quality control standards lapsed. Dynamic
obsolescence was necessary precisely because the average
American automobile worked well and, in order to keep the
economic machinery in motion, the consumer had to be
F ANTASY
encouraged to buy a replacement long before his existing car

wore out.
In the 1930s, the strategy had a rationale beyond the need
simply to fuel demand for new products for their own sake: By
buying new cars the public actively contributed to the regeneration of the American economy after the Depression of
192934, and the residual goodwill generated by this wider
purpose operated in the minds of consumers until the 1950s.
Only in the late 1950s, when constant revision of design threatened actually to undermine the functional capability of the
automobile, rather than simply exist independently of it, was
the value of the whole process brought seriously into question.
Dynamic obsolescence did not disappear at this point;
rather, it was modied by the segmentation of the new car
market, which allowed demands for overtly functional cars to
be satised. If the ingress of functionalist ideas encouraged
replacement of anti-functional cars, the underlying economic
machinery was maintained. It did not matter why cars were replaced, provided that they were replaced. Thus the marketing,
advertising, and design strategies nurtured by Harley Earl remained in place, and Detroit continued to support the buying
habits that ensured frequent replacement of mechanically
healthy automobiles.
It became apparent that advertisers role was not simply
to promote products which had been designed from afar. Their
primary task was to fuel the consumers fantasy and constantly
to regenerate his desire for novelty, regardless of whether or not
his existing car worked well. Thus new and different became synonymous with better. Against this background
(which was fundamentally alien to the European doctrine
whereby the best design was that which most nearly fullled
a range of functional priorities), Loewys European look was
simply a reinterpretation of an American theme. It incorporated only the supercial appearance of a European car, and not
the design precepts that oriented genuine European design.
The apparent move towards European ideas which characterized a variety of automobiles in 1953 was in fact a chimera.
Dynamic obsolescence, or embarrassing people into buying,27 would only be widely questioned after 1970.
The process of styling and restyling was carefully structured around the annual model year, and the creation, over
several decades, of corporate and marque identities. The prevailing design philosophy in Detroit required that millions of
essentially similar automobiles should be sold every year, but
there remained recognizable Ford, General Motors, and
Chrysler styles and, within each corporate structure, marque and latterly model identities.
Each existed within an overall corporate idiom, which
was dictated in part by the need to retain the consumers loyalty to a manufacturer when he moved upmarket from, say,
Chevrolet to Oldsmobile. It was also encouraged by a desire
to reduce costs by spreading design facilities and actual components across a manufacturers overall product range. The
2. F ANTASY
individual styling feature was a way of distinguishing one
years model from the next, and it also dened a cars status
in the corporate hierarchy. By stimulating the consumers curiosity and desire, advertisers kept this multi-faceted juggernaut intact and in motion. [I]t is not too much to say, said
Alfred Sloan in 1963, that the laws of the Paris dressmakers
have come to be a factor in the automobile industry and
woe to the company which ignores them.28 But many of the
smaller manufacturers could not afford to obey those laws, to
their ultimate cost.
The major car producers divided their advertising into
three layers. Underpinning the whole marketing apparatus
were the corporate images, reinforced and developed by corporate advertising, which often referred to diesel engines and
Frigidaire refrigerators (GM), aircraft (Ford) and other products not directly related to automobiles. In the automotive
sphere, marque advertising predominated, promoting the
products of one marque year by year. Announcement copy
sometimes concentrated on a single, prestigious model, but
the bulk of such advertisements promoted a whole marque
range while illustrating and describing one or two models of
special interest. Modern specialty advertising arrived in the
1950s with the 1953 Chevrolet Corvette, 1954 Kaiser-Darrin 161,
and 1955 Ford Thunderbird, and it became an important component of every manufacturers strategy when the new car
market fragmented into size and specialty sectors in the 1960s.
By 1965, as many advertisements were published for individual models as for a years model range as a whole.
Styling was important at all levels. In 195253, Chrysler
ran a series of corporate advertisements by N.W. Ayer & Son
that concentrated on various features and design priorities
that were common to all of the Corporations products, from
the lowliest Plymouth to the prestige Chrysler Imperial.
Uniquely among the Big Three, Chryslers corporate advertising of the early 1950s promoted style as a facet of functional
engineering. In this case, the designs that resulted were conservative rather than radical in appearance, but the strategy, at
odds with consumer preoccupations of the time, suggested
that Chrysler had failed to understand the wider lessons of the
Airflows failure. It did not matter whether the product was
radically streamlined or, as in this case, unusually conservative. Once again empirical functionalism, albeit with a different emphasis, was allowed to detract from the cars public acceptability.
Whats the beauty secret of Chrysler-built cars? asked
one unassuming monochrome advertisement in 1952. A car
need not be four wheels, a body and an engine lumped into any
shape that designers please. It can be a graceful mechanism, the
form of which is chiefly determined by function. The essay
continued:
A plain example is the beautiful flowing lines of the roof on a
Chrysler-built car. Chrysler engineers and designers consider
the passengers needs the space for sitting, the depth of
BY
D ESIGN
41
seats, the clearance between head and roof [a preoccupation

of the Corporations president, K.T. Keller]. All this is function. The graceful outer form then follows. This approach to
design produces cars which are rightly proportioned, handsome, and eminently suited to your purposes.
Unfortunately for Chrysler sales, it was the new car buyer

rather than its designer who decided what was suitable and
what was not, and the recondite intellectual satisfaction of
knowing that a form expressed its own underlying function
could not compete with the immediate thrill of stylistic novelty.
A December, 1952 corporate advertisement showed three
recent dream cars. Of the three, the Phaeton, which
pregured 1955s 100-Million-Dollar Look, was arguably
the most impressive, if the least exotic. More interesting were
the K-310 coupe and C-200 convertible which had been designed by Virgil Exner at Chrysler and handcrafted by Ghia
of Turin, Italy during 1951 and 1952.
The K-310 was intended to dispel Chryslers growing reputation for uninspired design. Exposed, fender-mounted taillights and a simulated, decklid-mounted spare wheel cover
were obvious references to earlier European practice, attractively reinterpreted. Both ideas appeared on later Chrysler
products. The cars chrome wire wheels and fully cut-out rear
wheel openings were echoed on the 1953 Buick Skylark and
Packard Caribbean. The C-200 convertible, built in 1952, was
based around a similar styling theme. It survived being
dropped accidentally by New York dockers when it arrived
from Italy, and was impressive in two-tone pale green and
black, with a matching leather interior. According to the advertisement, The handsome chrome-plated 17" wire wheels
combine lively sports car styling with practical brake-cooling
design.
By 1952, however, American car buyers did not respond
well to such understatement, and the decision to portray the
Corporations glamorous trio of concept cars so modestly
would not have been made by General Motors, whose advertisements featuring dream cars were colorful and dramatic.
Chryslers copy was almost willfully anti-climactic:
These ... are idea cars expressions in line and form of
the imagination always at work at Chrysler Corporation....
[T]hey reflect continuing Chrysler principles that beauty,
in an automobile, follows function, and that car designs
can best be created by designers and engineers, working together.
The emphatic and hinted at past battles. Until 1955, Chryslers copywriters had to make the most of outdated production
designs. The 1949 New Yorker, for example, was billed as The
Beautiful Chrysler Silver Anniversary Model ... created with
common sense and imagination in engineering. But even in
advertisements, it was not easily distinguished from an artistically elongated Plymouth, especially as both were shown in
the same dark blue. A year later, beautiful new things were
42
F ANTASY
Above and opposite: Sober, intellectual copy from N.W. Ayer & Son promoted Chryslers corporate priorities in 1952-53. Several
advertisements in this series appeared in the Scientic American, which did not normally carry automobile advertising in the early
1950s (September and December 1952).
2. F ANTASY
BY
D ESIGN
43
44
F ANTASY
The proportions, if not the styling details, of the 1949 Chrysler were old-fashioned even when the car was announced, and little
apart from the rear fenders changed in 1950, although the artists did their best (June 1949 and March 1950).
done to these 1950 Chryslers, but the modied sedans did

not have a New Low Look, a New Long Look, let alone a
New Lovely Look, whatever the copywriter, with help from
an accommodating artist and lengthened rear fenders, tried
to claim.
The Autocar found that the 1953 New Yorker had clean,
flowing lines and a smooth exterior contour, but in American terms it was dowdy, if well built. A 1954 Chrysler looked
much the same. According to a tenacious copywriter, The
power and look of leadership was yours in a Beautiful
Chrysler, yet the car lacked Cadillacs glamour and Lincolns
modern, square-lined style.
Suddenly, Chrysler woke up with a new style and colorful advertising in 1955. Announcing Americas most smartly
different car in December, 1954, Chrysler offered:
The new 100-Million-Dollar Look.... Everything about this
dazzling Chrysler is completely new and dramatically different. It brings you a totally new fashion in modern motor car
design. The new Chrysler is inches lower in its sweeping silhouette ... washed free of clutter ... purposeful as an arrow
shot from a bow.
One hundred million dollars was the new lines development

cost and, this time, buyers were convinced. A July, 1955 advertisement noted, As proof of this years growing preference
motorists are switching to Chrysler in record numbers! The
years sales gures, at over 150,000 compared with 1954s
model year total of about 105,000, backed up this contention.
Chryslers copywriters had tried hard in the early 1950s,
but it was the dream-car look, rather than the functionalist
ideal expressed in 1952s corporate advertising, that inspired
buyers. 1956s 18 gleaming feet of power, eager to call you
master consolidated Chryslers integration of futuristic
styling and dynamic engineering into a car with which buyers could sustain their fantasies, and 1956s year-ahead car
was followed in 1957 by a new interpretation of the Forward
Look.
This revived image was carried through into De Soto,
Dodge, and Plymouth copy. The Aerodynamic Plymouth 56
featured tomorrows styling today while the following years
De Soto offered New Flight Sweep styling!.... The new shape
of motionupswept tail ns, low lines.... One advertisement
for the car capitalized on De Sotos new image as a fast, agile
2. F ANTASY
BY
D ESIGN
Colorful advertising reflected a change in Chryslers priorities for 1955, and sales improved (December 1954).
45
46
F ANTASY
In 1957, the Chrysler Corporation took the stylistic lead, and De Soto had one of the best interpretations of the new idiom (May
1957).
2. F ANTASY
car by suggesting that it was the modern equivalent of a good
horse:
Choose any car in the De Soto corral, and, pardner, youve
got yourself a thoroughbred. From hooded headlamps to upswept tail fins, De Soto Flight Sweep styling is the new shape
of motion.
Suddenly, its 1960, crowed Plymouth in its 1957 slogan,

and even Chryslers corporate copy became more exciting.
One magazine spread explained Why new 1959 cars of the
Forward Look can do what they look like they can do. The excitement was explicitly given by The Look that started the
trend, rather than by function, and in gadgets, not headroom
and the assurance, offered in 1952, that the driver could wear
his proudest hat without ducking. A remnant of the old
functionalism remained in the claim of true aerodynamic
styling that helps keep the car steady on the road. But if the
ns had any benign aerodynamic effect at all, no one imagined that this had actually influenced their design.
At General Motors, Harley Earls approach was different.
Production engineers had to accommodate stylists as early as
the 1930s, often with difculty. But GM realized the sales potential not only of attractive design, but also of inexpensive
styling gimmicks appended to otherwise ordinary cars the
realization that accompanied Loewys success at Studebaker
and elsewhere. The 1936 Pontiac typied this technique. It
was promoted in one advertisement as The most beautiful
thing on wheels and Americas most distinctive car. The illustration, like the car, was unexciting, but the copy graphically
dened not only a Pontiac, but GMs wider strategy for success:
BY
D ESIGN
47
During the 1950s, advertisers language became far more

elaborate and was often wildly optimistic. The independents,
in particular, were frequently more creative on paper than in
metal. Studebakers near-hysterical copy for the 1958 Starlight
was typical, as was Hudsons description of the 1952 version of
its step-down body, which had rst appeared in 1948. Years
most beautiful cars powered to out-perform them all! began
one advertisement, but stock car race wins could do little for
an outmoded shape. See Hudson-Aire Hardtop Styling ... in
the fabulous Hudson Hornet and its new, lower-priced running-mate, the spectacular Hudson Wasp, it continued. The
latter was described in full as the Hudson Wasp two-door
Brougham but in reality it was a regular sedan with two-tone
paint.
Desperation was evident in overstatement remarkable
even for the period. One glance tells you Hudson has the
glamor [sic] appealed dangerously to the readers own observation, which told him otherwise. Inspired new ... Hardtop styling the newest look in motor cars was all but
Count up the different makes of cars and you will nd no less

than thirty. But count up the number that are uniquely styled
and you will nd very few indeed. And of those few, only
Pontiacs design is an entirely new departure. Pontiac alone is
both different and new!... The Silver Streak is the answer
the reason why America calls Pontiac the natural choice of the
fastidious few.
All for a few chromium strips on the radiator grille and hood.
The theme lasted, along with a Chief hood ornament, until
after World War II. The 1950 Pontiac was the only car in the
world with Silver Streak styling as well as almost the only car
in the world that was still promoted on the strength of a prewar styling gimmick. It gave rise to a postwar British imitator (the Austin A90 Atlantic) and the streaks continued to appear on Pontiac hoods as late as 1956, when, according to one
advertisement for a pink and grey 860 series hardtop, A glance
at the fresh, new beauty of its twin-streak styling tells you this
is easily the most distinctive car on the road.
But it was not distinctive by 1956, and a measure of real
individuality would return only for 1959, with the advent of
the Wide-Track Wheels which distinguished large Pontiacs
throughout the 1960s.
One glance tells you... that Hudsons step-down style of 1948

was still alive and well in 1952 (1952 campaign).
48
mendacious, yet the copy went on to point out that the car
had brought hardtop glamour to motorists at standard sedan
and coupe prices. No one was fooled; the illustration showed
a Hornet in bright yellow with a brown roof, 1948s thick door
and window pillars intact.
Chevrolet, The Only Fine Car Priced So Low, was
spared Hudsons traumatic decline. The 1952 Bel Air hardtop
was modestly described as Smarter looking ... smoother-running ... softer riding .... and it, rather than Hudson, pointed
the way forward. The 1953 version lacked the earlier cars elegance, however, even if it was a little more modern-looking
than its predecessor. One painting of the almost identical 1954
Chevrolet made The Brilliant New Two-Ten 4-Door Sedan
look boxy and crude compared with earlier incarnations, and
did not do its subject justice.
Chevrolets advertising of 195354 emphasized power increases and value for money, but styling was mentioned from
time to time. Why Chevrolets eye-catching good looks wear so
well and last so long sounded in 1953 like an earnest prelude
F ANTASY
to a long and tedious recitative on the advantages of modern

paint nishes, but Chevrolets priorities were different:
Look at the smooth, gracefully rounded lines ... the clean, uncluttered design ... the slim and sweeping panel on the rear
fender an individual styling touch of the Chevrolet Bel Air
models that youll see on no other car.
In the face of competition from a Ford restyled in 1952, if not

effectively from Plymouth, Chevrolet was clutching at stylistic straws, but respite would come, as for Chrysler, in 1955.
If 1953s Bel Air was distinguished by little more than a
color-flash on each rear fender, the 1955 model was widely admired. One advertisement claimed that it was the Blue-ribbon beauty thats stealing the thunder from the high-priced
cars! which, if wishful thinking, could never have been said
about the 1954 model. The cars new grille, in particular, was
unusual for its simplicity; inspired by a Ferrari, it was nevertheless replaced in 1956 after buyers expressed a preference
for a more conventional, elaborate style. Ford countered in
Longer, lower, and wider: Harley Earls priorities were vividly demonstrated by the change in Chevrolets styling in 1955 (1953
campaign and May 1955).
2. F ANTASY
1955 with Thunderbird styling which was visibly related,
particularly on the Fairlane Sunliner convertible, to that of
Fords prestige roadster. Several Ford advertisements showed
the two cars together, as in the Saturday Evening Post of July
16, 1955: Rarin to go.... Theres a touch of Thunderbird in
every Ford ... you can see it.... You can feel it! Not only does Ford
look like the Thunderbird, it behaves like it, too, with TriggerTorque performance! Chevrolet, with a Corvette that bore
no resemblance to the regular line, was unable to use any similar trick so convincingly.
In December 1956, Chevrolet could claim Chevy goes
em all one better for 57 with a daring new departure in design ... from its daring new grille and stylish lower bonnet to
the saucy new slant of its High-Fashion rear fenders. In other
words, ns and an integrated grille and bumper assembly had
arrived, and, as a facelift of the 195556 body, it worked well.
For 1958 there was just something about Chevys low, straining-at-the-bit beauty that makes people sit up and take notice.
1959s fresh and fashionable new styling included horizontal ns that looked especially dramatic on the otherwise unadorned Biscayne two-door sedan. Even GMs most popular
marque suffered the occasional year of uninspired styling, but
Chevrolets advertising always managed to highlight at least one
or two novelties every year.
Altogether more acute was the position of the independents, such as Frazer. Forced to rely on a body shape that had
been around since the 1947 model year, Frazer could only offer
a clever facelift in 1951. Promoted as a new handcrafted 1951
model, the revised design was not handcrafted in any sense,
even if it looked new when viewed from the front or rear. But
Kaiser-Frazers copywriters were not as literal-minded as
Chryslers, and gave competing fantasists a run for their
money:
The Frazer ... expresses completely all that the word custom
implies. It is without doubt the newest, most satisfying form
of individual transportation for you who enjoy the luxury of
the unusual....
The car sold better than expected, so that although 55,000

orders were taken, fewer than a fth could be fullled by the
time that the marque was discontinued before the end of the
1951 model year. New front and rear fenders and associated
trim had rejuvenated 1947s shape, but Kaiser-Frazer lacked
the resources to design the new body and engine which the
marque would soon have needed, and developed the more
promising, and fully restyled, 1951 Kaiser. The original shape
had been a success by independents standards, but it was not
an effective competitor against the Big Three, whose stiff price
competition rendered other marques comparatively more expensive than their own.
Individuality nevertheless thrived within the prevailing
idiom. Frazers expensive but widely publicized four-door
convertible and Manhattan hardtop sedan anticipated later
BY
D ESIGN
49
Idiosyncratic artwork promoted the last of the Frazers,

announced early for 1951. The craftsmans hands echoed a prewar British advertisement for the 136 cu. in. Ford V-8 22 (May
1950).
trends. Throughout the 1950s, individual styling features sold

cars. The 1948 Cadillac tail n, inspired by the twin tail booms
of a Lockheed P-38 Lightning aircraft, evolved gradually,
reaching flamboyant proportions in the late 1950s before disappearing entirely for 1965.
Lincolns development was more typical. 1952s design
was modern, but conservatively styled and, if anything,
slightly smaller than expected for a luxury car. The 1955 Capri
was advertised as stunning ... in sweep of line, dynamic use
of color, tasteful use of chrome, all of which were highlighted
by a close-up view of an embryonic tail n, its blazing red
rear light set in a chrome base, the whole surrounded by
salmon-pink bodywork. The 1956 Lincoln Premiere sedan was
even more impressive, with a fresh clean sweep of steel
achieved by adding several inches of rear overhang. The
essence of the Lincoln Beauty of the Premiere convertible was
the clean line ... the uncluttered sweep of its breathtaking
length. Even the British gained a mild version of the cars
50
F ANTASY
Above and opposite: The art of the facelift, as practiced by Lincoln. The 1957 style was inspired by the Futura dream car, subsequently better known as the Batmobile (April 1956 and March 1957).
2. F ANTASY
BY
D ESIGN
51
52
rear styling in their new Ford Zodiac Mk II of 1956. In 1957,

Lincoln could boast of dramatic new styling everywhere ...
from the unmistakable newness of Quadra-Lite grille to the
sweep of canted rear blades.... As in Lincoln copy with
sweep, particular words and phrases often reappeared in
successive advertisements for a given marque.
The 1957 Lincoln was not really the totally new concept
of styling claimed in advertising, and it did not shape ne car
design for years to come or even for 1958, but the cars four
F ANTASY
headlamps were novel, though not unique, and the canted

rear blades were visibly inspired by the 1955 Lincoln Futura
dream car which was later made into the Batmobile.
In the early 1960s, Lincoln was among those who could
claim individuality beyond mere marque identity. The overall style of the 1961 Lincoln Continental was unusually clean
and attractive: Now America has a new kind of ne car
began a typical advertisement, one that combines even
greater luxury with 14 inches less length. It was imitated by
Chrysler Corporation in 1964 with a
new Imperial, and the imitation was
carried out by Elwood Engel, who had
designed the Lincoln original. The fourdoor Lincoln Continental convertible
was a novel variant, and was vigorously
promoted on its individuality: Count
the doors ... began a typical 1962 advertisement, which compared the car
with an ordinary, inconvenient twodoor convertible: Four doors mean
you walk into the rear seat compartment of a Lincoln Continental convertible instead of climbing around the
front seat.
Several advertisers who could not
claim leadership or novelty within one
of the regular size categories tentatively
pursued a policy of anti-obsolescence
in relation to particular models. The
strategy often served as a warning of a
make, marque, or models imminent
demise, and car buyers, mindful of projected resale values, usually took heed.
Ironically, it was Studebaker whose
copy typied this approach in the early
1960s, and 1948s condent iconoclasm
was thus transmuted into a flaccid defense of outmoded design. The 1953
Loewy coupes had come and gone, surviving, much-modied by Brooks
Stevens, as the Gran Turismo Hawk;
and the sporting Avanti (Loewys nal
design for the company) was proving
difcult to produce and could capture
only a limited specialty market at best.
Enter in 1963 the Car of Quiet Substance The Cruiser. It tried to be all
things to all buyers:
The 1961 Lincoln Continental was a genuinely distinctive car, with styling that changed
only in detail between 1961 and 1965 (March 1961).
If you want a car built to the makers

highest standard of quality and appointments, yet at a price that ts
the family budget, consider the
Cruiser.... [Y]oull nd it sensibly
2. F ANTASY
BY
D ESIGN
53
sized, outside, with no overhang.... Youll like, too, its quiet

beauty. Distinctive, dignified,
smart.... reflecting the substance
and good judgment of its owner.
By 1965, Studebaker had

adopted a more radicaland desperate stance:
Save the Cost of Changing Automobile Body Styles Every Year....
Studebakers beautiful modern
style doesnt need yearly styling
changes.... Because Studebaker
styling wont become obsolete,
your car will look new year after
year.
Until it rusted, of course, as late

Studebakers tended to. Neither car
nor marque survived beyond 1966.
Imperial attempted a similar
tactic in 1960, with snobbish overtones. Styled for an era just beginning was an unfortunate headline for a marque whose nned
hardtop sedans had been designed
in the style of an era just ended,
but the copywriters task, with Imperial as with Hudson, was to deflect the readers attention from
what was obvious:
The look of an Imperial will very
likely change from time to time
... but its style is purposefully
timeless. Style, as any good fashion designer will tell you, is more
than a matter of looks.
It was a pleasing inversion of Alfred Sloans dress-maker analogy,

and the copywriter elaborated
the theme, attempting to disentangle himself from unconvincing
sophistry by stressing build quality, which had the advantage of
being measurable, more or less: Conceptually the modest 1963 Studebaker had much in common with the early postwar cars.
The things that give a fashion de- The market, however, had changed (March 1963).
sign its style are the magnicent
design philosophy had a habit of backring with embarrassdetail of its cutting and construction.... Readers were not suping resonance, and more would follow in the late 1960s.
posed to be reminded of magnicently constructed Airflow
Lincoln was on rmer ground in 1965, with a style that
Custom Imperials. The approach was forced, its premise
had just been imitated, rather than deserted: Lincoln Condoubtful, and the car itself, with enormous ns and taillights
tinental is the luxury motorcar that stands apart from all
that still harked back to the K-310 coupe of almost ten years
other cars.... It is unique in its classic look. And so it was
earlier, was irredeemably out-of-date. Chryslers forays into
54
F ANTASY
Caught on the hop. Fins, chrome, and bulbous sides were on their way out by 1960, but Imperial was stuck with them for another
year (April 1960).
2. F ANTASY
BY
D ESIGN
55
Intended to recall the distinguished 1956 Continental Mark II, this 1968 model was less decisively individual than its forebear,
although the faux-classical grille set a trend (October 1968).
56
F ANTASY
Styling did not usually attract humorous copywriting unless the car was a Volkswagen, but in 1966 Chevrolet worked with a popular theme (May 1966).
2. F ANTASY
Imperials imitation of the previous year was only approximate, and it was heavier-looking. By 1968, the elegant Lincoln Continental Mark III, so-called in pointed disregard of
the unsuccessful and confusingly designated Continental Mark
III of 1958 and Lincoln Continentals Mark IV and Mark V of
195960, could be described in a single copy line, with some
credibility, as The most authoritatively styled, decisively individual motorcar of this generation.
The most convincing domestic case for rejecting the values of dynamic obsolescence was made by Chevrolet in 1971,
for a new subcompact that was overtly functionalist in conception from the outset. It was billed, echoing Volkswagen, as
Chevys new little car: if you like the 1971, youll like the 1975.
The advertisement was long and explanatory and featured a humorous drawing of a kind seen in muscle-car advertising
aimed at younger drivers during 196870. The Vega survived
by specically targeting a market that did not set great store by
dignity and substance or even style, provided that the car
was not gratuitously odd. It was a market which Chevrolet
wanted to claw back from the importers, both European and
Japanese, who were gaining ground. But in 1971, only a small
(if rapidly growing) proportion of the car-buying public subscribed to Vega values. The Caprice was still available, large as
life, for those who wanted (or, with large families, needed) a
car that, in the words of a 1971 headline, looks and rides like
twice the price.
For genuine non-conformists there remained the Checker
Marathon, best known as a Yellow Cab but also available in
civilian trim. In The Waste Makers (1960), Vance Packard
praised the Model A Ford and Frances Citron 2CV for their
designed-in durability, and added:
One of the happiest motorcar owners I know is a sales representative who must often travel fty thousand miles a year
and has long felt bedeviled by the high maintenance cost of
his cars.... Every time he went to New York, he made a point
of riding in Checker cabs and pumped the drivers on performance. He relates, They always gave it high praise for
durability, and seemed unanimous that it goes one hundred
thousand miles without a valve or ring job.... Several months
ago this man bought a Checker Superba and has become very
fond of it.29
A 1963 advertisement set Checkers agenda, preguring

the Vegas theme: This is our 1963 model; it looks like our
BY
D ESIGN
57
Anti-obsolescence writ large: The 1958-style Checker Marathon

survived for a generation, chiefly as the Yellow Cab (1963
campaign).
1962. Most Checker owners plan to keep their cars 5 years or

longer and appreciate our policy of making improvements
without obsoleting the car.
Even the most resourceful of copywriters found that
those who lived by the annual model change could also die by
it; perhaps they also believed, like the majority of those for
whom a car was more than mere transportation, that those
who lived with a Checker Marathon for ve years had never
lived at all.
Chapter 3
Theres Added Joy in

Added Cylinders
contrasted amusingly with the sometimes effusive praise of
actual independent testers who were used to less powerful
cars. In England, The Autocar considered the Lincoln-Zephyrs
performance ... terric ... [T]here is so much power, even in
top gear, that it is necessary to apply it with some care on a wet
surface if sliding is to be avoided.
The magazine recorded a top speed of nearly 90mph and
a 060 acceleration time of sixteen seconds, which was adequately fast for Americans and more than enough for most
Britons. A number of Zephyrs were bought by British motorists, and the importers produced a brochure, Testimony to
a Fine Car, in which owners letters were printed, praising
various aspects of the new model. Unusually for the period,
British copy for the Zephyr was much more fanciful than the
American equivalent. An elegant color advertisement of May
1937 showed a light grey car at a quayside, and was euphoric
in a style that mimicked middle-class manners:
Americas automotive fantasy was fueled not only by dramatic styling, but also by equally dramatic power. In the 1930s,
power was intrinsically exciting and attractive for the effortless driving it allowed. By 1940, most American cars offered the
80100bhp needed to make motoring adequately painless and
rapid. By 1946, dynamic fantasy, structured around styling
and performance, began to take over from the escapism and
pastoral idylls which had been popular during 193942.
In 1938, Lincolns copywriters allied the excitement and
utility of the Zephyrs V-12 engine with that essential ingredient, status. A simple photograph of a Zephyr sedan was shown
against a neutral backdrop; the copy elaborated: Theres
added joy in added cylinders.... People who have never driven
a twelve-cylinder car may think of it, primarily, as capable of
high speed. The Lincoln-Zephyr is that, most certainly, but
the joy of driving it comes in many other ways. Always it has
power in reserve. In trafc, or on the open road, it goes gently.
The Zephyr was the only V-12 in the middle price eld
and was exciting enough for that reason, as well as for its conspicuously modern styling. The buyer was carefully persuaded
that his choice was not only agreeable, but rational: New
owners discover that familiar trips are made more quickly
but, that they drive less fast than before. Having picked up an
even pace, they maintain it, without pressure, without fatigue.
By playing down the obvious attractions of a stylish and
powerful automobile, Lincolns strategy anticipated Chryslers
understated copy of the early 1950s, but, unlike Chryslers,
Lincoln copy was appropriate for the automotive climate of its
time. American copy for the Zephyr was written almost in the
language of the independent, if favorable, road tester, and it
[C]osting so little [480], either to buy or run, it appeals to

anybody and everybody able to appreciate the super-performance of a really ne motor car, built like a presentation watch,
lively as an antelope in the getaway, and Oh, so unbelievably
smooth and sweet when, occasionally, you put your foot
down, and let it revel in its inexhaustible stream of power,
translated into speed without apprehension because it is always and ever under complete control....
American advertising copy, particularly that deployed for

middle and upper market automobiles, did not always quote
gures. Once you drive a Hudson, nothing else will do was
a copy line typical of its period (1939) and marque. New owners of the sleek and bulbous Hudson Six Touring Sedan were
reported to be amazed at the superior smoothness of Hudsons
eager power. They were not mentioned by name, and it was
58
3. T HERE S A DDED J OY
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A DDED C YLINDERS
59
not clear whether they were established

devotees or trading up from other marques.
In much pre-war copy, promises of
speed were implied in discussion of effortless power, comfort, and easy manipulation
of controls. In December, 1937, Buick anticipated postwar copy styles in advertising
for its 1938 models which made much of a
special piston design that swirled the fuel
mixture as it entered each cylinder:
Its literal fact that you ride the whirlwind
when your foot is on the treadle that
bosses the new Buick DYNAFLASH engine.... It is not mere high-compression
its cyclompression.
The copy exemplied the increasingly

prevalent use of the word literal to add
weight to hyperbolic jargon, which was a
subtle portent of verbal hysteria to come.
In 1939, Buick combined the satin-smooth
power of its almighty Dynaflash straighteight engine with the level-flying comfort
of its BuiCoil Springing.
In the middle price eld, horsepower
gures sometimes inltrated the euphoria.
Youll nd in Olds 90 H.P. Econo-Master
Engine power for top-flight pep and pace....
said Oldsmobile about its low-priced 60
sedan, seen as a two-door ($838) in light
town trafc. But the marque was not beyond mild lyricism, as another advertisement in the same 1939 series demonstrated,
in copy beneath a four-door sedan on the
highway:
Step into an Olds Sixty and step out for a
wonderful drive! The way its 90 H.P. EconoMaster Engine whisks you away from stop
lights, whizzes up the steepest hills and
hums down the straightaway will make
you mighty proud of its performance.
Performance in its widest sense was stressed in advertising for the Lincoln-Zephyr
which, despite its twelve cylinders, was not unusually fast (March 1938).
Gear-changing was a perennial preoccupation, and the

steering-column gearshift was almost universal as a standard
tting or option by 1939. Hudson promised Easier shifting
with new mechanical Handy Shift at the steering wheel to
complement its eager power. Oldsmobile also offered a
Handi-Shift Gear Control which, like Hudsons, was simply
a column-mounted lever. Plymouths version of the device
was billed as Perfected Remote Control Shifting with new
All-Silent Auto-Mesh Transmission, in what was probably
the years most indigestible copy line devoted to the theme.
Nash promised that never, in all your car-owning experience,
have you felt such performance! while inviting car buyers to
pay a slight extra charge in order to Marvel at gear-shifting from your wheel.
Not all performance-oriented copy was inspired. Plymouth was frequently pedantic in advertisements and catalogs, as in 1939: Every Plymouth model has the same, big,
82horsepower L-Head engine giving full power.... No
one ever accused Plymouth of hyperbole. Following LincolnZephyrs success in the middle-class market, Ford introduced
the Mercury marque in October, 1938 for the 1939 model year,
to compete with Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Dodge in the lowermiddle price eld. Less pedantically than Plymouth, Mercury
offered a brilliant, economical new 95-horsepower V-type
60
F ANTASY
In 1939, Hudson capitalized on a reputation for performance

established in the early years of the decade (1939 campaign).
Buick anticipated the hyperbole and fanciful copy of later years

in 1938 (December 1937).
8-cylinder engine in a typical advertisement showing a black

Eight convertible.
American cars were popular in Britain during the late
1920s and 1930s, particularly with high-mileage business users
who valued them for their durability, speed, and silence when
compared with much of the domestic opposition. British importers consistently stressed the performance-per-pound-sterling-cost of their products in advertising. Hudson, in particular (with Essex, Terraplane, and Railton derivatives), was
notably successful in the 1930s, as was Chrysler, which operated assembly plants at Kew, west of London in England, and
at Antwerp in Belgium.
In 1925, Chryslers English agent approached the wellknown advertising agency, W.S. Crawford Ltd. of High Holborn in London, to devise and handle its British publicity
campaign, and the resulting copy became famous, establishing Chryslers reputation in Britain, and, by extension, promoting the cause of the American car in general. The principal elements of an innovative campaign were recalled in detail
by the agencys artist, Ashley Havinden, in 1969:
In early 1925 the English agent for Chrysler cars decided to

come to Crawfords for his advertising.... We all had trial runs
in the Chrysler. We were astonished at its terric acceleration
and flexibility in top gear. These were entirely new qualities
in American cars which had hitherto the reputation in England of being big, cumbersome and rather sluggish.... We decided to put the whole emphasis on speed and performance
and to create advertisements which expressed this as dramatically as possible. We proposed to use bold headlines ... set at
angles to the horizontal.... Our aim was to produce a new
kind of dynamic effect which, with the major elements in the
advertisement placed at angles, would stand out in the press
by reason of bold contrast in weight (i.e. degree of blackness) and, especially, by contrast to the normal appearance
of the vertical columns, with horizontal text and headlines,
in the rest of the pages, whether in newspapers or magazines.... There can be no question ... that at the time this new,
bold and asymmetric approach to the designing of motorcar advertisements (echoing the original Bauhaus MoholyNagy influence of 1923) was a landmark in British advertising.... [T]he basic aim of the advertising was not so much
to sell the appearance of the car, as to sell its
performance.30
In 1927, Havinden brought the American-born poster
and advertising designer Edward McKnight Kauffer to the
agency, and Kauffers work for Chrysler between 1927 and 1929
included publicity material which was remarkably sophisticated for its time. In a 1928 brochure, for example:
A bronze-coloured ink was used for the cover, with lettering
in terracotta and a symbol in dark blue. Each page opening
[was] a variation of squares and circles printed in aluminium
and royal blue, with text and diagrams in chocolate brown.
The trick of using positive and negative lettering, which
Kauffer rst tried out in 1925 [in the symbol of the Film
Society in London, of which Kauffer was a co-founder and
which was a principal channel through which England became aware of modern experimental lm], became a
favourite device. This habit of reversing lettering into light
and dark as a word crosses over broad rectangles of colour
was a hallmark of Russian experimental graphics in the early
twenties....31
Thus was born the Bauhaus-pastiche typography that remained popular among upmarket automobile advertisers in
Europe and America for several years, and of which Chrysler,
IN
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61
at home and abroad, were particularly avid exponents. The

campaign also established the ground on which British promoters of American cars advertised their products until the
outbreak of war in Europe in 1939. Performance remained the
dominant motif long after what Havindens detractors called
the set it crooked school of advertising design, in both
Bauhaus-pastiche and later dynamic impressionist phases, had
run its natural course.
Claims of performance, particularly in British advertising for American automobiles, were often accompanied by an
insistent drone of specications and prices that diluted the
impact of otherwise powerful copy which, if written in a style
familiar to British readers, was more ponderous than the
American equivalent.
But there were beacons of inspiration within a generally
uninspired genre. Chevrolet deployed a distinctive slogan in
1935: Speed-boat acceleration and silence unbelievable,
which, combined with highly stylized renderings of the car
that would have been too pretentious for its home market,
made for arresting copy.
Studebaker quoted an unusually eloquent testimonial in
What a difference a decade makes! Static photographs and tableaux were commonplace in British advertising for American cars
in the 1920s. By the late 1930s, however, new models offered good performance at modest cost, and were advertised accordingly
(December 1927 and March 1938).
62
April, 1935. Written by a satised owner, it was also a succinct

expression of copywriters priorities:
Never in the course of my 250,000 miles of motoring have I
experienced so unexpected a thrill as when I took the wheel of
the latest 8-cyl Studebaker saloon. I had been looking for a car
which would be suitable for a Continental tour ... a car in
which one might maintain high speeds with comfort and
without fatigue, whatever the road surfaces might be. I had
F ANTASY
tried out almost every suitable car under 800 and over 500,
when it occurred to me that I might at least try the Studebaker in spite of what one might fear from its comparatively
low price. I had not driven more than a few yards before I was
surprised, nor a few miles before I was amazed at its performance. For acceleration, for road-holding and even for high
speed, I had met nothing to better it.... [O]nce on the open
road, there is the over-top gear brought into action merely by
momentary deceleration. At once the engine seems to disappear; one seems to be coasting, yet still the car has
remarkable hill-climbing and accelerating ability.
One could hardly wish for a better car.
Nor could Studebakers London distributors have

wished for a better testimonial, whose theme was
continued in a lavish six-page advertisement
placed in The Autocar in March, 1936:
The success of the new Studebakers is remarkable ... yet not at all surprising when you
consider what these magnicent cars offer.
Automatic Overdrive plus 50 other brilliant
new features! Overdrive alone will bring new
thrills to your motoring. Just imagine driving
at, say, 45mph and then nding that the speed
can be increased at the same time as the engine revolutions are decreased.... Individually
the points are important; together they make
this Studebaker a car of cars ... almost a phenomenon.32
After World War II, Britons could not usually buy new American cars because imports were
restricted. In 1954, for example, only 211 cars
were ofcially imported from the United States
alongside 21 from Canada, with a combined 671
following in 1955.33 When American cars did become more readily available they were much
more expensive, compared with the native product, than their pre-war counterparts. But in their
domestic market American manufacturers increasingly paced each other, marque for marque.
Copywriters promised ever greater horsepower,
and Buick set the pace in December, 1945:
Numerous aids to gear-changing were created and advertised before HydraMatic arrived as an option on 1940 Oldsmobiles. This reliable but rarelyspecied four-speed predecessor of mid1937 to 1939 required a clutch pedal
only for starting and stopping (and engaging reverse). If started with the lever
in L (low), it shifted to second automatically. Then, after the lever was
moved clutchlessly to H (high), it shifted immediately to third and, as necessary, to fourth. Started in H, it ran through rst and third to fourth, omitting second. Flooring the accelerator in fourth reengaged third for maximum
acceleration. Would explaining all this in magazine advertising have increased
its sales, or was the $100 it cost in 1938 just too much? (1938 campaign).
Yes, its Engine is still out Front.... Certainly, it

is no surprise to old-time Buick followers that
the long, reaching bonnet of this car houses a
power plant that is still out in front in its
eld.... Put foot to treadle, and in the leaping
response of weight-thrifty Fliteweight pistons
you nd still more lift and life than in the last
Buicks to come your way.
The unusual use of bonnet for the cars hood

suggested an appeal to servicemen returning
from Europe who had spent time under the
bonnets of local military and civilian vehicles,
and the headline amusingly reassured those who
IN
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63
The postwar horsepower race began for Buick in late 1945, and received a boost with the adoption of a modern V-8 in 1953 (December 1945 and September 1953).
had heard all about the Wolfsburg Volkswagen plant, which at

the end of 1945 was still a marginal operation, under British
control.
By 1953, treadles had vanished from copy, and the competition had nally forced Buick to jettison its old straighteight. Make way for power with a new thrill! began one advertisement for the Roadmaster convertible. The worlds
newest and most advanced V8 was not unusually advanced by
international standards, but it was well engineered and powerful, offering 188bhp compared to 1946s 144bhp, and it was
combined with Twin Turbine Dynaflow transmission to
give it a competitive edge against Lincolns new-for-1952
overhead valve, high compression V-8 engine. This was
monitored by the smooth magic of dual-range Hydra-Matic
Transmission bought, in the absence of a Ford-built alternative, from General Motors until Fords own Turbo-Drive ...
one unbroken sweep of smooth, silent power through every
speed range, could take over in 1955.
In its home market in the early 1950s, Hydra-Matic led a
varied life, appearing in Frazer advertising in 1951 (Hydra-
Matic drive optional at extra cost) and on some Hudsons to

replace a semi-automatic Drive-Master (or, with overdrive,
Super-Matic) in the same year. It became available on various Nashes during 195053. Given Hydra-Matics origins, it
was not surprising that General Motors gave it far more
prominence in advertising than did its other users, none of
whom volunteered to humiliate themselves by declaring that,
in order to remain competitive, they needed to buy transmissions from the competition.34
Oldsmobile, which had pioneered the use of fully automatic gears by offering Hydra-Matic from the 1940 model
year, had no such reservations, and integrated it enthusiastically into its advertising. Several 1940 and 1941 advertisements
were devoted to it. According to one piece, Hydra-Matic made
the 1940 Oldsmobile the most modern car in the world. An
advertisement for the 1941 models, while concentrating on low
prices and economy, nevertheless devoted a block of copy to
Hydra-Matic, inviting the reader to learn for yourself how it
simplies driving steps up performance saves on gasoline.... A very different piece showed a letter written by Sue
64
to her husband on the headed notepaper of The Greenbrier

in West Virginia:
Hello darling: Here I am, bags unpacked and still two hours
till dinner. Now dont be worried, dear I wasnt driving fast!
Its simply that an Olds Hydra-Matic cuts down driving time.
No clutch to press and no gears to shift saves delays in going
through cities. And the special pick-up gear makes it easy and
safe to gain time on mountain roads.... Its the greatest thing
that ever happened to make driving safe and easy for a
woman.
Sues husband must have wondered whether his wife might

be collaborating rather too closely with an Oldsmobile dealer.
The theme would be revived with a lighter touch in the early
1960s when General Motors British subsidiary, Vauxhall, offered Hydra-Matic on its six-cylinder models.
Hydra-Matic was integrated enthusiastically into Oldsmobiles postwar Rocket theme. Make a Date with a
F ANTASY
Rocket 8 was a typical headline, used with a bright green

88 convertible in a characteristically exuberant advertisement in 1950. Oh, the go-ings great in the 88, Its a dri-vers
dream come true! trilled another headline, with the rst bar
of the jingles musical score appearing in faint grey above a
bright red sedan, as an excited young couple shot into the
stratosphere astride a silver-grey rocket. With Thrilling
Rocket Engine action! Smart Futuramic styling! Ultrasmooth Hydra-Matic Drive*! (starred as being at reduced
prices, now optional on all models), the Rocket 8 was promoted as the most talked about car in America which, if
probably untrue, was a reflection of Oldsmobiles condence
in a reputation for power and roadability which flowed from
the provision of 135bhp in relatively light bodywork.
Copy for the larger 98 sedan continued the theme:
Discover the dramatic new experience of Rocket Engine
teamwork with Whirlaway Hydra-Matic ... soon.
Drive the Rocket and Whirlaway in a new Futuramic OLDSMOBILE. In 1951, a great new
Oldsmobile!... a magnicent new Oldsmobile was
launched at Oldsmobile dealers showrooms everywhere! In a strange combination of the nautical and
the aeronautical, car buyers were invited to Meet
the new flagship of the Rocket fleet Oldsmobile
98 for 1951! Copy for the parallel Super 88 was
similar; a bright yellow sedan was shown against a
deep blue background as a rocket, trailing re and
vapor, sped overhead.
By 1951, rockets and space travel had become a
national fascination. In 1952, Wernher von Braun,
one of wartime Germanys leaders in the eld, now
working for the American rocket research program,
wrote:
Within the next 10 or 15 years, the earth can have
a new companion in the skies, a man-made satellite which will be mans rst foothold in space. Inhabited by human beings, it will sweep round the
earth at an incredible rate ... completing a trip
round the globe every 2 hours [at] ... 15,840 miles
per hour....35
Oldsmobile summed up the priorities of an era in its 1950 campaign, and

the theme was carried through the decade (July 1950).
With such predictions from experts in space technology, coupled with optimistic articles in magazines
such as Scientic American, American scientists, and
the public who followed their experiments, were optimistic. Oldsmobiles copywriters, with consumers
eager collusion, luxuriated in quasi-phallic rocketoriented imagery for over a decade.
The horsepower race soon acquired its own momentum. The surging might of Miracle H-Power
offered on the 1952 Hudson Hornet, with a name that
reminded readers of the recently invented hydrogen
bomb, was no longer enough.
Chrysler, with an established reputation for
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65
excellent engineering, was in the technical

lead by 1953. 1949s copy had been uninspired,
offering smoother, faster acceleration from
our high compression Spitre engine, together with the greatest driving advance of
all Prestomatic Fluid Drive Transmission,
the latter a development within a family of
transmissions with fluid couplings which had
become progressively available on Chryslers,
Dodges, and De Sotos during 193941. It was
almost immediately rendered old-fashioned
by the introduction of GMs Hydra-Matic. But
Chryslers 135bhp, which had been adequate,
if not startling, in 194950, grew to 180bhp in
1951s hemi V-8.
By 1954, the exclamation marks were out
in force: Its Number One for sheer driving
leadership! Giving you new wonders in power
and control ... is Americas highest-rated drive
power: 235HP FirePower V-8 engine. Proved
Number One in ofcial performance tests from
Indianapolis to Daytona Beach! A modern
automatic had arrived in mid1953, in the
form of PowerFlite, the most modern noclutch drive of all. The name was familiar to
Nash buyers as an engine type (spelled Powerflyte after Nashs Airflyte bodies) but, as
the two marques were not in effective competition by 1954, no litigation resulted.
PowerFlite and 235bhp were not enough
to halt the decline in Chryslers sales, which
nally improved in 1955 when even more
power was combined with new styling to give
Extra performance for style-conscious motorists! as one headline put it. Up to 250 hp
was offered in regular models, and 300bhp
could be had in the Chrysler C-300, which
looked like a regular Chrysler Windsor with an
Imperial grille. In late 1955, the new PowerStyle Chrysler was announced for 1956 with In 1954, Chryslers main advantage was power rather than styling (August 1954).
Pushbutton PowerFliteworlds most automost efcient engine design even though it was not the most
matic transmission. Operated by pushbutton on dashboard.
powerful of engines in this Fire Dome form. By adding the
The Automobile Manufacturers Association agreed to
word design to the copy, De Soto stopped just short of mende-emphasize performance in advertising from 1958 and, aldacity, and efcient could, of course, mean different things
though 1959s Lion-Hearted Chrysler was available with enin different usages. This copywriting tactic was not conned
gines ranging from 305 to 380bhp, pre-war vagueness reto De Soto.
turned, with assurances of the economy of Golden Lion
In 1957, horsepower-based advertising reached its apogee,
engines together with a modest encouragement to Go for
and De Sotos campaign was imaginative. This baby can flick
the open road.
its tail at anything on the road! cried an early 1957 headline,
Performance featured prominently in advertising for
above a wide-angle photograph of the 1957 De Sotos tail n
other Chrysler Corporation marques in the mid1950s. In
in seatone blue and white. The baby was available with
1953, De Soto offered the mighty 160 h.p. Fire Dome V-8
up to 295 hp. In 1958, the emphasis changed, and a new
which was called, disingenuously, The worlds most powerful,
66
F ANTASY
A classic of its kind, this well-known advertisement from De Soto marked the high point of copywriters performance race of the
late 1950s, which was toned down in 1958 (March 1957).
Turboflash V8 engine, more powerful than 1957s, was nevertheless billed as smoother, quieter to give all the power you
need for safe, effortless driving. This was worthy, but it made
for dull copy.
Lincolns advertising followed a similar pattern. Performance proof was offered in 1955: For the third year in a row
Lincolns swept the rst two places in the large stock car division of the grueling Mexican Pan-American road race. The advertisement did not mention who was in the other divisions,
let alone any overall results.
In the low-price eld, Chevrolet boasted a year later that:
This is the car, you know, that broke the Pikes Peak record.
The car that proved its red-up performance, cat-sure cornering ability and nailed-down stability on the rugged, twisting Pikes Peak road.
Other Chevrolet advertisements for 1956 showed a speeding sedan being led by a police escort (Of course, you dont
have to have an urgent errand and a motorcycle escort to make
use of Chevrolets quick and nimble ways), and as the favorite choice of remen, although it was not stated how many
re services actually used Two-Ten four-door sedans with
flashing red lamps like the one shown in the illustration.
Horsepower that ranges clear up to 225 explodes into action
to zoom you out ahead with extra seconds of safety said the
copy, perhaps with an eye on Fords aggressive safety campaign of that year, although this tigerish power was also as
tame to your touch as a purring kitten. The Hot Ones Even
Hotter said the slogan, unambiguously.
Such copy marked a decisive turnaround from the famous valve-in-head engine centered, poised and cushioned
in rubber by new high-side mountings of 1952. What was
popularly known as the stovebolt six had continued through
1953 (The mighty 115h.p. Blue-Flame engine teamed with
Powerglide automatic transmission) and 1954 (the BlueFlame 125 in Powerglide models and the Blue-Flame 115 in
gearshift models), eventually to give way in 1955s advertising to a 162bhp new Turbo-Fire V8... strictly in charge when
the light flashes green with an 8:1 compression ratio. A Special to adventure lovers: 180 h.p. Super Turbo-Fire V8 was
an option, and Blue-Flame sixes of 136bhp with Powerglide and
123bhp without were mentioned regularly, if at times just in
passing. In 1956, Chevrolets performance image had only just
been established, and copywriters fought hard against Fords
V-8 tradition (updated, ahead of Chevrolet, with a new overhead-valve 130h.p. Y-block V-8 in 1954) and a rejuvenated
Aerodynamic Plymouth 56 with new ns, described as the
jet-age Plymouth with sensational higher-horsepower HyFire V-8 and PowerFlow 6 engines ... [giving] 9090 TurboTorque getaway for Top Thrust at Take-Off....
Chevrolet returned for 1957 with a colorful series of advertisements which showed the car overtaking coaches, climbing hills, and speeding along highways: Lively performance is
part and parcel of Chevys light touch personality. Thats why
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67
V8 options go all the way up to 245 h.p.* The starred small

print added: 270h.p. high-performance V8 engine also
available at extra cost. Also Ramjet fuel injection with engines
up to 283h.p.
The last feature, in particular, was a rst in the low-price
eld and unusual by any standard. Combined with a number
of favorable NASCAR and Daytona Speed Week placings, it
helped Chevrolet to gain a reputation as the best-performing
low-priced car of the year. Chevrolets 1957 copy also emphasized the nimble handling and roadability which came from a
car that was smaller than rival Plymouths and Fords. For
Chevrolet in 1957, handling was as much to do with roadholding and quick maneuvering than with the easy handling
more often referred to by American copywriters, which was
concerned as much with the effort needed to move a cars controls as with any idea of agility and responsiveness in the European sense.
Chevrolets 1957 advertising was a long way removed from the

rural panoramas of 1952. Is the broken down hot rod a Ford?
(June 1957).
68
F ANTASY
During 1959-60, Ford promised sporty escapism in a lavish series of double-page spreads for the Thunderbird (June 1960).
By 1960, the themes of performance and comfort were

regularly combined, as they had been in 1939. This was true
even of copy for sporty cars like the Ford Thunderbird, which
had become a four-seater personal car in 1958. A 1960 advertisement was typical:
A Thunderbird is action ... sweet, swift, spirited action an
adventure in flowing, controlled motion.... Power and performance are two solid reasons [al]most everyone longs to
own a Thunderbird.... Turn the ignition ... listen to the husky,
soft-and-easy hum of its barrel-chested engine. This is the
sound of the Thunderbird 300 horses, 350 horses, take your
pick.
The excitement and semantic inventiveness of the 1950s were

receding, and were replaced by low-key, if escapist, assurances
of potency. The 1960 Thunderbird was photographed beside
a steeple-chase course, with a horse flying over a fence and
past the car. There was no explicit rocket imagery, except in the
Thunderbirds spear-shaped door panel moldings, and in jetexhaust taillights which, in most advertising illustrations, were
hidden from view.
For 1961, the personal-car character of the Thunderbird
was brought out more strongly, and the new high-performance Thunderbird 390 Special V-8 engine was modestly promoted as one element in a precision team for a new high in
automatic driving. Other contributions to the new high
were a Swing-Away Steering Wheel ... Power Brakes ... Power
Steering (the last two to be expected by 1961, even on lowlier
Fords, if only as options) and Cruise-O-Matic Drive transmission. By 1961, however, elaborate names and capital letters for conventional power features were becoming old-fashioned, and they soon disappeared for good.
After several years promoting comfort and gadgets, advertisers began to return to performance in the early 1960s,
and did not conne themselves to copy for large cars. Chevrolet promoted 1959s compact dbutante for 1960, the aircooled, rear-engined Corvair as The Sporty Car in Chevrolets New World of Worth in 1962. Even if the Corvair was
not a high-performance automobile by absolute standards, it
was more exciting than a regular Ford Falcon.
Ford counter-attacked with the Falcon Futura, and enjoyed the advantage over Chevrolet that engines from larger
Fords could be shoe-horned into Falcons, whereas the air-
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69
Left and above: A new phase in performance-based advertising

began in 1963 and continued with the Mustang in 1964 (March
1963 and May 1964).
cooled Corvair, a mechanical law unto itself, could not be

tted with conventional GM V-8 engines. The air-cooled
motor was nevertheless developed enthusiastically, and the
Corvair became quite potent, particularly in Monza coupe
form. Before long, the horsepower race had resumed in more
than one size category as performance options began to ll
pages of print in dealers catalogs. Power outputs of between
300 and 400 bhp were commonplace in full-size cars by 1966.
Ford enjoyed competition success with its full-size Galaxies, and in 1963 advertised a Report from Monaco presenting the Liveliest of the Lively Ones new Command Performance Cars for 19631 2. Big-engined Fairlanes, Falcons, and a
full-size Super Torque Ford Sports Hardtop, with a fastback roofline less formal and more aerodynamic than that of
the regular hardtop, typied Fords new approach to the performance car market, identied and targeted as such with a
range of models. In April, 1964, the Mustang was introduced
in hardtop and convertible forms and advertised heavily. Some
versions, with unexciting six-cylinder engines, were little more
than sporty-looking Falcon-based shopping cars, but those
who wanted to try Total Performance for a change! could
add the big 289-cu. in. V-8 engine (the same basic V-8 that
powers the famous Cobra!) ... [plus] 4-speed stick shift (synchro on all forward speeds) and Rally Pac (tachometer and
clock) to make the Mustang a genuinely sporting car. Younger
70
enthusiasts were invited to send $1.00 to the makers for an

exciting, authentic scale model of the new car.
In Britain, Lincoln Cars Ltd., who were established
American Ford dealers in Brentford, Middlesex, offered in
May, 1966 to build up your own custombuilt Mustang from
a host of options, while also advertising the Galaxie 500 convertible, built for total performance proved in competition.36
General Motors offered a number of sporting cars, of
varying degrees of specialization and performance. A sports
model was often shown in advertising for a complete model
range, as it lent glamour to the more mundane representatives of its marque. A 1964 Buick advertisement was headed,
Everybody out of the rut ... the 64 Buicks are here! Above
the headline, a Wildcat hardtop was shown on a deserted
beach, an escapist setting which became popular with advertisers on both sides of the Atlantic.
Buicks personal-luxury Riviera moved into the sports
sector in 1965, in Gran Sport guise, available with a 360hp
Wildcat V-8 and a variety of performance options, including
a limited slip differential ... heavy-duty springs, shocks and
Buicks Riviera was the rst of a new breed of sporty personalluxury cars (May 1965).
F ANTASY
stabilizer bar. You need not be a professional driver to qualify added the copywriter, to the lasting regret of Americas
insurance companies.
Oldsmobile offered the full-size Starre in 1964: High
adventure starts right here! began one piece, which showed
the new coupe roaring up a mountain road. From its bold
grille to its exclusive dual-chambered exhausts, this beautys
new action silhouette says 64 belongs to Starre. Sample the
response of the 345h.p. Starre V-8.... By later standards
this was tame copy, but action had emerged as the buzzword
of the moment and it often reappeared, sometimes with wit and
sometimes as an inevitable clich, in the copywriters repertoire
of sporty words. The Starres image was consolidated in
1965:
Every line says let yourself go ... where the action is!... You
see it standing there, poised and eager, every sleek line tingling with anticipation. And it seems to whisper, Lets go.
Lets fly!... Then a turn of the key ... a flick of the consolemounted T-stick Turbo Hydra-Matic or 4-on-the-floor and
370 high flying horses put wings to your wheels!
Dramatic scenery, photographs of sportsmen, snappy slogans:

these were the main ingredients of most performance-car
advertisements of the early 1960s (January 1964).
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71
Ned Jordan would have been proud. Not only

was Oldsmobiles winged chariot powerful; the
Rocket Action Car had lost the chromium excesses of the 1950s, and was shown against a simple, deep-red backdrop with not a missile in
sight.
Of General Motors performance cars, the
Pontiac GTO (The Great One) enjoyed the
highest prole. It grew out of the attractive but
anonymous Pontiac Tempest in 1964, and until
1966 was not strictly a model in its own right,
but a package of options which could be personalized from a list of further extras. With a distinctive twin-grille at the front, it rapidly acquired its
own identity, assisted by tailored advertising
which contrasted vividly with copy for the regular Tempest, including that for the Tempest Le
Mans on which it was based. We spoil you a bit
in the 65 Tempest with interiors restyled in
cloth and Morrokide.... And tempt you with 12
handsome models, including a new Custom
Hardtop Coupe declared a typical Tempest advertisement with an eye to the housewives who
made up a large part of Pontiacs regular market.
GTO copy was much more energetic: Two
seconds behind the wheel of a Pontiac and you
know ... youre in tiger country.... Theres a six or
one of two rambunctious V-8s available in the
Le Mans. And a snarling 335hp GTO or its
360hp cousin. So go drive a tiger! To prove
the point, a tiger was shown clambering over the
windshield of a yellow GTO convertible as it
rested on the inevitable deserted beach. Another
advertisement showed the car against a black
background, facing the reader with a tiger skin on
the hood, head snarling: Theres a live one
under the hood.... Purrs if youre nice. Snarls
How to tell a tiger from a regular Tempest? Give it a special grille, wheels, and
when you prod it. Trophy V-8, standard in Pon- options and its own advertising campaign. Niche marketing flourished in the
tiac GTO. 389 cubic inches. 335 horsepower. 431 1960s (May 1965).
lbft of torque.... Want something wilder? Got it:
all-synchro 3-speed floor shift. Three speeds were perhaps
360 hp. Want something tamer? Got that, too Pontiac Le
more sporting than automatic gears, but they did not suggest
Mans. In 1966 Ford showed the front of its rival high-pera dedication to raw performance. Nor was the Sprint a
formance Fairlane GTA, with a toy tiger-tail clamped between
highrpm driving machine ... with the agility and grace of a
hood and grille above the headline: How to cook a tiger.
European sports car, whatever the copy said. Given that most
Sportiness, carefully diluted, extended to Pontiacs sixpotential buyers had never driven a European sports car, it
cylinder cars which were aimed, at least in part, towards the
hardly mattered.
more adventurous elements within Pontiacs established clienBy 1967, the GTOs reputation was established, and copytle. While the GTO was shown with tigers and seductive
writers could caption atmospheric artwork with the laconic
models, a 1966 Sprint appeared with a woman at the wheel
slogan, The Great One. GTO Hardtop. Need we say more?
who clearly owned the car, and did not just pose in it. With
Inevitably, some elaboration was irresistible, if only to dean OHC six like this who needs an 8? asked the headline,
scribe the special equipment available, such as a spirited
while the copy described the cars special suspension and
72
F ANTASY
Horsepower and safety equipment went side by side in Pontiac copy of the late 1960s, as with this Firebird (November 1967).
250hp regular gas V-8 or its 285hp premium gas cousin,
along with such sporting gadgets as a Hood-mounted tach.
The regular Pontiac slogan, Ride the Wide-Track winning
streak was shortened to a more dynamic Wide-Track Pontiac/67.
In 1968, the sports and Wide-Track themes were combined in copy for the GTO and a new Mustang competitor,
the Firebird convertible. The Great One was made 1968s
Car of the Year by Motor Trend magazine, which commended
it for a revolutionary bumper so new you have to kick it to believe it ... it wont chip, fade or corrode. It was an understandable tactic in view of increasing concern about automobile
safety, and it also looked modern, sleek, and muscular, a look
that was enhanced by concealed headlamps. In case anyone
thought that the marque was going soft, reassurance was given
with a 400-cubic-inch, 4-barrel V-8 or an optional Ram
Air engine with deep-breathing scoops. Options on the Firebird included mag-style wheels and stereo tape, the latter
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73
an answer to Fords heavy promotion of a similar device some

years earlier.
Like Fords Mustang, the Firebird was advertised with a
wide variety of engines, from a 175 hp Firebird to a 330hp
Firebird 400. A Firebird 400 was as fast as many earlier, larger
sports cars with higher quoted power outputs, even if Pontiacs 400 referred to cubic inches and not optimistically
rated horsepower. Signicantly, advertising for the Firebird
mentioned safety features, such as padded armrests, front
and rear side marker lights.
In the 1970s, performance cars were progressively detuned to comply with exhaust emissions legislation, and muscle cars kept a lower prole until the 1980s. In 1976, even a
marque advertisement for the whole Pontiac range promoted
the Formula Firebird on its gas mileage, but, contrary to some
predictions of the time, technology eventually overcame many
apparent restrictions and put action back on the car buyers
agenda by the late 1980s.
Chapter 4
Pushbuttons
and Plastic Tops
1946. A Canadian advertisement listed, inter alia, Permi-rm
steering, Panthergait springs, and a StepOn parking brake
which was not, by 1946, a novelty. In 1949, Chryslers semantics ranged from the gently imaginative Cyclebonded Brake
Linings to a Waterproof Ignition System, the latter an example of a description masquerading as an original name for
a feature. Plymouth promoted Ignition Key Starting in the
same year, along with an Automatic Electric Choke and
other assurances of mechanical worthiness. Studebakers
equivalent copy represented an oasis of common sense. Your
brakes adjust themselves, in 1949, was modest and sensible.
Chevrolet, on the other hand, was uncharacteristically fanciful in a 1952 advertisement which drew attention to RoyalTone Styling, Color-Matched Two-Tone Interiors, Center-Point Steering, and the inimitably euphonious JumboDrum Brakes.
By 195354, power features, once conned to prestige
cars, were becoming more widespread, particularly on medium- and lower-priced cars. In the medium sector, De Soto
offered Full Power Steering, which was claimed to reduce
steering effort by 80 percent, in 1953. The system was intended
to eliminate the woken-from-slumber sensation given by some
early power steering systems which were prompted into action
only after the steering wheel had been turned a little. In the
same year, De Soto also offered soberly titled Power Brakes,
which reduced pedal effort by some 50 percent.
In 1954, power gadgets continued to move downmarket.
Chevrolet claimed to be First in its eld with all these power
features for you, which included Powerglide transmission
(optional since 1950); a power-brake option with Powerglide
cars; and power steering, windows, and seats as stand-alone
extras, the steering being carried over from 1953. Not to be
Some American cars were stylish others were not.

There were powerful, charismatic automobiles, and there were
ordinary sedans with so few outstanding virtues that no one
felt much inclined to investigate their vices. There were also
a few products that represented comprehensive improvement
opportunities for their makers. Car buyers, however, were
rarely unanimous in deciding which car belonged to what category. An automobile with an anemic engine and dowdy
styling could be promoted as frugal and practical if its
promoter was unusually honest, or as a stalwart in the face of
transitory fads if he was an optimist. Occasionally, gratuitous
obsolescence was elevated into practical virtue which was
plausible if the makers name was Checker or Rambler; less
so if it was Hudson or Kaiser. But whatever their individual
difculties, copywriters were united in their quest for The
Gadget.
The Gadget could be anything from a self-adjusting brake
mechanism to a transparent roof. It could be useful, like power
steering, or superfluous if it involved holding a switch for as
long as it would take to move an equivalent handle for, say, a
vent window. In the absence of a suitable gadget, ordinary
features could be described in extraordinary English, with the
addition of Capital-Letters-And-Hyphens, to create a sense
of importance that might be conspicuously lacking in the
product itself. If the car could conceivably move under its own
power without The Gadget, a special name for it had to be invented. Occasional coincidence was inevitable, as with the
Oldsmobile Handi-Shift/Hudson Handy Shift gear shifts and
the Chrysler PowerFlite/Nash Powerflyte, which was logically
Nashs inheritance, since Airflyte bodies had been around since
1948.
Buicks mixture of the useful and the banal was typical for
74
4. P USHBUTTONS
AND
P LASTIC T OPS
75
Capital-Letters-And-Hyphens, together with elaborate names for mundane features, were widespread in early postwar copy (1952
campaign).
76
F ANTASY
Power features trickled down from the ne car eld to the middle- and low-priced sectors during 1953-54 (May 1953 and March
1954).
out-gadgeted, Ford promoted ve similar power options that

were claimed to take the drive out of driving in the 54
Ford. Fords power steering reduced driver effort by 75 percent and the brakes offered normal standards of stopping
power with up to a third less push. Power Lift Windows,
a 4-Way Power Seat, and Fordomatic Drive completed the
list. With a body design dating from 1952, Ford fought back
against Chevrolet not only with its new 130h.p. Y-block V8 and 115h.p. I-block Six but also with Power-Lift Windows, unique in the low-price eld in having push-button
control of all four side windows, and a power seat that was
the only power seat in Fords eld that goes up and down as
well as forward and back.
Mercury offered a similar selection of devices in 1954,
and devoted several advertisements to handling features, particularly the ball that makes the new Mercury far easier to
handle! when ball-joints replaced conventional kingpins in the
front suspension. One advertisement explained the advantages of this feature with several colored diagrams, for the
benet of those who did not want to crawl under a Monterey,
let alone dismantle it, to nd out. British Ford Consul and

Zephyr buyers had enjoyed the advantages of ball-joints, albeit
with MacPherson struts rather than conventional A-arms or
wishbones, since 1951.
Fords main novelty of the year was a transparent plastic
roof section of tinted Plexiglas, tted to Ford Crestline (Skyliner) and Mercury Monterey (Sun Valley) hardtops. See the
scenery through the roof said a typical Mercury advertisement, see trafc lights easilyyet tinted transparent top protects against heat, wind, glare.... [Y]ou have a wonderful sensation of driving with no top at all but with the wind and
weather protection of a sedan.
It worked best in cool weather, and although the Sun Valley was Americas rst transparent top car to be put into regular production, the idea remained a Ford specialty outside
the realm of the dream car, where such ideas were commonplace. At $2,582, the Sun Valley cost $130 more than a comparable steel-topped coupe and, whatever the copywriter
claimed, the plastic top caused the cars interior to overheat uncomfortably in hot weather. Fewer than 10,000 were sold in
4. P USHBUTTONS
AND
P LASTIC T OPS
77
Mercurys plastic top was a dream car feature that proved unpopular with buyers, but it drew attention to the regular Mercury
range, which was partly its purpose (March 1954).
78
F ANTASY
shield, Twin-Tower tail lights that say STOP with great

authority, and other styling innovations. By 1957, when the
novelty value of power windows and seats had worn off, copywriters centered on engines and transmissions, as the lists of
features which had predominated in the early 1950s gave way
to integrated advertising in which style, power, and gadgets were united in every area of the market into a fantasist
whole.
A year or two later, with performance de-emphasized,
Chryslers copywriters reverted to an earlier idiom, punctuating copy with such disparate enticements as Total-Contact
Brakes, Swivel Seats, and Torsion-Aire Ride. Many of
these features were available across the Corporations range,
and corporate advertising described them all. Some, like the
compound windshield which curved up into the roof of the
car as well as to the sides, were styling touches of doubtful
practical advantage, but others, including MirrorMatic Electronic Mirror and an Automatic Beam
Changer similar in concept to General Motors
Autronic Eye, were genuinely useful when properly
adjusted.
Every manufacturer offered a host of minor options, from chrome-plated splash-guards to lavish interior trim fabrics, all of which were carefully illustrated and promoted in sales literature, even if they
could not be described in detail in press advertising.
In a few cases, a marques model and option ranges
were so extensive that they merited a hardback catalog, as offered to Mercury buyers in 1957.
In the 1960s, hyperbole and capital letters gave
way to more subtle forms of inducement. Equipment,
per se, was described soberly. 1964s Buick LeSabre,
for instance, offered 15-inch wheels, nned aluminum front brakes, extra cushioning for middleseat travelers and separate heat ducts and controls for
the rear seat. Excitement did not disappear, but its
focus shifted from the car itself to the sensual experience of driving it. Copywriters increasingly sought
to identify with the consumers latent expectations, to
seduce the car buyer rather than bludgeon him with
endless and pointless electrical devices.
The consumer who changed (albeit improbably)
from a 1947 Ford Tudor to its 1957 equivalent underwent considerable re-orientation, from a high, boxy
shape to a low and sleek one; from simple manual
controls to automatic gears and power-assistance;
from a top speed between 80 and 90mph to one of
100110mph with a V-8 engine option; from 060 acceleration in the 21-second range to around half of
that. Changing again in 1967 to a new model, the consumers
re-orientation would not have been nearly
Three-tone paint, an optional high-delity long-playing record player
as
fundamental
the proportions of the 1957 and
and pushbutton gears. Chrysler had come a long way since the cycle1967
models
were
broadly similar, with a few inches
bonded brake linings of 1949 (1956 campaign).
1954, and, following sales of 1,787 in 1955, the idea was

dropped. The car nevertheless featured prominently in Mercury advertising as a range-topping glamour model, as well
as in copy exclusive to the car.
As automobile interiors grew more elaborate and stylized in the mid1950s, the gadgets multiplied. The 1955
Chevrolet Bel Air had a lot to offer in the power-feature department.... Braking, steering, gear shifting even seat and
window adjustments on Bel Air and Two-Ten models. If
none of these were novel by 1955, increasing numbers of buyers ordered them, and they were promoted more excitably
than in 1954. All these little motoring pluses could be done
the pushbutton way in the Motoramic Chevrolet through
extra-cost options.
In the same year, Chrysler offered similar devices alongside its standard famous new sweptback Super-Scenic Wind-
4. P USHBUTTONS
AND
P LASTIC T OPS
79
gained in the hood and lost from the trunk, and the power
features were similar, too, even if ns and chromium had given
way to a sleek, uncluttered, coke-bottle look.
Stabilization brought diversity, just as it had in the 1920s,
though the differences between marques and sizes were now
determined as much by function as by status. If one believed
the copywriters, 1957s new car buyers were all excited by essentially the same themes, which were reinforced by the automobiles wider association with Americas technological consciousness. By 1967, the common aspirations that had sustained 1957s automotive fantasy were in retreat as increasing
concern over fuel availability, pollution, and safety encouraged the dispersal of earlier, uncomplicated expectations.
Effortless driving nevertheless remained a priority; and
air conditioning, almost universal as an option, was now
more widely tted in practice. In 1969 the Ford Thunderbird
could be ordered with the push-button sliding steel roof that,
manually operated, had been promoted as an option in 1960,

so that personal-car buyers could continue to see the moon
and the stars. But the fantasy was fragmenting, and it gave way
to a widespread, individualized desire for personal lifestyle-enhancement in a climate in which one persons lifestyle might
not have much in common with anothers.
The disparity of fortune and, more importantly, of ambition, which had always existed under the surface glitz of
American consumer culture, was now reappearing on copywriters agenda. By 1970, the prospect of affluent cultural homogeneity, which had inspired industrial designers in the
1930s, had almost entirely dissipated.
Copywriters varied their tone accordingly. The lush prose
appropriate for a Chevrolet Monte Carlo (Standard is an
instrument panel with the rare look of hand-rubbed burled
elm) was inappropriate for a Vega; elaborate gadgets which
the Thunderbird buyer sought in his personal car were
Gadgetitis was in retreat by 1964, when a Buick convertible

could be shown with the top up, and nned aluminum front
brakes and big 15-inch wheels could be mentioned in copy.
The automotive fantasy took an escapist, rather than technological turn in the 1960s (May 1964).
The sliding sun roof Thunderbird was promoted as a model

in its own right in 1960, and this optional feature, electrically
operated, dominated the marques escapist 1969 advertising
(February 1969).
80
consciously scorned by the suburban professional whose transport was a compact station wagon. And when prestigious European luxury car makers challenged the fundamentals of
American car design with advertising copy that mocked the domestic products lack of dynamism and technical sophistication, the fantasy became self-conscious, aware of its partiality,
and was thereby rendered largely impotent. Where motorists
continued to look for old-style automotive values, they did
so self-consciously, aware that they did not participate in a
dream that was universal, or even necessarily popular.
From the mid1960s, advertisers increasingly identied
with particular sectors of the new-car market. In each case,
the copywriter tuned in to the imagined point of view of the
target sector, addressing the priorities and life-perspective of
a particular type of buyer. No longer was it possible to appeal,
even in passing, to a common automotive fantasy. A view of
the world which was attractive to traditional luxury car buyers was not only unappealing, but actually repellent, to the
champions of functionalist imports.
F ANTASY
In 1955, Cadillac could write: At a conservative estimate,

fty percent of all the motorists in America would rather own
a Cadillac than any other automobile, condent that, of the
other fty percent, the great majority would like a Cadillac
(or one of its direct rivals) if it were offered to them. By 1975,
not only had the percentage of Cadillac aspirants, particularly
among young people and college graduates, declined, but
many new car buyers would have refused a Cadillac even if it
were offered at the cost of the lowliest import. To environmentalists, the large Cadillac was a symbol of a decadent and
intransigent adherence not only to a past view of the world, but
an irresponsible one. The vast majority of young car buyers
were simply indifferent to it, and to others of its kind, however good it might have been of its type.
With such a diversity of perspectives, it was inevitable
that the copy styles which had included so much color and invention in the 1950s would be superseded by something more
subtle, more sophisticated and, perhaps, less memorable.
P ART T WO : B EYOND M ECHANISM

Chapter 5
Wouldnt it be nice to have

an Escape Machine?
was avowedly psychological. Advertisers promised adventure
and travel opportunities, fun, and an improvement in lifestyle.
A combination of snobbery with escapism promised new social, as well as geographical, horizons. Copywriters offered
the consumer a chance to construct a self-image that was more
appealing than the reality. When this articial persona became
convincing, the consumer was hooked. When it became vital
to his sense of ease and well-being in his family, community,
and social relations; when not buying the new car could indicate apparent failure to the outside world and make the consumer feel himself that he had failed, that new car became a
necessary component of an enjoyable life. In it, motoring
would take on a new meaning, even if one drove along the
same highways as before.
Such promises of escape and adventure became inextricably intertwined with the threat of a return to mundane
anonymity, with an added, corrosive sense of missing out, of
being passed over, of not participating any more in the social
process. Beneath the promise of fun was a subtle, covert initiation into social paranoia, and, however they might have expressed it, copywriters knew its potency.
Among the early escapists, Nashs copywriters were in a
class of their own. Armed with a distinctive, if boxy, sedan, a
thermostatic heater and overdrive, they set to work in 1939:
The question was asked by Oldsmobile in a series of advertisements in 1970, but it had been formulated in a thousand different forms by the time that the Oldsmobile Cutlass
Supreme was posed in a restaurant scene by its makers to encourage the new car buyer to escape from the ordinary.
Escapist advertising invited the motorist to give up a dull
existence led without the car for an exciting and fullled life
with it. In the early days of motoring, the choice was between
owning a new car and owning none at all. Until the 1930s,
mass-market advertisers usually relied on their products mechanical merits while the attendant euphoria was allowed to
take care of itself. This approach was understandable but it
made for uninspired copy. There were a few exceptions to this
trend, of which the most famous is Edward S. Jordans Somewhere West of Laramie advertisement, published in two
forms in the Saturday Evening Post in 1923.1
By the 1950s, most cars were bought as repeat purchases
by established motorists for whom motoring was no longer a
novelty. It was difcult to persuade the consumer to become
as excited about a replacement car as he had once been about
motoring in general, and the excitement factor had to be induced articially with promises of fun and escape from monotonous routine. As Harley Earl once remarked, You can
design a car so that every time you get in it, its a relief you
have a little vacation for a while.2
Styling and engineering features incorporated into the
automobile had to represent fun, escape, and adventure. This
orientation of the consumers perspective in which he willingly colluded had little to do with the car as transportation, and everything to do with the fantasies and aspirations
evoked by its particular characteristics.
The escapist promise took many forms, and the process
Youre going to take a journey.... Its written in the stars this

month youre in tune with a disturbing vibration. Be doubly
careful, if your orbit crosses a Nash showroom. For then a
dark car will come into your life.... In ghost-like silence, you
flick past other cars seemingly chained to the ground.... Its
uncanny ... exhilarating ... this feeling of floating. Only when
you touch the brake and feel the tires dig in, do you realize
than this is what people call an automobile!...
81
82
Appeals to consumers emotions were not new in 1923, but Jordan was a pioneer in combining copy and artwork into a
euphoric whole. The technique was condemned as absurd by
David Ogilvy forty years later, but is still in use today (June
1923).
One of an unusual series of advertisements from Oldsmobile,
who showed cars in indoor environments that their owners
wanted to escape from, rather than at actual outdoor escape
venues (October 1969).
Another advertisement continued the theme:

Dont Let Others Spoil Your Fun! If someone tries to tell you
about the new Nash stop him. And if you meet a silver bullet of a car flashing up the street look the other way. For
thats not the way to learn about a Nash.... Youve got to get
inside and drive it ... yourself on an open road....
The copy was imaginative and unusually humorous, even for

its type. Seasonal advertising (also used by Lincoln-Zephyr)
was employed in the spring of 1939, and escapist motifs were
adapted accordingly:
The Hounds of Spring Are At Your Heels.... Heres a car that
knows ... why colts kick their heels in the spring ... why little
boys run away from home ... why trout rods are being revarnished.... As you ripple across space, dont regret the coming
end of the day. Spring can last forever!... Yes, a Nash is as
catching as measles, and twice as hard to quarantine. Get into
the drivers seat once, and you can never get yourself out of it.
The message here was innocent enough, and typical of the

whimsical style that characterized Nash advertising of the
period. Youve Had that Longing Long Enough.... Does Spring

do funny things to you? asked a similar piece a year later. In
February, 1940, a bright pink four-door sedan was shown
among skaters:
A shrieking gale has smothered the sun and swept the lake
bare of skaters.... Suddenly a flash of light, and laughing
faces ... a whisper of tires on the snow. Someones brought a
new Nash! You slip into the broad, welcoming front seat
someone twirls a mysterious little dial, and instantly its June!
If one believed the copy, the car was not only comfortable, but
a panacea: Its priced so low, with resale value so high ... that
it will pay to trade away your troubles to your Nash dealer
today and start having year round fun! The car itself was
fast and rened, particularly in eight-cylinder form. According to a British tester of the 1939 model:
It becomes increasingly wonderful what the Americans can do
in providing value for money. This big Nash is 17 ft. long, is a
really roomy six-seater, has air conditioning [Weather Eye
thermostatic heating], overdrive, a maximum speed of ...
85m.p.h. in real silence and comfort.... Altogether, for the
money required [465] this car is a very remarkable product.3
5. W OULDN T
IT BE NICE TO HAVE AN
E SCAPE M ACHINE ?
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Stylish, fun-oriented escapism from Nash in 1939 and 1953. The seats of both cars reclined to form double beds, to the delight of
wags and teenagers, and the consternation of parents and sexual moralists of all ages (1939 and 1953 campaigns).
In England, it was far from cheap at nearly 200 more than

the 280 asked for an American-designed Ford V-8 30, but
in its homeland a six-cylinder variant was not expensive at
$985.
Nash continued to offer fun and escape in the Travelingest Car Ever Built in 1953: Youll nd a whole new
world of travel fun in the 1953 Nash Airflytes. Cars built to
make long trips easier, more enjoyable! The theme was pursued in a series of advertisements, many of which showed the
most glamorous car in the Nash range, the Ambassador Country Club hardtop. According to another piece: [A]s the road
unreels and new enchantments greet your eye youll know why
we even built sleeping beds in a Nash. This was bold copy,
given that parents were already banning their teenage children from borrowing the cars whose front seats were advertised to become Twin Beds in seconds.
The car rental companies in particular emphasized the
recreational potential of the automobile, and convertibles
dominated their advertising. See more ... do more ... have
more fun the Hertz Rent-A-Car Way! said Hertz in 1954, in
a headline above a bright red Chevrolet convertible in the lush

North Carolina countryside. In another advertisement in the
same series, a yellow Ford Sunliner convertible was photographed at the famous Kona Kai Club on Shelter Island in
the Bay of San Diego, California, where even the name has a
musical sound of romance.
Ford decided to eliminate the middle-man in 1957, in an
advertisement for the Ford Dealers of New England which
promoted the region as a holiday resort and, of course, the
Fairlane convertible as the ideal holiday car. The Sunliner was
the heaviest, longest, loveliest car the money can buy according to Ford, who even in such delightful surroundings
needed to keep an eye on the competition from Plymouths
new incarnation of the Forward Look, as well as Chevrolets
attractively facelifted (and new-looking) Bel Air convertible.
In 1960, Avis showed a Ford Galaxie convertible in a similar
setting. Have more fun, get more done with Avis minutesaver service said the headline, which echoed Hertzs strategy
more closely than 1957s 600 mile business trip in 24 hours
without strain!
84
Ford promoted the New England countryside for its 1956 and 1957 models. This is a Fairlane 500 Sunliner convertible (April 1957).
5. W OULDN T
E SCAPE M ACHINE ?
85
In the late 1940s, copywriters began to integrate escapism into the promotion of the technical and design features of their products, and
escapism was bound up more closely with what
the particular automobile offered. This was to be
expected, given the prevailing climate. Buick had
set the standard for such pieces as early as 1936.
In a piece headed Thrill for sale! the mechanical pill was sugared as much as possible:
Youll think the drivers seat of that new Buick
was tailored to your measure, so comfortably
will you settle into place.... [T]his phenomenal
performer seems to settle closer and steadier on
the road as you press the treadle, and the lightest tip-toe pressure on those big hydraulics
slows you to a safe swerveless stop....4
The car itself was not even shown in this advertisement.

Oldsmobiles advertising of the early 1950s
set a number of precedents, not least in its colorful descriptions of mechanical features, but the
Rocket engines and automatic gears were
placed in an escapist context in 1950:
Rocket ahead with Oldsmobile!... Drive the car
that makes distance an exciting adventure.
Drive an Oldsmobile the only car with the
smoothest power package ever built the
Rocket Engine and new Whirlaway HydraMatic Drive!
Escape, excitement, fantasy Oldsmobile combined these elements so that they were not easily distinguished. Nor were they meant to be separated, for their potency lay in coalition.
The names given to automatic features were
carefully devised to conjure up the required associations of smoothness, power, and escape
from more mundane motoring. Nothing without wings climbs like a 56 Chevrolet! began a Indirect escapism from Oldsmobile with a 98 sedan in 1950. It tted easily
1956 advertisement which went on to describe with the marques performance image (March 1950).
the excitement that came from owning the years
205hp V-8. No longer was it necessary for the
longer was the motorist explicitly participating in American
consumer actually to travel anywhere to nd the desired stimtechnological expansion; his fantasies were largely divorced
ulation. Even ordinary driving could be adventurous with the
from any social or realistic context. The automobile itself,
Exciting Escape offered by Chrysler in 1959. The Chrysler
through what it evoked for its owner, provided the whole esWindsor hardtop was itself a lion-hearted call to the open
cape experience.
road with pushbutton TorqueFlite transmission, TorsionFords Thunderbird was the archetypal personal car,
Aire Ride, and Golden Lion engines.
which came into its own in the climate of the early 1960s. The
The promise of escape was resolutely tied to the charac1960 convertible may have offered action ... sweet, soft, spirteristics of the car, rather than to any transcending of geoited action an adventure in flowing, controlled motion,
graphical or social boundaries. This move towards self-conbut from 1961 the emphasis was more openly on luxury. Actainment of the escapist promise reached its logical conclusion
cording to the copywriters, it was so uniquely new that it
in the introverted, recuperative escapism that was advertised
stands alone in the ne-car eld. The very similar 1962 model
as the main appeal of personal cars in the early 1960s. No
was accompanied by what amounted to its own aura, within
86
The ordinary made extraordinary: the 1959 Chrysler was not an obvious choice for the committed escapist, and was targeted at
the 4050 age group (June 1959).
5. W OULDN T
E SCAPE M ACHINE ?
87
A contemplative, introverted escapism characterized Ford Thunderbird copy during 1962-63 (June 1962 and May 1963).
which the world outside had no place: Thunderbird Hour ...

is the shimmering part of any day, the moments when this
subtly sculptured motor car moves at your lightest hint ... gliding as silently as sea mist ... soaring to the imperative of Thunderbird power. In another piece, Thunderbird Spell was
the lasting enchantment that makes the green-gold of trees
seem brighter, the sun more ardent ... and adventure closer.
Even Nashs copy had been literalist by comparison.
In each advertisement, the Thunderbird was shown in
an isolated country setting, driven by a young(ish) couple,
with never any children or admiring passers-by in sight. The
message was consolidated with the 1963 model, which included renements that make Thunderbird yours, personally, as no other car can be. A hardtop version was the way to
get away from them all.... Suddenly youre in Thunderbird
Country, where velvet silence and silken smoothness reflect
years of engineering renement. It was something of a comedown to be reminded of engineering in any form amid the
velvet silence, but such interpolations did not disrupt the
pastiche romance of Thunderbird Hour for long.
Within the personal-car theme, individual Thunderbirds
were allowed a measure of separate identity. Copy for the

Sports Roadster (a regular convertible with wire wheels and a
rigid, body-colored tonneau covering the rear seats) subtly
anticipated muscle-car copy of later years: How to catch a
Thunderbird.... Find one thats standing still. In full flight this
is a most elusive species with a rare talent for disappearing
from the view of lesser cars.
But the buyer who wondered whether the Sports Roadster was really like other versions was reassured: Although it
may remind you of a sports car, particularly in the Sports
Roadster version shown here, it still ranks among the worlds
foremost luxury cars. There was also a Limited Edition Landau, the obligatory sophisticated model in the Thunderbird
range, which was shown at that archetypal upmarket venue,
the opera house at Monte Carlo in this case.
In 1964, a new body style arrived, and luxury was augmented by an emphasis on styling for its own sake, together
with a host of novelty features. Thunderbird for 1964 So
different, so beautifully different! gushed an announcement
advertisement. New styling sets the Thunderbird mood. Inside, it is maintained by advances that make even Thunderbird
88
veterans sigh.... New contoured shell front seats cradle you in

luxurious Thunderbird comfort. Instruments are positioned
and lighted for flight deck clarity. Illustrations, of a deep maroon hardtop in a newly-harvested eld at sunset, combined
with the copy to set an escapist mood, and 1965s slogan, The
Private World of Thunderbird reinforced the cars image.
As the personal-car market subdivided into sports and
luxury sectors in the mid1960s, the Thunderbirds position was more closely dened in advertisements. Copy for
1965s limited edition underlined the luxury theme, describing it as the Special Landau ... unique among the unique.
Advertising stressed the exclusivity of the car: Only a limited number will be built. The owners name will be engraved
on a personalized limited edition numbered name plate. Landaus body nish is of Special Ember-Glo, repeated on special
wheel covers and inside the flight deck in thick, cut-pile carpeting....
Four and a half thousand copies of this Special Landau
were eventually made, and for the 1967 model year a fourdoor Thunderbird Landau sedan, inspired by Lincoln Con-
tinental, distanced the car still further form the sporting ancestry highlighted in a 1963 advertisement which had compared that years model with its two-seat ancestors, declaring
that the concept had stood the test of time.
Others followed Fords lead. The Buick Riviera had the advantage of a prestigious marque name, and enjoyed a slightly
more sophisticated image. The underlying message in 1965,
however, was familiar: Drive a Riviera home tonight. Who
cares if people think youre younger, richer and more romantic than you really are? You were what you drove.
Mercurys Cougar of 1967 was another stylish two-door
coupe that sold as a personal car in its milder versions, bridging the gap between the Mustang and the Thunderbird. It
could also, like the Riviera Gran Sport, become a muscle car
when ordered in XR-7 form. The regular Cougar, which accounted for nearly 80 percent of the models sales in 1967, was
promoted on its looks as much as its power:
Attempting to be all personal cars to all people, the Cougar

combined Mustang and Thunderbird virtues as did Mercurys copy (October 1966).
Thunderbirds of the 1970s were more luxurious than sporting,

and features rather than euphoria dominated copy (March
1972).
Untamed elegance! Thats Cougar.... With a European flair to

its styling.... Above all, Cougar is a lithe, contemporary car,
with the kind of excitement that runs through the entire 67
5. W OULDN T
Mercury line.... We believe Cougar is the best equipped luxury sports car you can buy for the money.
The cars promoters had to balance precariously across several stools, but the car remained an individualist, of sorts. Unfortunately, it was more luxurious than sporting. According to
a British tester, [The Cougar] handled like a row of books
sliding off a shelf ... and generally acted very much like the
boulevarde [sic] cruiser that it is. The Mustang is a vastly better motorcar.5 But American and British sports-car enthusiasts rarely spoke the same language.
By 1972, the condence of earlier years was receding. The
Thunderbird of that year, now corpulent and visibly similar to
the related Lincoln Continental, was A magnicent new personal automobile.... Personal in its luxurious appointments
as well.... Its personal, too, in its options. For example, an
electronic anti-skid brake system and the split bench seat, the
vinyl roof, the whitewalls and the deluxe wheel covers pictured above.
Here, as in much advertising for full-size cars in the early
1970s, there was an aroma of desperation, as the language of
romantic ction combined with that of the service manual to
produce copy that was both tense and mundane. Yet the new
E SCAPE M ACHINE ?
89
model sold better than its predecessors of 196971, and in 1976

The Private World of Thunderbird remained for a very similar-looking car which was shown beside a lake as the sun went
down. It was still owned by the romantic couple who had
dened the cars image in near-identical surroundings in 1959.
No longer was there any explicit suggestion of power; the emphasis was on gadgets and features, and the headline, Could
it be the best luxury car buy in the world? dened the Thunderbirds priorities.
In the 1970s, personal-car values were increasingly taken
up by makers of two-door sedans with no particular history
of exclusivity. Chevrolet Monte Carlos and Cadillac Eldorado
hardtops blurred any distinction that might once have existed
between the personal car, the sports car, and the luxury coupe.
The 1970s were years in which old-style large cars of all varieties found themselves huddled together in one category, espousing similar automotive values. They were also years of a
certain homogeneity in large-car design as sportiness and individualism were increasingly left to compacts, sub-compacts,
and European imports which, in a decade of restrictions and
power-sapping emissions equipment, offered more fun and
excitement per cubic inch than a Ford Thunderbird.
Chapter 6
A Neurosis Unleashed
But Darling said the girl to her husband, theyre staring at our new 52 Dodge.
Start packing were moving out said the man to his wife. Moving, dear? she replied, Its four in the morning. Her husband
sat down wearily and explained. Everyone else in the neighborhood could afford a new Dodge. Im so ashamed. Grab the other end
of the davenport, dear.
marques in the 1930s. In late 1935, for instance, a doublespread in the Saturday Evening Post announced that there was
a New Whos Who among owners of the 1936 De Soto:
The rst declaration was the headline of a press advertisement; the second, part of a 1962 radio commercial. In both
cases, the message was the same: You would be admired and
envied if you drove the new car, and would be ridiculed and
considered a social failure if you did not. The point was sometimes put lightheartedly, but even if an individual advertisement were dismissed with a smile, it would still fuel that social neurosis whose maintenance was so essential to the
doctrine of dynamic obsolescence that supported the American automobile industry.
The whirling mlange of emotional impulses by which
advertisers hoped the motorists choice of car would be governed was carefully nurtured in a wide variety of copy styles,
tailored in each case to the prejudices and aspirations of the target market. The car buyer was encouraged to be aware of what
others would think of his car and, by extension, how they
would assess its owner. However excellent as mechanism,
however reliable, however attractive, an automobile had to be
socially acceptable; it needed to excite the admiration of those
whose esteem its owner prized most highly.
By 1930, mere ownership of an automobile per se conferred little social prestige; indeed, it was assumed that prosperous families would own two cars and replace them regularly. Increasing reliability and a growing consensus as to
what constituted an acceptable automotive aesthetic led advertisers to distinguish their products by referring to nuances of
styling particularly those by which a mass-produced body
resembled a custom-built equivalent.
The technique was popular with Chrysler Corporations
De Soto presents the smart car of 1936, a custom-styled car in

the low-price eld.... Why didnt someone think of this before?... Imagine ... a car as exquisitely nished, as brilliantly
appointed, as the most expensive cars built today....
In the copy that followed, the readers attention was

drawn to a beautifully rounded radiator with hood louvres
deftly fashioned in wing-like sections, the [m]ost beautiful
instrument panel in the world ... nished in golden beige, with
Circasian walnut grain moldings to complement the French
pleated and artistically tufted seat cushions and door panels and so on, for ve hundred words or so, with the obligatory miniature photographs. The Airflow De Soto, meanwhile, whose sales were trailing far behind those of the regular
Custom models, was relegated to a tiny photograph in the
bottom corner of the right-hand page. In its Chrysler incarnation, the Airflow was similarly underplayed in an equivalent
spread for the Corporations top-line marque which, less hysterically than De Soto, offered Custom car luxury at a practical price.
Snobbery was an important part of the copywriters
repertoire, and it took many forms. The consumer who wished
to appear glamorous needed only to buy a car that had been endorsed by a lm star; to be proven a person of sophisticated
taste (that is, a taste which suggested familiarity with affluence, rather than merely its recent achievement), he bought the
90
6. A N EUROSIS U NLEASHED
make of car preferred by those to whose status he aspired. To
be proven as a person of sound judgment, the buyer was encouraged to take the word of those who had owned several
examples of the marque in the past with the suggestion that
one was joining an established elite whose values were both immutable and recognized as superior by society as a whole.
In the aspirational copy which pervaded the middle market during the mid1930s, prosperous arrivistes were explicitly encouraged to incite the envy of their peers: By emulating
what they thought were upmarket tastes and aesthetic mores,
they would achieve the status that eluded those unable to buy
the new car. Nashs Eyes Right, Eyes Left All Turned on
Nash! in 1934 was typical of the look at me school of headline which gained currency during the insecure mid1930s.
In the same year, with the worst of the Depression receding,
a Buick was portrayed as the natural accoutrement to a modern, affluent lifestyle:
Men and women are living splendidly once more ... seeking
the tasteful and the beautiful in all things ... and, naturally,
this new era of gracious living suggests the ownership of a
gracious motor car.
91
In the realm of the genuinely upmarket car, a delicate

balance had to be achieved between a successful appeal to current owners of the marque in question, or of equivalent products, and an appeal to the aspirations of those who were contemplating the purchase of an upper-class car for the rst time.
It was also essential to demonstrate that the marques status was
not merely a matter of snobbery, but of the products proven
mechanical worth, and it needed to be remembered throughout that advertisements would be read by those who might
never buy the car in question, but whose admiration ensured
that the car remained a socially worthwhile purchase for those
who did buy it.
Then there was the matter of a marques tong-term reputation: The reader who could not afford the product in 1935
might remember the impression made on him by successive
advertisements, and consider buying it in 1940. Present owners, meanwhile, needed to be assured by the advertisements
published after their ownership had begun that their choice
of car had been a wise one, and that just as they had previously looked up to past owners, non-owners currently admired or envied them. Thus, in the automotive sphere,
Watch out, theres a social climber about. Snobbish copy from Nash and Buick in 1934 (both ads: March 1934).
92
as elsewhere, status-conscious advertising had a wider purpose than merely to persuade the car buyer to choose a particular product in the short term. An advertisement was therefore not only a private entreaty (...the car you have always
desired...), but a public statement which invited permanent
allegiance to a set of values which the car and the marque exemplied.
With emphasis that varied from marque to marque, and
more generally from decade to decade, upmarket advertisers
fullled this wide and subtle brief by employing ve main
themes within the genre.
First, the product was presented as intrinsically excellent, so that its possession could satisfy the modern dream of
a superlative automobile, identied as such by its appearance
and competence as mechanism. Secondly, by buying the product, the readers personal dream of being envied would be realized (or, if he had bought previous examples, maintained).
Thirdly, aspirants who were moving upmarket were assured
that they could afford the automobile in question although
expensive, it was of such very high quality that it provided excellent value for money by rational, long-term criteria.
Fourthly, the aspirant was invited to consider the marques
established clientle. Packards long-standing slogan, Ask the
Man Who Owns One, fortied this appeal with an implied
testimonial: The man who owned one would be a man of
sound judgment, and he would be able to describe the particular, functional merits of the product in question. Whether
or not the reader actually bounded out of his armchair and
accosted a succession of Packard owners was, of course, beside
the point; he needed only to be persuaded that they existed. In
Cadillac copy the point was often made with a social emphasis. As one 1957 advertisement put it, the people who bought
Cadillacs would be probably the kind of people you would
enjoy knowing.
Finally, the reader was invited to enjoy the fruits of his
good judgment; the merits of the product were described, and
it was assumed that the intelligent reader would appreciate
them. Possession of the select automobile on offer merely
conrmed its owners subscription to rational values, and allowed him to distinguish his judgment from the impulses of
those who were easily swayed by tawdry ephemera. His was a
higher instinct, reflected in the choice of a better product.
Of course, the supposedly rational buyer of an upmarket
car was lured into consideration of the product by the same
means that engaged his lowlier compatriot. There was, in fact,
little qualitative difference between the motivation of the man
who wished to show off by buying an expensive car and that of
his fellowAmerican who felt the need to declare to the world
that he was beyond such things; the will to declare was common to both. But if the upmarket buyer could be persuaded
that his choice was rational, he might also be persuaded to buy
the product. And if, on closer acquaintance, the automobile in
question proved to be of intrinsically good quality, its virtues
would soon become obvious, and would ensure its owners

continued loyalty. Snob-appeal might persuade the buyer to
choose one car; alone, it could not ensure a repeat purchase.
In many advertisements, particularly those in which aspirational copy was aimed at buyers who sought the prestige
of an upmarket marque through purchase of its lowest-priced
model, the appeal was by implication made negatively. Unless
the reader bought the product on offer, his dreams would not
be realized; he would be unable to conform to the habits of
the group his ambition impelled him to join; he would not be
envied and would be scorned; he would appear unable to afford anything as good as the advertised product; he would ally
himself with the sort of people whose values he did not wish
to emulate; he would appear to lack sound judgment, and so
on. And, as advertisers illustrations of happy couples quietly
hinted, even if he did not mind these things, his wife would.
Advertisements for upmarket automobiles therefore displayed a number of discrete yet mutually supportive elements,
and the ways in which those elements were articulated and
adjusted to the demands of the particular product dened a
marques public image. The best advertisements conveyed an
overall sense of the product which coincided with the readers
latent sense of what was desirable. For copy to be potent and
effective, it was not necessary for the copywriters calculations
to be tangible. On the other hand, there was little to be gained
from being over-subtle, and, with the benet of hindsight, the
modern reader sees the copywriter goading his readers and,
perhaps, mocking them as he does so.
Within these constraints, individual manufacturers developed distinctive and recognizable advertising styles a
trend revealed by comparing advertisements from the dominant upmarket marques of Packard, Lincoln, and Cadillac.
All reveal a gradual move away from functionalism with a social undercurrent towards a more overt display of status. The
product did not merely confer status because of its intrinsic excellence; rather, the value of that excellence lay in its social
potency. The seeds of this development were sown at the beginning of American automobile advertising, but the transition was most marked during the late 1920s and early 1930s.
It was a development intimately bound up with the establishment of the annual model year from around 1923, and the entrenchment of dynamic obsolescence within the ranks of upmarket manufacturers as well as the mainstream producers.
Packards copy of the mid1920s was measured and rational, stressing the quality of the product as mechanism, from
which social status could be extrapolated. It was implied that
the man who owned one bought it because it was good, and
not merely because it displayed his wealth. A December, 1925
advertisement, showing a $4,750 Packard Eight Sedan, was
typical:
The new series Packard Eight brings a new zest for motoring
to those who long ago ceased to drive for pleasure. Smooth,
quiet, truly beautiful in performance, it is pleasing to sense
your mastery of its eighty horse-power.... Behind the wheel of
a Packard Eight you may learn the true meaning of luxury,
comfort and distinction in travel.
In December 1926, the emphasis was placed more heavily on the Packard as a possession. It reflected not only its
owners appreciation of quality, but his sense of taste and aesthetic balance. In its implication that one taste was more
rened and of a higher quality than another, the copy was
overtly snobbish:
Pride of possession.... There are those who understand the
subtle pleasure, the inner satisfaction, gained from ownership
of things which the whole world approves and acknowledges
to be ne and genuine. A gown by Poiret; an etching by
Whistler; an authentic Chippendale; a blooded hunter ... such
possessions mean far more to those of taste and discrimination than the sums they cost. Is it strange that such people
turn instinctively to Packard for their motor cars that they
count their Packards among their most prized possessions?
93
Packard, for a generation, has built its cars for such a clientle.
Inherent in this advertisement was the assumption of

quality rather than the demonstration of it; the reader was
asked to take the judgment of the kind of man who owned
one on trust, and to trust also in Packards consistent reputation. Nowhere were the characteristics and features of the car,
as mechanism, mentioned. The realistic background of 1925
had vanished, and was replaced by a portrait of a fashionable
woman in an obviously grand house admiring her other possessions. The car, set against a predictably classical backdrop, was juxtaposed with the painting.
This advertisement also revealed a set of tensions which
would haunt upmarket advertising for many years. How could
a car whose appearance changed every few years reflect the
aesthetic integrity which was supposedly the hallmark of
the rare objects with which the copywriter liked the reader to
compare it? Could the principle of dynamic obsolescence be
Claims of intrinsic excellence gave way to social pretension in much Packard copy for 1926-27. In this context, good taste was
a stick with which to beat social inferiors rather than an absolute standard of aesthetic integrity (December 1925 and December
1926).
94
reconciled to the belief that the highest aesthetic standards

were exalted precisely because experience had shown them to
be immutable? Compared with the things which the whole
world approves and acknowledges to be ne and genuine,
would not the car any car inevitably appear of transient
worth? And if successive models were claimed to be characterized by obedience to the highest aesthetic principles (which
no copywriter could ever dene), how could so many different cars demonstrate individual, let alone collective, allegiance
to those principles?
The answer, inevitably, was that no such adherence could
be demonstrated; it was merely stated to be obvious, and when
American automobiles carried spurious decoration which
changed from year to year, the assertion would seem idiotic.
It was no surprise to discover that advertisers, unable to reconcile conflicting mores, gradually ceased, by and large, to describe why a car reflected the discrimination of its owner and
instead appealed directly to his emotional desire to be admired
and envied.
To this extent, Packards advertising began to underplay
or ignore the substantial basis of the marques reputation, and
merely traded on the fact of public renown. While the car itself remained excellent, it was a safe strategy; in later years, the
marques reputation, temporarily bolstered by public awareness of the functional excellence of earlier products, would
deteriorate rapidly. A ne reputation, and concomitant social
standing, could only give its maker, at best, a few years grace
if the product itself were inadequate.
In the mid1930s, Packard moved downmarket to the
upper-middle sector with the 120 and Six. A Packard was at last
within the reach of the aspirant middle classes whose social
antennae were traditionally the most sensitive, and a 1938 advertisement appealed overtly to the potential buyers awareness
of the fragility of his new-found status. A young couple recalled the ambitions they had held when they were rst married. The wife of James, proud owner of a new Packard,
spoke for them both, and recalled what she had said to him before they decided to buy the car: Were tired of leading a second-best life .... whatever happened to all our dreams, and
hopes, and ambitions?... Where are all the ne things we were
going to have? Can it be true that weve become content with
second-best?... Looking at our car, we were reminded of what
we had said when we were married: And some day, well own
a Packard. This was a good, serviceable take you there and
bring you back car. But it was no Packard.
The following day, the couple marched down ... to see the
new Packard Six. Assured that it was a real Packard, they
bought it. A small illustration showed the couple with their new
car, their social life rejuvenated. We like to be seen in it said
Jamess wife, and because driving is a thrill again, were out
more enlarging our world and our horizons, having fun again.
Yes, we have our Packard ... our dream has come true.
James, meanwhile, remained mute throughout the story,
as well he might; substitute I for we throughout his wifes

account, incorporate the expectations that pre-war society
placed on a man to provide for his family, and the lethal character of the copywriters message becomes apparent. It was a
superb piece of copy by Young & Rubicam, and the campaign
received an honorable mention in the years Annual Advertising Awards for a series of advertisements most distinguished
by excellence of copy.6
A similar theme was pursued, albeit less elaborately, in a
1941 advertisement for the $4,685 Packard Custom Super 8
One-Eighty Convertible Victoria. It was naturally, a Packard
... so smart, so sophisticated, so patrician.... Owners tell us
that whenever this distinguished Custom Packard parks or
pauses, trafc is well nigh disrupted by admirers. The copy
went on to describe the cars features, among them Electromatic Drive, electric windows and at extra cost ... a sensational Packard rstreal, refrigerated Air Conditioning!
This was a genuine, pioneering advance. Yet it was noticeable
that, whereas 1925s sedan had been described as superlative
because its mechanism was superior to that of other cars, the
1941 Convertible Victoria was sold for its features. Moreover,
no attempt was made to compare the car with the nest fruits
of the decorative arts; the car was distinctive, gadget-laden,
and excited admiration and that was enough.
By 1958, Packards earlier cachet had been diluted beyond
recognition, but even in this, the marques nal season, copywriters attempted to recapture a lost distinction. Wherever
You Go, People Know Packard began a stylish monochrome
advertisement for the latest batch of modied Studebakers. It
was no longer wise to ask the man who owned one, as such
people were increasingly rare, and not always complimentary
about the latest cars. The rest of the copy was ominously ambiguous: Go where you will in a 1958 Packard and you will
note the car is always a standout. The same could have been
said of an Edsel. Overstatement set in: In any setting, elegance is immediately apparent in every line of the Packards
carefully crafted exterior. Apart from a unique, and bizarre,
frontal aspect, which looked much better in the advertising
illustration than on the car itself, any remaining elegance was
inherited from the parent Studebaker. The copywriter worked
hard:
[T]he most striking feature of the new Packard styling is its
originality. A long, forward sloping hood sweeps down to a
simple, tastefully proportioned grille that is unmistakably
identiable on the highway.
The claim was true (as was Edsels equivalent: ... you can recognize the classic Edsel lines much faster, much farther away,
than you can any other car in America!), but the copywriters
parting shot, Flatter yourself...with this distinction was not
enough to ensure Packards survival into 1959.
Lincoln developed a distinctive copy style during the late
1920s and 1930s which emphasized the cars intrinsic quality,
95
Wherever you go, park it out of sight. Eccentric styling did little for Packards diminishing prestige in the marques last year (1958
campaign).
96
the good taste that ownership of a Lincoln indicated in its

owner and, more insistently than Packard, the extent to which
possession of a Lincoln indicated adherence to the best of the
past combined with a ready appreciation of what was modern.
A 1926 advertisement indicated the direction that Lincoln copy would take:
Faultless precision gives that matchless reliability which
makes the Lincoln car master of every travel demand with
incomparable smoothness and high speed, indenitely sustained.
Compared with copy for lowlier cars, Lincolns style was measured, flowing, almost languid; the essence of the cars functional appeal was described in long sentences, rather than in
the short phrases and pointed injunctions which were considered necessary to capture the readers attention in downmarket copy. Styling was referred to, in a subtle reminder of
its social role, as appearance:
Lincoln appearance is conservative yet commanding every
detail of appointment conforming to the edicts of good taste.
Best of all the Lincoln you drive today is the car of your
pride next year and far into the future.
Good taste, though not dened, was implied to be immune

from depredation by time; a Lincoln would not, the reader
inferred, become outmoded quickly. The point was made
forcefully in January, 1927, in copy that perhaps revealed too
much nervousness about developments in the new car market
driven by General Motors:
There are no yearly or periodic Lincoln models; the Lincoln
has reached such a state of development that drastic changes
are neither necessary nor desirable. Whenever it is possible to
achieve an improvement in the Lincoln it is made interchangeable with previous design. Thus the Lincoln owner is
permanently protected against the articial depreciation that
invariably results from an announcement of new models.
Written at any time after 1928, such copy would have seemed
desperate, naive, or breathtakingly cynical, and this advertisement was more specically of its period than most. By 1930
the car itself was old-fashioned and it was replaced in 1931.
Above and opposite: From the classical via the minimalist to the starkly modern, Lincolns backdrops changed radically over a
quarter-century, but the consumers desire to impress his fellow Americans did not (December 1926, March 1934, July 1947, and
1952 campaign).
In the same year, in the middle of Depression, Lincoln attempted to achieve a sense of stability, of progress undeflected.
As in earlier copy, the quality of the present product grew out
of the application to it of timeless standards of excellence:
There is something in the clear bright beauty of a ne mechanism that is peculiarly symbolic of our age. For today we live
in pursuit of an ideal, in search of perfection of function and
line and form. To this ideal, the Lincoln Motor Company is
dedicated.
Unlike Packard, Lincoln did not believe that perfection

had yet been found which, a few years after its protest of
1927, gave endless scope for tinkering, year by year. It was the
ideal which was implied to be constant, and adherence to it indicated confluence with the best of human aspirations. Build
quality was also emphasized:
The new Lincoln is long, wide and low for added safety and
comfort. It is built slowly, painstakingly ... and it will serve
you as any ne thing will serve you with lasting satisfaction
year after year born of the moment, built for the years.
Not only was the car of good quality; if one believed the copywriter, it represented an oasis of consistency amid the economic turbulence of the period.
97
Much Lincoln copy of the early 1930s was modest and

functional; if it was written in a style intended to appeal to affluent buyers, and therefore impliedly excluded the car from
universal consideration, it was not viciously snobbish. The
product, after all, was merely targeted towards the appropriate sector of the new car market. A sense of measured rationality was achieved not only in copy, but also in illustration
and layout. In 1934, a Lincoln Two-Window Town Sedan was
shown in the obligatory ancient-classical setting, but that setting was uncluttered. It was combined with a simple headline
(The Lincoln), and clear copy in an unadorned typeface,
lending a sense of space, elegance, and harmony to the advertisement as a whole. In 1935, the emphasis subtly changed:
The Lincoln appeals rst to the sophisticated motorist. Those
who know most about motor-cars, who need not compromise about price, are its loyal adherents.... modern beauty has
been achieved without the sacrice of the dignity traditional
with Lincoln.
The implied assumption of continuity with the elegant

trappings of an earlier era was made explicit in 1938:
This brilliant vehicle, the Lincoln, meets every demand of
town driving as graciously as did superb custom carriages of
98

another era. On famous avenue and suburban lane, it proceeds with poise and aristocratic assurance. Its bearing bespeaks an owner who will have the best....
Above the copy was shown The Two-Window Berline by

Judkins at the Rittenhouse Square Flower Mart. In another
1938 advertisement, depicting The Brougham by Brunn, the
copywriter declared: Ownership of a Lincoln is one of lifes
pleasant and rewarding experiences. Wherever the car may be
driven, it announces quietly: My people recognize the best.
The quietly was simply a copywriters ruse, of course: That
the car announced its owners supposed status was the
signicant point, as a chauffeur-driven Brougham was far
from unobtrusive. The marques exclusivity was underlined by
the list of models available: Twenty-one body types include
custom models by Brunn, Judkins, Le Baron, Willoughby. Lincoln Motor Company, builders of Lincoln and LincolnZephyr. The Zephyr, though mentioned in regular Lincoln
copy, was usually advertised separately and in copy of a very
different style.
Yet for all the assurances of prestige inherent in Lincoln
copy, the large Model K V-12 was all but discontinued in 1939.
A Ford Motor Company corporate advertisement appeared in
industry and dealer publications in October, 1939, with the
headline: The Lincoln V-12 the Lincoln-Zephyr V-12
New Size New Power New Beauty. A 1940 LincolnZephyr was shown beside what was implied to be a 1940 Model
K, but this traditional model petered out during the model
year once remaining 1939 chassis had been used up. The main
body of the copy in Octobers advertisement was devoted to
the Zephyr. The large Lincoln had become altogether too exclusive to remain viable, and several of the coachbuilders who
had clothed it closed down during 193940.
When the large Lincoln disappeared in 193940, the
dignied prose which had been the hallmark of Lincoln advertising largely disappeared with it, but snobbery, as an advertising theme, was by no means abandoned. The Lincoln
Continental, though based on the Zephyr, was considered to
be a prestige model in its own right, and for the 1947 model
year a minimalist approach was adopted in Continental advertising, which showed the car in simple side views. Coupe and
convertible versions were depicted in a distinctive series of
advertisements, each captioned Nothing could be ner,
which, even allowing for the cars pre-war Zephyr ancestry,
was largely true.
But the Continental was discontinued in 1948 to make
way for the 1949 Lincoln Cosmopolitan, which was an upmarket extension of the new, regular model range rather than
a direct successor to the Continental. The Cosmopolitan
lacked the earlier cars distinction and was advertised both
separately and alongside the regular Lincoln line. 1947s restraint would return for Continental as a separate marque in
1956, when a black Mark II was shown in side, front, and rear
views against a plain white background with the headline,
Now, in America, a refreshing new concept in ne motor

cars. Brief copy appealed to those who admire the beauty
of honest, simple lines and who most appreciate a car which
has been conscientiously crafted.
In 1952, new Lincolns were promoted in a memorable
campaign which renounced traditionalism, and portrayed the
new car as a natural accoutrement to a fashionable, affluent,
and above all modern lifestyle:
In Lincoln, modern living reaches new heights.... Like the
modern apartment, Lincoln makes practical use of every inch
of space, achieving an air of openness and freedom.... The
modern living approach has come to town in the distinctive,
modern Lincoln.... [W]hether you are living in town or country or both [sic] see the new Lincoln Cosmopolitan and
Capri at your dealers showroom.
Another 1952 advertisement drew an analogy with the livable comfort of a new-day playroom. As with the playroom,
so with the car:
Fabrics and ttings are breathtakingly beautiful but eminently sturdy. Seats cradle you in a relaxing combination of
springs and foam rubber. Great windows provide superb
views. Lincoln matches modern living in every way.
Both cars respectively a Capri hardtop and a Cosmopolitan

sedan were shown in a distinctive deep maroon, with contrasting roofs in cream for the hardtop and in black for the
sedan. In a third advertisement, a Cosmopolitan hardtop in
sober blue and black was compared with a modern ofce, and
shown with a picture of the glass-walled Lever House, New
Yorks newest sky-scraper:
Executive-ofce luxury.... The ofce with the roll-top desk is
as dated as a cupids statue on the lawn. For modern living
reaches out everywhere ... from the casual magnicence of the
glass-walled home ... to the spacious simplicity of the glasswalled ofce. And now, there is the distinctive new Lincoln to
t in with the modern American scene.
That scene showed the businessman soberly at work rather

than at home, and Lincolns early invocation of the workplace
as the seat of aspiration would be followed by Buick in 1963.
Home-based domestic and social scenes would soon be
conned more closely to inexpensive family car and stationwagon advertising.
Although these advertisements employed themes that
echoed Lincolns 1935s campaign, the car that lets you take
modern living with you could not, by 1952, be promoted with
the condence that characterized Cadillac copy. Among traditional luxury car buyers, Cadillac was the preferred choice. It
was no accident that, in 1952, Lincoln targeted the more progressive sector of the luxury car market, for whom the marques modern styling (which lacked Cadillacs ostentation and
dignity but which nevertheless made the Cadillac appear
dated) was a point in its favor.
By the mid1960s, Lincolns copy had become overtly
99
elitist, and also more brutal in its message. Each piece in a

1967 series chose an upmarket leisure activity which typied
a desirable lifestyle, and aimed to show that only with a Continental could such a lifestyle be lived to the full. The copywriters were helped by the cars styling which, though little
changed since 1961, was clean and tasteful. What does the
Continental life say about you? asked an advertisement for the
Continental hardtop. It says that you enjoy todays good life
and live it with zest. In another piece, the sedan version of
Americas most distinguished motorcar was shown at a riding stables. The invitation to come live the Continental life
was selectively, if clumsily, targeted:
The Continental life may include riding lessons for your
daughter. Certainly it includes the luxury motorcar driven by
the kind of person whose discernment matches his means.
Among upmarket automobile makers, Cadillacs advertising was probably the most consistently and brazenly snobbish, and copywriters concentrated on appealing to a desire
for social acceptability and public recognition. It was not
enough simply to have arrived; one needed to be seen to have
achieved status and influence. Within this elitist context, the
automobile was as much a badge of ofce as mere transportation.
A 1933 advertisement, devised by Campbell-Ewald Co.,
set the pattern for later decades:
Just as certain types of habiliment are made practically obligatory by the occasion, so does the event of unquestioned
renement dictate a motor car of unquestioned renement....
For years, it has been Cadillacs privilege to build for the select
occasions of American society a motor car eminently betting
the need.
Ownership of the car was declared to be eloquent of its

owners position in life, its value resting less in pure mechanism than in the general impression of elegance imparted to
onlookers. The advertisement was aimed at those who, in their
own estimation at least, had already arrived and knew it,
rather than at social aspirants who wished to disguise inauspicious origins. It was brave copy for the middle of a depression, and was aimed at a very small minority that had been
conspicuously depleted since 1929.
In the postwar years, Cadillac underlined its supremacy
by citing common knowledge: that Cadillac was the leader in
its price class. In 1952, the Golden Anniversary Cadillac was
described as a New Goal for Twenty Million Motorists! An
assurance of objectivity followed: Research as to motor car
preference indicates that some twenty million motorists would
like to own a Cadillac, if they felt it within their economic
means. Aspiring owners were offered a new hearts desire
which they could see at any Cadillac showroom.
A similar message was couched in different terms in another 1952 advertisement for the Coupe de Ville:
Overt elitism from Lincoln in one of a series of 1967 advertisements that described aspects of the Continental life (January
1967).
Its a Whos Who of the highway.... If you could see a list of
all the distinguished persons who own and drive the Cadillac
car you would know, beyond any question, that the statement ... is true. For the roster of Cadillac owners comprises a
virtual listing of the best known and most respected names of
our day....
It was surely pure coincidence that the Nash Ambassador

was also a new Whos Who of the highway in a headline of
the same year. In 1955, Cadillac identied with social aspirants,
already in early middle age but young in Cadillacs terms, who
would join the elite: Maybe This Will Be The Year....
Packards earlier theme was echoed in the illustration, which
showed a handsome couple who had just made a very wise
decision ... to get the facts about Cadillac to see if, perhaps,
the time has come for them to make the move to the car of
cars. Not surprisingly, the makers believed that 1955 was
the perfect year to discover the joys of Cadillac ownership!
The message appeared to have been heeded, as a 1956 advertisement crowed that During the current year, Cadillac has
welcomed a greater number of new owners to its motoring
100
Above and opposite: A single glance reveals a consistency of style and outlook in Cadillac advertising of the 1950s. The social
implications of Cadillac ownership were relentlessly stressed. In The Status Seekers (1959), Vance Packard recalled that one country club committeeman seeking to recruit a new member boasted that [his club] had eight members who owned Cadillacs, while
the rival club only had two members with Cadillacs, the newest three years old (June 1952, May 1956, and June 1957).
family than ever before in its history. Both 1955 and 1956
were record-breaking years for the Division, and, 1955 being a
boom year for car sales generally, any successful marque could
be expected to have reaped its fair share of rst-time buyers.
Cadillacs condence was reflected in another 1956 advertisement which built upon 1952s theme: ... for through the
years, Cadillac has been the consistent and overwhelming
choice of those who choose without restriction. In 1957, the
social climber was again openly targeted in an appeal to his idealized self-image:
A Single Glance Tells the Story ... when it reveals a gentleman
and his lady in the company of a new Cadillac car. It tells you,
for instance, that they are probably the kind of people you
would enjoy knowing ... people of character and substance.
In this context, of course, character meant inherited

wealth and substance its continued accumulation. According
to a 1958 advertisement, Cadillacs association with the
worlds leading citizens indicated its owners standing in his

world of affairs. The his here was clever, as the real, public, world of affairs was much too small to accommodate nearly
120,000 1958 Cadillac owners. But by paying approximately
$5,000 for a Cadillac, one could acquire social distinction the
easy way. Was it a price worth paying for the fleeting, impersonal admiration of other motorists as one sped along the
highway? And how secure was the target readers standing,
that he needed to be reassured of its value by buying a Cadillac or any car?
In 1959, Cadillacs logic was carried a step further:
The 1959 Cadillac car speaks so eloquently in so many
ways of the man who sits at its wheel. Simply because it is a
Cadillac ... it indicates his high level of personal achievement.
Because it is so beautiful and so majestic, it bespeaks his ne
sense of taste .... Why not visit your dealer tomorrow and
arrange to let a new Cadillac tell its wonderful story about
you?
In the early 1960s, Cadillac combined elaborate illustrations with minimal if grandiose copy. Perhaps the most
memorable line appeared in 1961: A new Cadillac car is one
of the few material possessions for which there is no completely acceptable substitute. In 1962, more directly comparative copy took over in captions such as Cadillac craftsmen
build only Cadillacs a circumstance that is unique among
Americas ne cars; You can buy a new Cadillac for less than
the cost of eleven models of less eminent makes of cars; and
There are thirteen Cadillac body styles for 1962 ... more than
twice the selection available with any other car in Cadillacs
price range.
From 1963, greater emphasis was placed on the tangible
qualities of the car and, between 1963 and 1966, buyers who
could not afford a new Cadillac were encouraged into the fold
by a series of advertisements which stressed the prestige that
accrued even from ownership of a used model. Once the car
buyer had got used to the social benets of Cadillac ownership, he would be unwilling to give them up, and might be
persuaded more rapidly than otherwise to buy a new model.
Such advertising relied not only on wishful thinking, but
also on the genuine esteem in which the marque was then
held. It was up to the copywriter to nurture that perception by
101
balancing descriptions of the car itself with overt snobbery

and, in some cases, portentous prose. This return to a duplex
simplicity reflected earlier approaches which had been largely
absent from Cadillac copy since the early 1930s.
The quest for public admiration and an upmarket ambience was not conned to upmarket cars. In the 1950s, Plymouth showed a Belvedere Convertible Club Coupe in one
advertisement, remarking, amid the assurances of quality and
advanced engineering, that Its only human to get a glow when
others view your car with admiring eyes. In 1956, Chevrolets headline, More people named Jones own Chevrolets than
any other car humorously echoed Cadillacs headlines of 1952.
In 1957, Chevrolet promised that Youll feel a very special kind of pride the day you park a new Chevrolet in your
driveway.... And when the neighbors drop by to look er over,
youll be prouder than ever. But this was a sociable oneupmanship, as both the owner and his neighbors would appreciate the cars ne construction and nishing touches everywhere. In this respect, Chevrolets copy echoed the functionally based upmarket copy of the 1920s, but the tenor of the
advertisement was inclusive, highlighting features of general
interest. Despite appearances, the main purpose of this advertisement was to demonstrate the cars value for money in practical, rather than social, terms.
In the early 1960s, Buick modied established patterns
in upmarket automobile advertising. Rather than seek to superimpose an upmarket car on the buyers lifestyle in order
to transform him into a sophisticate overnight, Buick urged
the reader to buy a car that conformed to his own, pre-existing high standards, whether or not those standards had yet
been acknowledged by the world. Inherently distinguished,
he would one day be discovered.
Buicks affluence was dynamic and actively ascendant:
The social ascent was not claimed to culminate in Buick ownership, but was attempted in partnership with the car. This
attitude was consistent with Buicks status as a lowlier marque
than Cadillac, and it was also appropriate for advertising
aimed at the professional classes who were Buicks principal
customers, and who were generally ten years or so younger
than Cadillacs clientle. Success, for Buick, did not consist
simply in looking elegant at a fashionable party; instead, Buick
glamorized business. Glamorizing the means of social ascent
as well as its prize, this copy marked a distinct change in the
tempo of aspirational advertising.
A series of similar advertisements illustrated the theme in
1963: Todays look of success is a look of actionin men and
in motor cars. The 1963 Buick Electra 225 is built for men who
put performance above position.... There were variations on
this quasi-meritocratic theme: Todays man of action instinctively sets standards for others to follow. For this man there is
a new (and most necessary) luxury: 1963 Buick Electra 225....
Above all, the modern perfectionist was energetic and forward-looking: Todays man of action puts performance
102
A relaxed, sociable one-upmanship was the keynote of these advertisements from Plymouth and Chevrolet (1953 and 1956 campaigns).
before prestige ... is impatient with yesterdays standard of excellence.... Which, given Cadillacs Standard of the World
slogan, suggested a certain amount of inter-divisional rivalry.
Each advertisement in the series showed a man of action in dynamic pose, striding along a corridor, or working
out a deal with a colleague. For Buick, class was no longer
something one did or did not have; it had to be achieved, the
means of achievement being made visible, and consisting in
more than being born into a rich family, or the acquisition,
by exertion or benign fate, of a large amount of cash.
There remained an underlying tension in much elitist
copy between individualism and the need for a recognized
symbol of status. If the car buyer bought an instantly recognized, mass-produced status symbol, it was ipso facto impossible for him to be a genuine automotive individualist, with
the prestige that such individualism entailed. Yet if he bought
what was claimed to be a truly exclusive car, while remaining
within the American ne car tradition, it might not easily be
recognized on the road as the prestigious indicator of discrimination that it set out to be.
The supposedly exclusive Cadillac was a common car,

built in hundreds of thousands, and the difculty was not permanently overcome by the introduction of successive Eldorados, culminating in the distinctive, personal-luxury, frontwheel-drive Eldorado of 1967. In a climate that increasingly
associated success with individualism and originality, and taste
with exclusivity, it was not surprising that confused and
confusing copy frequently appeared in advertisements.
The confusion was particularly apparent in a 1967 advertisement for, of all cars, the low-priced Plymouth Valiant:
More Valiants are bought internationally than any other
American car. So buy one. That way you can be different
without taking chances.... Owning a distinctive 67 Plymouth
Valiant is a rare and exciting experience. True, there are more
Valiant owners around to conrm the wisdom of your choice
of imported American car. But theyre still a distinguished
few. You may not see one of them in days. And when you do,
the chances are that his Valiant will be little like yours.
In this frenzied attempt by Plymouth to have every cake and

eat the lot simultaneously, logic and persuasiveness were
103
Get em while theyre young(ish), and with luck they will stay loyal for years. Owners of 1961 and 1963 models exchange compliments (April 1963).
104
Buick glamorized ofce work as the means of social ascent in

1963 (December 1962).
thrown to the wind. The resulting copy was meaningless, and

did not convey condence in what proved to be a reliable
product.
It was at this point, after all, that the automobile advertisers myth broke down, and it was perhaps inevitable that the
real individualists, sensing the contradiction, increasingly
chose to buy foreign cars a trend acknowledged by Plymouths would-be-humorous description of the Valiant as an
imported American car. By buying an imported car, the
wealthy consumer avoided the difculty. Any expensive foreign car was prestigious and instantly recognizable as such,
yet there were so many different types available that individuality was assured.
Ironically, it was BMW who resolved the dichotomy in
1978 by altering the agenda:
The decision to buy a large BMW shows a preference for
technical perfection above all without ostentation and
the identication with a concept that is clearly modeled on
the more vital forces in society. This outlook has nothing to
The confusion apparent in this 1967 advertisement for the compact Valiant reflected a wider dilemma, as buyers of economy
and prestige cars turned to imports for individuality and social
kudos (February 1967).
do with age, profession or position it can be found wherever people see their car as a perfect piece of workmanship
rather than [sic] as a symbol of their wealth and status.
Thus the consensus among upmarket American automobile advertisers about the social function of a prestigious
car a consensus that had existed since the early 1930s was
undermined. American car manufacturers themselves were
undermined by the importers when the car that could be promoted as showing that its owner was socially beyond the fray
ceased to be American. The condence of earlier Cadillac copy,
in particular, appeared unlikely to return. It was by a renewed
emphasis on engineering and on the efciency of their products as functional mechanisms that the copywriters eventually found a way forward. The wheel had turned full circle,
but with an important change: Never again would an American automobile be enough to satisfy every consumers automotive dream.
Chapter 7
Plymouth The Car That

Likes to be Compared
an international repute for economy of operation and upkeep.
Late in 1931, Plymouth placed its introductory 1932 campaign with a rapidly rising agent, J. Stirling Getchell, who,
with Jack Tarleton, an art director formerly with J. Walter
Thompson, had recently secured the De Soto account. Tarleton eventually devised a headline which would become famous: Look at All Three! Chrysler executives were skeptical at rst. It was understandable that one should ask, Why
the hell do I want to sell Fords and Chevies? Walter Chrysler
decided that the advertisement should be run regardless of the
risk; the rival manufacturers would not be named, but their
identities would be obvious.
The rst advertisement of the new campaign was published in April, 1932, and Plymouths sales rose by 218 percent
in the following three months compared with the AprilJune
quarter of 1931. Getchell was then given the entire Plymouth
account, and Plymouths share of the low-priced car market
rose from 16 percent in 1932 to 24 percent in 1933.7
Not all of Plymouths advertisements were directly comparative. Some carried personal messages from Walter
Chrysler, such as a 1934 piece in which Chrysler wrote:
Plymouths advertising, from the marques creation in

1928 until well into the 1950s, was predominantly factual and
copy-heavy. Illustrations, whether paintings, photographs,
or line drawings, were realistic. The rst Plymouths were based
upon the cheaper models in the Chrysler line, and Plymouth
advertisements represented the antithesis of Chryslers earlier, flamboyant style.
The marque therefore acquired a distinct, and distinctive, identity which served it well during the Depression and
until the outbreak of war in 1941. Plymouth made rapid and
permanent inroads into territory which had formerly belonged
to Ford and Chevrolet alone, combining the functionalism of
Fords Model T with the mechanical renement and vigorous
promotion of novelties which had ensured Chevrolets success at Fords expense in the mid1920s.
Plymouths was a philosophy to which comparative
copya form of advertising which had declined since the end
of World War I was peculiarly well suited. An informal ban
on knocking copy within the advertising industry, which
extended to implicit comparisons that denigrated the competition, ensured that early Plymouth advertisements did not
name the marques rivals, preferring instead to let the reader
make up his own mind.
See the Plymouth. Compare it, try to equal it for the
price and inevitably you will rank it rst and foremost in
every element that determines true motor-car value invited
one 1929 advertisement. The car was claimed to incorporate
the features found in higher-priced Chryslers in an implied
challenge to Plymouths immediate rivals. This was combined
with a favorable comparison with more expensive cars: In
quality, Plymouth now advances to even higher levels, while
it retains the sound Chrysler principles which have given it
Why I believe Plymouth is the Best Engineered Car in the

Low-price Field.... Our business has been very good. At this
time, I believe people will be interested in knowing why. To
put it as simply as I know how our engineers have built into
Plymouth the things people want!
Chrysler went on to describe the new cars features, some new,

some long-established in cars of the marque, and concluded:
I credit our present position in the industry to these engineering achievements. I sincerely believe Plymouth is the best
105
106
Above and opposite: Three typical advertisements from J. Stirling Getchells famous campaign which combined realism with
human interest. The comparative theme was incorporated into two principal forms: personal assurances from Chrysler Corporation personnel, including Walter Chrysler himself; and the contented-ordinary-user testimonial. In each case, the photographs
used were chosen with care from a vast number taken by professional photographers at great expense, so that a modest slice-oflife tableau often cost more to create than the most elaborate conventional artwork (March 1934, June 1936, and March 1937).
engineered car in the low-price eld because it is the only
low-priced car that has all of them.
A June, 1936 advertisement quoted a certied interview

with Gary Evans, Arcadia, California: Only Plymouth has
the size, comfort and performance I wanted for long trips.
And its the only one of All Three with both 100% Hydraulic
brakes and Safety-Steel body!Both points were necessary in
a year when General Motors was promoting Fisher Bodys
Turret Top, while Ford retained mechanical brakes until 1939
in the face of buyers increasing skepticism. The advertisement
then encouraged readers to Compare All Three ... on price,
terms, features. Drive this new Plymouth! Ask your Chrysler,
Dodge or De Soto dealer. The advertisement included photographs of Gary Evans and his Plymouth which, if not glamorous, looked the rugged and serviceable car that it was.
In 1937, promises of dependability were highlighted in a
newsprint layout that combined several pictures with blocks
of copy, slogans, and prices. Getchell insisted on advertisements that:
... came off the page fast.... We believe people want realism
today.... Events portrayed as they happen. Products as they really are. Human interest. People. Places. Told in simple photographs that the eye can read and the mind can understand.8
See how Plymouth savings pile up! began a March, 1937 advertisement, in letters an inch high: Heres the biggest and
most beautiful of All Three low-priced cars ... and the most
economical full-size car in America! There followed a list of
features and specications, such as a new, Hypoid rear axle,
formerly in high-priced cars only. The advertisement concluded with the slogan, Plymouth Builds Great Cars and a
reminder that the 1937 model was still The Best Buy of All
Three!
Advertisements for the 1938 model year consisted mainly
of captioned photographs of special features. In November,
1938, paintings joined the photographs to promote the 1939
Plymouth in a newsflash style: Plymouths Got It! more
value, beauty, luxury than any other low-priced car in history. A competitive edge was maintained with New Lower
7. P LYMOUTH T HE C AR T HAT L IKES
TO BE
C OMPARED
107
Massiveness and lowness distinguish the front end of Plymouths Finest. The car is long, wide, roomy ... with concealed
running-boards ... new-styled interiors. This was marginally more exciting, perhaps, than the pedantry of 1939, and it
was a sign of how far Plymouths styling had come in the intervening years that a 1942 model was used in one of General
Tires glamorous color advertisements of 1945.
Plymouths 1942 style would be perpetuated in outline
on Britains postwar (1947) Standard Vanguard, whose advertising copy, with realistic photographs and minutely detailed
copy in catalogs, reflected that which promoted the parent
idiom, while 1942s slogan, Buy Wisely, Buy Plymouth,
turned up in pre- and postwar copy for the upper-middle class
British Wolseley as Buy Wisely, Buy Wolseley.
After World War II, the comparisons resumed with a
wider variety of styles, and 1939s hysterical newsprint was
banished. An October, 1948 advertisement took the form of a
story told by a proud, if mythical, Plymouth owner: Buying
a new car is a big decision for a family, he began:
And, in my little family, everybody has an equal voice. Thats
why Mother and Johnnnie went along with me as we started
out to nd the one car that would be the best car for us.
And so they set out, Family Man in his suit, Mother and Johnnie in judges robes, ready to give their verdict. So that the
story would not drag on for several pages, Family Man was
shrewd enough to look at the most competitive car rst:
Prices! (from $645) and convenient terms, which reminded

readers that the cost of motoring, in real terms, was decreasing. There followed the usual recital of standard equipment.
There were half-hearted attempts to sell the car on its
style: So beautiful you can hardly believe its a low-priced
car! declared one 1939 copyline, unconvincingly, in a speechbox coming from a passenger within. The copywriter was not
helped by a dull monochrome photograph that made the car
look distinctly utilitarian when compared to rival Chevrolets
and Fords. This was largely the fault of the cars radiator grille,
which was made up of alternating painted and chromium
strips that were reminiscent of a domestic heating appliance.
The Plymouth was, however, the biggest of the leading lowpriced cars: 5 in. longer than one, 6 in. longer than the other!
A great number of variations on the theme appeared in
magazines and newspapers to prove beyond doubt that Facts
Show It Owners Know It Plymouth is the most for low
price. In 1940, the strategy was elaborated with a 1940 Quality Chart ... you get a clear picture of the size, safety, long life
and all-round value in all 3. Of 22 quality features found in
high-priced cars.
By 1942, the car that stands up best had become more
attractive, and a picture was even reserved for styling features in a typical advertisement. According to the caption,
We stopped rst at the Plymouth dealer. Thats because we

know people who have Plymouths, and they tell us this is the
greatest value car of them all. We saw the new Plymouth
Quality Chart and got the facts and gures for accurate comparisons. Then we took a ride.
The tale unfolded, and Johnnie expressed delight at the Airfoam Cushions as Mother just sat back ... kept saying I feel
so safe and secure, which must have been unsettling for the
demonstration driver. Safely at rest, she got out of the car and
got real practical. She inspected the big luggage compartment. Why, the lid opens with a nger-touch, she exclaimed,
and its so balanced that it cant fall down and crack your
head.
Finally, Family Man took the wheel and found this Plymouth was the easiest-handling car I ever drove.... After the
ride, I looked at Mother and I looked at Johnnie and I knew
we had arrived at a verdict. At the end of the story, the inevitable family dog, also in judicial attire, delivered the familys unanimous verdict by banging his gavel on a board which
said, Theres a lot of difference in low-priced cars and PLYMOUTH makes the difference!
By contrast, a December, 1948 piece showed a painting by
Norman Rockwell of a little boy standing forlornly on stage at
his schools Christmas play. His mother, in the audience, explained to an anxious-looking Family Man: I knew hed forget ... all he can think of is our new PLYMOUTH. A seasonal
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The comparative theme continued after Getchells death in 1940. Cartoon strips were briefly popular in the late 1940s (Ford used
them as well) and with Rambler in the late 1950s, although 1949s quizmasters challenge was an oddity, representing a kind of
advertising rarely used with automobiles and leisure goods (October 1948 and November 1949).
equivalent in 1950 was more cheerful. A family, laden with

presents, bustled through a front door: Merry Christmas
Grandma ... we came in our new PLYMOUTH!
In November, 1949, pedantry returned in the form of six
questions, typewritten in white boxes against a dull grey background, suggesting stills from a television show. Can you answer these 6 questions about the 3 leading low-priced cars?
began a cartoon quizmaster, optimistically. Which car has
Automatic Ignition-Key Starting for your greater convenience? asked one question. Which car has the highest compression ratio for greater engine performance and economy?
demanded another. At the end of the interrogation, 1949s new
car buyers were given the answer: You said it! The answers are
all the same Plymouth the car that likes to be compared.
Other Plymouth advertisements of 194849 were more
attractive, and less taxing on the reader, especially once the
full-width true 1949 Plymouths had replaced slightly updated 1948 interim models in the spring of 1949. Convertibles
and station wagons were shown in country settings, and color
was used more widely than in the 1930s. Copy lightened up as

well, even if the theme did not. In an August, 1949 piece a
bright red convertible sped along a deserted beach, but there
was no suggestion of fun or escape in the copy. Instead, there
was the inevitable injunction to analyze the product in depth:
The best way to tell new car value is by comparison. Compare
the new Plymouth feature for feature, dollar for dollar, mile
for mile to any car in any price range. Of 22 quality features found in most high-priced cars, low-priced Plymouth
has 21 low-priced car A has 13 low-priced car B has 4!
This approach was understandable with a sedan delivery

or station wagon, and desirable with commercial trucks, but
it was surprising when applied to the one glamorous car
in Plymouths line-up, even if it was acting as a draw for
the sedans in a sellers market. Moreover, the arrival of new
cars from Ford and Chevrolet, over whom Plymouth had enjoyed genuine technical advantages until 1948, made continuous use of the comparative theme increasingly hazardous,
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Imaginative Christmas advertising in the kind of small-town setting that matched Plymouths longstanding marque values.
(December 1948).
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Two colorful, conventionally illustrated pieces for a new Plymouth range. The copy was relentlessly functional (August and September, 1949).
particularly when both rivals had modern and attractive

styling.
The comparisons receded in 1950, and although Plymouth was still claiming You cant match it anywhere else in
the low-price 3 even in 1956, there were no lists of bumpers
and ashtrays, and the main emphasis was on style and power.
The Aerodynamic Plymouth 56 with Push-Button Driving
... Hy-Fire V-8 and ... 9090 Turbo-Torque getaway for Top
Thrust at Take-Off was far removed from the marques earlier, more stolid incarnations.
Plymouth was not alone in inviting comparison with
competitors. Less aggressive challenges were commonplace.
Lincoln understandably crowed in 1937 that the rst feature
that sets a dividing line between the Lincoln-Zephyr and all
other cars in the eld is the V-12 engine.
Most 1954 Mercury advertisements promoted that cars
power-assisted controls and easy handling, but one piece for
the whole range showed a Sun Valley, a regular Monterey hardtop and a Monterey convertible, assuring those who traded
up from low-priced cars that It pays to own a Mercury. Se-
lected statistics were given to show that economies of scale

helped:
With a 480% increase in Mercurys on the road since 1946,
Mercury dealers sell more cars per dealer than their competition. This higher volume means they have lower overhead expense per car sold, can give you a better deal....
The copy purported to let the buyer in on the act to

give him information that allowed him to realize his advantage,
but the information given was highly selective and raised more
questions in an inquiring or cynical mind than it answered. Did
Mercury sell more cars per dealer than the opposition because
those dealers sold more cars than their competitors, or because there were fewer dealers who might be overworked
when it came to service? What, exactly, was a better deal?
was it a better deal than Mercury might otherwise have given,
or was it better than those actually offered by the competition?
Given that the Mercury marque had been created as recently
as 1938, and allowing for the general shortage of new cars
until 195051 which encouraged the continued use of pre-war
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Rationalism in retreat. The comparative theme was still present in 1956, but no longer made headlines (February 1956).
models, it was to be expected that the number of Mercurys in

use would have increased since 1946!
The supposed information, therefore, did not equip the
reader with the information needed to make a rational and
informed choice, but rather simply enabled him to feel that
his choice was rational or (more cynically) just that it was time
to buy a new car. It was an ingenious form of pseudo-objectivity, ostensibly taking the reader for a shrewd businessman
of the world, but containing his supposed wisdom within convenient limits. Not that the American consumer was, in fact,
easily led, as Ford found out three years later when the Edsel
flopped.
Chevrolet invited comparison in 1956:
Pick out a 56 Chevy owner one who recently switched
from another make of car and ask, in a comparative kind of
way, about Chevrolet handling. Easier to park? Quicker reflexes in trafc? Holds the road better taking corners and
curves? Well bet you get 100 percent afrmative answers.
It was a safe bet, too, as many of those buyers would have

traded from 195254 Plymouths and Fords. It was a clever way
to invite flattering comparison with the opposition of two or
three years earlier.
While lower- and middle-priced marques compared fea-
tures and roadability, upmarket copywriters made prestige

and styling the primary factors in any comparison. Lincoln
employed a variation on this theme in 1957:
Be our guest spend a weekend with a Lincoln. Yes, we invite
you to drive a Lincoln for a whole wonderful weekend ...
without the slightest obligation. Just stop in at our showroom, or give us a call.... With a Lincoln parked in your
driveway, you can compare its long, low, clean-lined kind of
styling with that of any other ne car in your neighborhood.
The comparison would invite conversation, and the neighbors would imagine that one owned the car. The guest might
be tempted to buy it in order not to have to admit on Monday
morning, as he got into his 55 Mercury, that he couldnt afford it, and only had the car on trial. And even if he could afford the car, the neighborhood might not be convinced unless he bought it.
Cadillac was more straightforward in 1959:
We believe that a personal inspection will convince you and
that an hour at the wheel will add certainty to conviction.
Why not accept your dealers invitation to visit him soon
for a ride and a revelation?
During the 1960s, comparative copy became more widespread. A 1965 Rambler advertisement concluded: FREE!
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Selective statistics from Mercury in 1954. The consumer was not encouraged to think for himself, but merely to think that he was
thinking... (September 1954).
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Without the slightest obligation but how do you admit to neighbors that you have only borrowed it? (May 1957).
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A condent, if implicit, invitation by Cadillac to compare the flamboyant 1959 Series 62 Coupe with its rivals. Fin height varied
slightly from car to car, as handwork was employed during construction (May 1959).

1965 Car X-Ray Book! 48 pages of comparisons of the leading
65 cars. Hundreds of illustrations, many in full color. It can
save you hundreds of dollars. Get yours at your Rambler
dealer. In 1966, AMC disingenuously claimed to consider
comparison of the AMC Ambassador with the Chevrolet Impala and Ford Galaxie unfair because neither car was tted
with air conditioning as standard equipment. The Ambassador
was compared instead with one car that did have air conditioningthe Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow. Having caught the readers
attention, AMC then pointed out that the Rolls-Royce has
less headroom than a Cadillac. The Ambassador has more.
Increasingly, it was feature-for-feature comparison,
rather than general knocking or comparative copy, that was
employed. Chrysler stayed in the front line with the Dodge
Coronet 500 Wagon in April, 1968. The Coronet was promoted
on its own merits but, at the end of the copy, it was pointed
out that air conditioning could be tted to bring the Dodges
price up to the level of unconditioned Impalas and Galaxie
500s. By 1968, all three makes were competing in the middle
price range, low-priced status being conned to smaller
Chevrolets, Fords, and Valiants.
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A danger with mentioning Ford and Chevrolet as the

marques to beat, however, as Chryslers executives realized
in 1931, was that such advertising might have the effect of reinforcing the images of those cars rather than that of the advertised product in the public imagination. Being the one to
beat might, from the consumers point of view, mean being
the one to buy. In order to avoid such own goals, AMC and
Chrysler had to tread carefully. Plymouth knew this in the
1940s, and if the reader was temporarily frustrated by the copywriters designation of Chevrolet and Ford as car A and car
B, it was Plymouths name that remained in his mind after
the page was turned and not for good or ill the names of
Plymouths rivals.
In 1962, Chrysler Corporation took the comparative
theme a stage further in a series of advertisements, mainly in
black and white, that issued a forthright challenge to everyone who plans to buy a luxury car this year. The invitees were
selected by Imperial, who assured VIPs that in a few days,
you will receive, by mail or telephone, a personal invitation to
drive a 1962 Imperial. There was a catch-all at the end:
R.S.V.P. Even though our invitation may somehow miss you,
Imperial lured eminent motorists from other makes during 1962-63 in a distinctive campaign (February 1962 and April 1963).
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It isnt very likely that youll run out and buy the new 69 Imperial just because the headlights see you to your door. Just so
but is it any more likely that youll buy a conventional luxury car for its hidden engineering features? Imperial crosses its ngers
in 1969 (October 1968).
an Imperial comparison-tour may easily be arranged by writing on your letterhead to: General Manager, Imperial Division.... Subsequent advertisements targeted specic groups of
Americans who were successful in their elds. A proposal to
Americas eminent attorneys was typical:
Within the month, you and your colleagues in the legal profession will be offered personal use of a new Imperial for a
thorough driving test. You will be asked only to specify an
hour of appointment. Our dealer will deliver the car at your
home or ofce; he will brief you on operation of its controls;
he will answer any questions you may have. Then the Imperial is yours ... for as long as you need to make a full and private evaluation of Imperial motoring.
It was up to Imperial to decide who was eminent, and

there was a provision in case an invitation should fail to reach
you: The attorney who had been passed over, but who found
the offer of a road test intriguing, needed only to write to the

makers for arrangements to be made promptly. Similar invitations were sent to Americas 5,344 leading M.D.s. A later
advertisement reported the doctors collective approval: Leading doctors accept new Imperials for comparison testing. In
another piece, the chief executives of the 100 top banking
rms were promised invitations to drive the new car in language less exaggeratedly formal than that used to address the
lawyers, and snappier than that used for the doctors, whose
invitation concentrated more on engineering features. It was
in many ways a subtle campaign and an imaginative variation
of Plymouths earlier, more abrasive development of the strategy. The car sold better during 196263 than in 1961, and 1963s
invitations were sent to Americas most successful independent businessmen and principals of Americas 6500 leading architectural rms, among others.
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The essence of marque loyalty as stated by Cadillac in the mid1970s (February 1976).
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Yet by the late 1960s, Imperials sales were declining,

while Cadillac, and to a lesser extent Lincoln, enjoyed increased production and continued prestige. Imperial had suffered over several years from too close an identity with
Chrysler cars, which frequently looked similar to the prestige
line of the Corporations range. For 1969, Imperial advertising
continued to invite comparison with rivals, but the copy was
unusually earnest, reflecting a lack of social, if not mechanical, condence. Introducing the all new 1969 Imperial. And
several things you should know before you buy any luxury
car began a typical piece for the Le Baron 4-door Hardtop in
October, 1968. After several hundred words of descriptive
prose which ranged from the principles of unitary construction to a stereo system with 5 speakers, the ne car buyer
was reminded of the weighty decision he made when choosing a car: Before you spend $6000 or $7000 for a new 69 Imperial, or any other luxury car, you should know what youre
spending $6000 or $7000 for. This year spend a little time with
all three of them.
But, as Imperial knew, no one bought a luxury car for its
unitized body for which there was no better insurance
against rattles, or even torsion bars instead of coil springs.
And when Imperials copywriter concluded that ... you should
have been adding it up. These are the things you buy a luxury
car for, he displayed a startling naivety. For these were exactly the mundane details that most luxury car buyers sought
to escape. The copy might convince those who were actively
dissatised with their current (rival) cars, which was partly
its intention, and it was true that Imperial was the best-handling American luxury car. But Imperial did not convey the
necessary element of prestige; the copywriter, unlike his counterparts at Lincoln and Cadillac, did not invite the luxury car
buyer to be flattered by his own aspirations. Imperial sales

slumped in 1970.
It was left to Cadillac to state a more convincing case in
1976, for a marque whose prestige, among its limited target
market, was less in doubt:
Youll buy your rst for what you think it is. And your second
for what you know it is. Maybe thats the reason Cadillac repeat ownership is consistently the highest of any U.S. luxury
car make.
Even if, by 1976, those letters U.S. in Cadillacs copy spoke

volumes for the success of luxury imports, Chryslers comparative strategy was turned on its head by General Motors,
whose low-priced car had been so consistently, if anonymously,
targeted by Plymouth in the 1930s. Imperial, meanwhile, had
been discontinued as a marque in 1975, re-emerging only in
1981 as a notionally independent adapted Chrysler before disappearing again after 1983, while Plymouth continued until
2001.
The comparative strategy was most effective in the lowprice eld when used with an emerging marque which enjoyed tangible advantages over its opposition. The comparison
was anchored in factual, feature-by-feature analysis, which
lent it the necessary credibility. It was least effective whenever
functionalism and practicality were less important to the consumer than social credibility or participation in a wider automotive fantasy. Applied indiscriminately, it could, indeed,
unsell a product. Imperials mistake was never made by
Cadillac, who, insofar as it acknowledged any opposition, did
so only in general terms before asserting its own supremacy,
and who, by diversifying its range while retaining a distinct
identity, survived the fuel-crisis era.
Chapter 8
The Objectivity Factor

Plymouth cited Deputy Sheriff Pat Enos of Oakland, California:
The objectivity factor of an advertisement was increased by comparing a product with its immediate rivals.
Otherwise, with advertising for cars, as for other products, a
lingering doubt might remain in the readers mind that the
features selected for analysis had been chosen less than impartially. And when, as in Plymouths copy, the automobile in
question was declared to have a greater number of features
than its rivals, the question remained What was a feature?
In the early days of the automobile, a steering wheel, rather
than a tiller, was a feature. So was a pneumatic tire or, in the
early 1930s, a pressed-steel wheel. By 1939, however, the general design of the American automobile was established, and
apparently similar products needed to be differentiated. There
then arose the danger that, by laboring details, a copywriter
would bore the reader and appear to damn the product with
faint, if protracted, praise. What was the car, in its totality,
really like?
One response to this challenge was the contented-ordinary-user testimonial. As an advertising motif, it appeared
sporadically. The independent testimony of the consumers
cited by Plymouth in its long-running Compare All Three
campaign was convincing because it was derived from downto-earth experience, rather than any supposed expertise or
vested interest. Even if Plymouths interviewees all sounded remarkably similar, the all-important appearance of objectivity
was given, and the objectivity of demonstrable difference provided by comparisons with Ford and Chevrolet was augmented by the objectivity of disinterestedness guaranteed by
the independence of the testimonials. At the very least, Plymouth was seen to value the opinions of its customers. Plymouth preferred the testimony of conspicuously worthy, dependable individuals the people who reflected Plymouth
values: engineers, small businessmen, reghters, police
ofcers above all, people who were realists. In April, 1936,
As Sheriff, I Needed A Tough Car! I didnt have to look at All

Three.... My three brothers did it for me. I got in their cars
saw how easily they rode how easy they were on gas how
100% dependable.... A man in my line of work has to have a
car he can count on all the time. You cant speculate on how
quick your car will start how fast it will pick up or how
sure it will stop no sir, not when youre a sheriff in this
country!
America is full of families that own more than one Plymouth, added the copywriter, challenging the longer-established opposition. An August, 1936 piece quoted Mrs. William
Pitt of Stamford, Connecticut, who was shown with her new
sedan beside her husbands 1935 Plymouth convertible a
clever way of showing off 1936s updated styling. The rst
time I rode in my husbands Plymouth ... I knew I wanted one,
too.... And, since interior decorating is a practical hobby of
mine, I am quite in love with the beauty of this new Plymouth
... both inside and out!
In May, 1936 Walter Zepke, an aircraft development engineer, declared: A Sweet-Running Motor is Music to Me
and went on to say how impressed he was with Plymouths
Floating Power rubber engine mountings: Aviation puts a
premium on vibrationless operation. So Plymouths Floating
Power impressed me tremendously. As did the economy and
power of the engine. For 1937, the theme was continued with
slightly updated layouts and typefaces. Miss Beth Hower, Director of Public School Bands was pictured with her Plymouth, which she had driven through water so high that it
flowed over the floorboards. But my car ran perfectly ... and
Ive never had any real mechanical expense! she assured readers.
As an advertising strategy, this series of testimonials had
119
120
Deputy Sheriff Pat Enos was typical of the solid, mature citizens cited by Plymouth in the mid1930s (April 1936).
8. T HE O BJECTIVITY F ACTOR
121
the merit of being memorable for their human interest, and

Plymouths rising sales gures suggested that they were more
persuasive to the people who bought low-priced automobiles
for solid, day-to-day service than any vague assurance of the
products competitiveness. Compared with Chevrolet and particularly Ford, Plymouth lacked a tradition of service in mobilizing America, but made up for that decit in copy that was
imaginative and, above all, plausible.
Dodge, known as a producer of solid, dependable automobiles since 1914, and part of the Chrysler Corporation since
1928, used longer copy than Plymouths to cite the experiences
of well-known people who were admired for their practical
skills, such as Frank Buck, Famous Explorer and Major
M.E. Trull, Noted Marksman, in a series of half-page advertisements which perpetuated Plymouths distinctive newspage layout. As in a newspaper story, Major Trulls testimony
was peppered with expressions which reflected his own eld of
expertise:
Dodge Scores a Bulls-Eye With Me.... My experience as a
marksman has made me intolerant of anything mechanical
that is not efcient.... I have had no mechanical trouble.... [I]t
rides and drives like a dream. I havent found another car that
has all the safety features combined in one car that my Dodge
has ... sure-re, trigger-quick genuine hydraulic brakes ...
safety-steel bodies ... and theres the clincher ... recordsmashing economy....
During 196365, Rambler like Plymouth in the 1930s,

a manufacturer of simple, worthy automobiles ran a series
of Love Letters to Rambler from contented ordinary users
of its cars; and like Plymouth thirty years earlier, Rambler
cited the testimony of reliable, middle-aged citizens who valued quality and reliability over pushbutton gadgets. They
ranged from Naval Fireghter John E. Simeon of Silver
Spring, Maryland to Chief Engineer of the Barbizon Plaza
Hotel in New York City, Malcolm Anderson. Others included
a manufacturer, a sportscaster, a mechanic, a U.S. Coast Guard
and a buffalo rancher. One television advertisement featured
a learner driver, whose attempts to cope with stick-shift and
trafc hazards caused chaos, but did not destroy the car.
In 1968, Buick deployed the genre in several advertisements, among them a piece for the Sportwagon. Mrs. Graham
Brown, Mother of ve explained how the car was ideal for
the sailing enthusiast: Any given weekend, we carry boats,
sails, masts, ve or six children ... we even pack a nine-foot
dinghy in the back of our Buick Sportwagon.
The luxurious Electra 225 Limited, on the other hand,
was praised by a real estate investment counselor for its comfort and prestige: You should have just as beautiful a feeling
in an automobile as you do in your living room. My Electra
Limited gives me that feeling. The interior is nicely done
not a bit gaudy.... Ive had clients get in the car and say, I didnt
know theyre building a car like this today.
Distinct from, and more common than, the ordinary-
Dodge prices started $130 higher than Plymouths but, like Plymouth, Dodge appealed to conservative, practical folk (May
1936).
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AMC echoed Plymouths campaign nearly thirty years later in a long-running series of Love Letters to Rambler (July 1963 and
June 1965).
Contented-ordinary-user testimonials featured prominently in Buicks 1968 advertising (December 1967).
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124
was told the thrilling True Story of the man who is living on
Borrowed Time, in which a motorist suffered a blow-out
at an inopportune moment: His wife was ill. He was rushing
to her ... when BANG!... A BLOW-OUT! The story appeared
to be an account of a documented incident, although the true
story could cleverly have been that of any man who is
presently living on borrowed time rather than that of the particular character who felt he was
after the blow-out brought him
to his senses. But it was a parable
of what could happen to any
motorist. It concluded with an
earnest injunction to keep tires
in good condition, and to buy
Goodrich tires, of course.
In another advertisement,
S.S. Van Dine, celebrated author of popular mystery thrillers
and creator of Philo Vance, was
drafted in to write about a
police chase in which the pursuing car suffered the inevitable
blowout. There was the inevitable homily, too, though
credibility was enhanced, in this
case, by the use of a story suggested by an actual occurrence,
though it was not mentioned
whether the occurrence had involved a police car and an eyewitness or a bicycle and a vivid
imagination. Both advertisements were signed by their respective authors and they ensured, if nothing else, that the
next time a reader picked up a
mystery thriller, he would also
think of his tires.
Showbusiness celebrities
endorsed all kinds of improbable cars in the 1930s. The technique was a particular favorite
with De Soto, whose cars were
acclaimed by such luminaries as
Gary Cooper, Ginger Rogers,
Jack Dempsey, and Deanna
Durbin. Shirley Temple and her
safety-conscious mother endorsed a 1936 Dodge, and a 1937
Studebaker was shown with Bob
Hope.
Copy reflected the stars inRex Beach was one of several popular writers who endorsed Goodrich tires in 1937. It was not
dividual
specialties. Bing Crosby
stated whether he actually used them (1937 campaign).
user testimonial was the celebrity endorsement, in which a
well-known lm star, writer, or other celebrity posed with the
product and said how good it was, while not necessarily owning or knowing very much about it.
In 1937, Goodrich Tires employed well-known authors to
write graphic accounts of accidents caused by faulty tires. In
a piece written by well-known author Rex Beach, the reader
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sang the praises of the 1938 De Soto, although

in 1939 he sang In My Merry Oldsmobile in
The Star Maker which dictated a change of allegiance. He went on to endorse the years new
Oldsmobile convertible in the Saturday Evening
Post, and readers were invited to send to the makers for copies of the music from the movie. Popular songs were savaged mercilessly; in the case of
Kate Smith, the adaptation was less than subtle:
The moon comes over the mountain no more
serenely than the 1937 Studebaker does was typical of the square-wheeled lyricism sometimes
achieved by copywriters who strayed off their natural turf.
Contrasting with Plymouths contented ordinary users and De Sotos showbusiness stars
was a series of illustrious clients paraded by Buick
in 1937. It was an old theme in upmarket copy,
but it had fallen into disuse since the Depression.
A Buick sedan, shown in China, was declared to
be Number One Boy for transportation in many
an honorable household, and a list of Buickowning Chinese military and civil dignitaries was
included in the middle of the page. In another
advertisement, the Buick was trumpeted only
four years before Pearl Harbor as long a favorite with Japanese of most exalted degree ....
Many branches of the government, including the
army, navy, home department and foreign department; a score and more of prefectural ofces;
municipalities; schools; provincesthese as well
as private citizens show by repeated purchases the
high esteem in which Buick is held the whole
world over.
In February, 1940, the illustrious client testimonial gave way to an indirect but impliedly
expert assessment by a British automobile manufacturer. The Buick Limited was declared to be
a pattern for one of the best cars in the world:
The illustrious client testimonial was rare by 1937, when Buick revived the
In England is built a motor car which is rec- theme in this most ironic of automobile advertisements (May 1937).
ognized around the world as an illustrious examwent from strength to strength. The Phantoms independent
ple of craftsmanship, a car priced high in ve gures for its least
front suspension was licensed in England under General Moexpensive model. Once each year the builders of that car buy
tors patents.
an American automobile, not to be driven, but to be torn
With the increasing popularity of domestic radio in the
down to provide part-by-part precision standards to be
1930s and 1940s, a relationship of mutual support developed
matched by the methods of British workmen.
between the automobile makers and radio stations through
The car was a standard production Buick, and the boast
commercial sponsorship of programs. In 1939, for instance,
was not an idle one. King Edward VIII had owned several sucPlymouth encouraged readers of its advertisements to Tune
cessive Buicks, and it seemed that no amount of hand-built
in Major Bowes Original Amateur Hour, Columbia Network,
care could supplant the advances brought by the best AmeriThursdays, 9 to 10 P.M. E.D.S.T. Major Bowes endorsed the
can mass-production technology. Buicks were popular among
related De Soto in a late 1938 press advertisement, and he orBritish buyers of American cars in the 1930s, and as early Rollsdered a special Chrysler Airflow Custom Imperial for his own
Royce Phantom IIIs suffered hydraulic tappet failures, Buick
126
Rolls-Royce quality at a fraction of the cost? American engineering gave many European luxury car makers pause for thought in
the 1930s. Behind the car is Nelsons column, 169 feet high, in Trafalgar Square, London (February 1940).
Bennett Cerf was one of many famous personalities featured in

Hertz advertising during 1958. The convertible is a Chevrolet
Impala (March 1958).
use. Constructed by LeBaron, it had a uniquely luxurious interior designed by Chryslers head of interior design, Fred A.
Selje.
Radio sponsorship continued through World War II. Patriotic listeners could tune in on Major Bowes Program every
Thursday, 9:00 to 9:30 P.M., Eastern War Time according to
a 1945 De Soto advertisement showing a 1942 model. In the
same year, NBC offered General Motors Symphony of the
Air every Sunday afternoon, while Nash devotees were promised a New Radio Hit Show! with The Andrews Sisters
and Guest Stars Sundays 4:30 P.M. E.W.T. Blue Network. Alternatively, there was the Friday night Ford musical program, also on Blue Network, succeeded later in 1945 by The
Ford Show with Brilliant singing stars, orchestra and chorus. Every Sunday, over Coast-to-Coast NBC Network.
Times were given for different time zones.
In the 1950s, television increasingly supplanted radio and
lm in the public imagination, and copywriters adapted their
scripts as automobile companies began to sponsor television
127
An old-fashioned advertisement for an old-school Oldsmobile

98 hardtop sedan (January 1976).
programs. In 1953, Buick offered a Television treat, the Buick

Circus Hour every fourth Tuesday, while De Soto-Plymouth
dealers presented Groucho Marx in You Bet Your Life every
week on Radio and Television ... NBC Networks. By 1954,
Plymouth were inviting viewers to Tune in Medallion Theatre every week on CBS-TV with a helpful rider for lowpriced car buyers who had only just acquired a set: See TV
page of your newspaper for time and station. Ford, meanwhile, now offered Great TV! Ford Theater, NBC-TV.
From being conned to the small print, television moved
center-stage in a striking 1955 advertisement for the Lincoln
Capri hardtop, as talent-spotter Ed Sullivan, M.C. of Toast
of the Town, and Julia Meade introduce New Lincoln. The
setting was a television studio: Camera one! Close up! Take
the new Lincoln for 1955. The reader saw the car through a
gallery window, while other images, taken by different cameras, appeared on small screens below: Monitor sets show
new rear deck, new longer body, new front assembly. The rest
of the copy was completely conventional, emphasizing the
cars styling features and performance.9
In 1954, the celebrity endorsement was combined with
128
old-fashioned snobbery and a specic appeal to women in

Nashs She drives a Rambler campaign. Prominent women
such as Mrs. Philip Armour III endorsed a compact which
had been substantially updated in 1953. An equivocal-looking Mrs. Armour was seen at the foot of a staircase with her
household dog, in a revival of the kind of portrait popular
with upmarket marques in the 1920s, and which had been used
by Packard as late as 1953.
In 1958, Bennett Cerf was one of several celebrities who
endorsed Hertz Rent-A-Car: Every Sunday night you can see
Bennett Cerf on CBS-TVs Whats My Line? At Hertz, however, we see him many more times. On one of his visits, we
asked this well-known publisher, author and columnist to
pose for us. Afterwards, he told us: Its no secret what your line
is. I caught on rst time I rented one of your new cars. Its
service! He was shown climbing into a 1958 Chevrolet
convertible, to keep a campus speaking engagement on
time. The copy concluded with a brief description of the
Hertz service. Norman Rockwell, according to another 1958
advertisement, found the Lincoln of that year ideal for his pictures.
By the end of the 1950s, the celebrity endorsement was
losing favor as an effective theme for press advertising, and it
would recur only sporadically in the 1960s and 1970s. It was
therefore surprising to see the genre fleetingly resurrected for
large cars in the 1970s, as by Oldsmobile in January, 1976: We
built this Olds 98 for Walt Lecat, who expects the car he buys
to make him feel like a king. Or better. In the same year, the
singer Jack Jones smiled suavely from the velour-upholstered
back seat of a Chrysler New Yorker Brougham: Its the talk of
the town.... Everybodys talking about the New Yorkers elegant
styling and comfort. It was an old-fashioned strategy for an
old-style hardtop sedan, and the nostalgic flavor was reinforced by a television program announcement at the foot of
Oldsmobiles copy: Tune in the Bing Crosby Pro-Am ABCTV Sat. and Sun., Jan. 2425.
It was almost like old times.
Chapter 9
Remember How You

Hungered for It?
Nostalgia was one of many advertising themes that never
dominated copy at any one time, but which periodically reappeared in advertisements for all kinds of American cars. In
the early days, advertisers appealed to the memories of pioneer
motorists memories of motoring in a period when the automobile was still a novelty; when skeptical onlookers would
cry Get a horse! at the rst whiff of an impending breakdown. Once the automobile had been established in America
for several decades, nostalgia became an effective element in
the copywriters repertoire. In the postwar years, it appeared
regularly in automobile advertising.
In many advertisements, the value of the American tradition, the heritage of the marque represented, and the recollections of the target readership were addressed simultaneously in an effort to inveigle a car into the public imagination
and private affection. It was hoped that while the prospective
buyer was still overcome with that sense of well-being which
came from a life enjoyably spent participating in the American dream, he would reach for his pocketbook, make the rst
payment and drive away in a new car before the delirium wore
off. This participatory angle was generally considered to work
best on a male audience, and while many nostalgic advertisements were aimed at men, very few, if any, were targeted at
women. Marque loyalty, in particular, was considered a male
phenomenon.
Nash rekindled forgotten dreams in August, 1953, in an
advertisement for the Ambassador Country Club hardtop. The
copy was addressed To the Boy who wanted a Stutz Bearcat,
a car that had been one of Americas most famous sports cars
in the years immediately before World War I:
old Stutz Bearcat, Heaven-on-wheels to that boy you used

to be!
In the Ambassador, styled in the continental manner by

Pinin Farina in advertising copy if only minimally so in life,
the new car buyer could assuage the disappointments of middle age by traveling more comfortably than any Bearcat owner,
his memories kept alive by a Hood ornament by Petty. If he
ordered the optional Dual-Jetre engine, the buyer could
own a car powered by the engine that holds the top American record in the 24-hour road race at Le Mans, France. It
was not a very sporting enthusiast who needed to be reminded
where Le Mans was, and the Ambassadors styling, while influenced by a Pinin Farina prototype, had been so extensively
modied from the Italian original that little of Farinas expertise was evident in the production versions.
A similar car was shown in smaller Statesman sedan form
by the pressed-steel body pioneers Budd of Philadelphia in a
December, 1952 advertisement which congratulated Nash on
fty years of car production, and pointed out Budds own contribution to the success of the American automobile in general:
The life of a pioneer in business, as we have reason to know, is
... never dull. We rst discovered it when trying to sell the
idea of an automobile body built entirely of steel.... With
Nash, we have been partners in adventure ... adventure that
has built the Budd business to world-wide proportions and
has profoundly influenced many other industries.
In another advertisement of the series, Budd tapped more

deeply into the collective memory with A Toast to the Model
T, a car for which Budd had made body panels from 1918 onwards, and whose pioneering spirit and subsequent success
Remember how you hungered for it? Remember how

your pulse raced to its engine throb? That was it ... that
129
130
Wishful thinking: The 195257 Nash gained a reputation as a ladies car, and was neither sporting nor European in flavor, Pinin
Farinas actual contribution being minimal. The record-breaking engine was faster in the Nash-Healey sports car than in a fullsize unitary Airflyte (August 1953).
9. R EMEMBER H OW Y OU H UNGERED
FOR I T ?
131
Budd made body components for numerous manufacturers, and could justly claim to be pioneers in the eld, having supplied allsteel closed bodies to Dodge as early as 1914, and licensed their production by European manufacturers such as Citron and Morris between the wars (December 1952 and January 1953).
were claimed to be analogous with Budds own development.

More than a decade later, Buick invited would-be owners of the 1965 Electra to look back not on past happiness, but
on a lifetime of automotive mediocrity, so that the Buick might
provide long-overdue contentment:
In a lifetime, you have just so many chances to buy a car.
Make this one count.... Think back over the years. Were all
your cars as good as you deserve?... Did they come equipped
with every last thing needed to make driving (or just riding)
an unmitigated pleasure? No? Then dont settle for anything
less, from now on. Your Buick dealer is waiting to introduce
you to the car that will make it up to you for all those disappointments.
The slogan, Wouldnt you really rather have a Buick? involved readers emotions as others catchphrases often did
not, and worked particularly well with Buicks more charismatic personal-luxury Riviera.
Several copywriters traded on a burgeoning public inter-
est in old cars. If the Stutz Bearcat was considered worth preserving in 1953, the same could be said of many pre-war cars
by 1968, a vintage year for Wide-Tracking according to Pontiac, who showed a number of old cars, such as a 1940 LaSalle,
with a Bonneville coupe. So theres really no doubt, said the
copy, that 1968 Pontiacs will be talked about for years to come.
And lucky you. You can own one without paying classic car
prices.
Few genuine automotive novelties arrived in the early
1970s, and increasing interest in nostalgia of all kinds was reflected in advertising. After several years of unmemorable
copy, Chevrolet revived an old and popular jingle, See the
USA in your Chevrolet, which had been associated with a
TV show hosted by Dinah Shore. Chevrolets marque identity, at a time when it produced many ranges of cars which appealed to distinct consumer groups, was under threat, and the
1972 slogan, Chevrolet Building a better way to see the
USA worked well with an Impala at the beach south of
Miami, Florida or a Chevelle Malibu Sport Coupe at the
132
on readers recollections of its Roadmaster of the early 1950s.

It seemed surprising that Buick should show a regular Roadmaster sedan rather than the glamorous top-line Skylark, but
too attractive an early car would have detracted from the modern one. Moreover, in this case the makers wanted to trade on
public affection for a car that was the the subject of shared experience and aspiration, rather than on a glamorous image.
Over 50,000 Americans had bought new ($3,254) Roadmaster sedans in 1953, but the Skylark had sold in very small numbersfewer than 1,700 in that year, at a price only given on
request according to the models advertising (actually $5,000,
which was top-line Cadillac territory).
Ford suggested in 1974 that the subcompact
Pinto might one day prove to be as desirable a
collectors item as a Model A or Thunderbird:
Will Pinto turn out to be another classic? Well
have to wait to nd out. It was a humorous way
to remind readers of Fords heritage, but the verdict on the Pinto was sensibly left to posterity.
Even thirty years later, with memories of exploding gas tank litigation still fresh in many minds,
the Pinto had not yet troubled the collector-car
market except as a curiosity.
By contrast, copywriters for the sports car
America loved rst positively wallowed in nostalgia during 197179 in advertising from Bozell
& Jacobs that was both very different from, and
more extensive than, British copy for the same
cars. American MG advertisements, with photography by a Canadian, Marce Mayhew, showed
pre-war and early postwar models alongside
the latest MGB roadster and occasionally the
Midget to combine a celebration of the companys sports and racing history with a specically
American nostalgia for the MGs of 1940s and
1950s.10
This nostalgia was collective and cultural
rather than personal, as the late-twentysomething
and thirtysomething professionals targeted by
MG had not yet reached their motoring anecdotage, and were much too young to have experienced early MG ownership rst-handalthough
their parents might well have done. When they
write the book about sports cars in America MG
will be chapter one said a 1972 headline, with a
TC in the background in front of a library. First
on the scene. And still one jump ahead declared
MG in 1974, above a dark blue roadster parked
with a red TC in a meadow, the long grass cleverly
drawing the eye away from the years new and
huge, rubber-over-metal Sabrina bumper
Buick, unusually, invited readers to recall past disappointments in 1965, and guards.
In 1975, with the bumper of the B now
to make up for them with an Electra 225 (April 1965).
Taos Pueblo in Northern New Mexico, with copy in each
case that linked the location into a discussion of the car. The
campaign capitalized on marque loyalty and, with an eye to the
growing market for imports, suggested that the car was ideal
for use in all landscapes and associated Chevrolet with traditional American values.
In 1975, Cadillac promoted its Coupe de Ville alongside
a 1930 Roadster, and its Eldorado convertible with the 1933
355 Phaeton. Chrysler, in its ftieth anniversary year, showed
a New Yorker above a sepia-tinted photograph of an early1930s sedan, the 1974 car a totally new expression of an idea
that has never changed. In a 1976 advertisement, Buick traded
FOR I T ?
Pontiac capitalized on a growing public interest in old cars in 1968 (April 1968).
133
134
Chevrolet reintroduced an old slogan in 1972 in order to strengthen its marque image after the Corvair dbcle, engine mounting problems with late1960s full-size cars, and a Vega dbut beset by strikes and quality control lapses. The campaign was successful, and sales improved (May 1972).
entirely in rubber, British Leyland Motors Inc. announced
The Golden Anniversary MGB in a double-spread which
showed the latest American-market model alongside six photographs of MGs from 1925 to 1957. Each was posed outside
an ancient English church, the early models with English license
plates. Since 1925, MG has espoused a simple but unconventional philosophy: that driving can and should be enjoyed,
not just endured, said the copy. Another advertisement in
the series reminded readers that From our rst Gold Medal
in the 1925 LondontoLands End Trial to our latest SCCA
victories, MGs have been racing and winning for 50 years,
before describing how such experience had influenced the design of the latest model.
Not that the latest MGB was quite as invigorating as its
chrome-bumpered predecessor. In March, 1966 that car
with an invocation of the Octagon spirit but no explicit nostalgia had been shown with knobbly rear tires and skis
strapped to the trunk as a car that keeps its feet on the
ground free of the vicious, unpredictable tricks that careless design can lead to. Ralph Naders Unsafe at Any Speed
was by then well known to enthusiasts, and if a convertible
FOR I T ?
135
Corvair Monza was only an indirect rival, the Triumph

Spitre, with swing-axle rear suspension of a type no longer
tted to the Corvair, was almost a direct competitor.
In the late 1970s, accompanied by famous pre-war and
postwar models, the MGB appeared in atmospheric, American-style countryside-at-sundown photographs to emphasize the cars suitability for when the road narrows to two
lanes and begins twisting through rolling mountain meadows, as a 1973 copywriter put it. In 1979, MG invited readers of Time and other magazines to visit its showrooms and
enter a draw for a prize: You could win a classic 1948 MG
TC worth $17,000!... (The car cost $1,875 when new, which
should tell you something about how gracefully a well-maintained MG grows old.) An immaculate TC took center stage
in the companys double-page spread as a new Midget and
MGB stood demurely behind. The best way to sell an antiquated car was, perhaps, to show it with an even more antiquated predecessor. Yet as a brand-new convertible the MGB
was, in its last years, a rare commodity, and therefore still desirable to sports car fans.
Chapter 10
Theres a Ford in
Your Future
The war years and their aftermath provided a unique opportunity for automobile manufacturers to present themselves
as a force for the national good. Patriotism and a sternly optimistic outlook were combined in advertising. Civilian car
production ceased on February 9, 1942, and factories were
converted to war production under the guidance of the Automotive Council for War Production, which had been created
on December 31, 1941 to coordinate the use of manufacturing
facilities within Americas car plants. If copywriters could not
illustrate new cars, they could demonstrate how hard their respective companies were working for the war effort, and much
imaginative copy resulted.
Advertisers could also trade on the fact that their last prewar models were still running, enabling civilian life to continue
with the minimum of disruption. Of course, if the wartime
motorist had been foolish enough to buy an unreliable 1942
model, he was stranded, with no possibility of nding a new
replacement until the war ended.
In 1945, De Soto could claim that of all the De Soto cars
ever built, 7 out of 10 are still running. In one advertisement,
a mother was shown arriving at a school gate in her 1942 De
Soto, complete with concealed headlights. It was raining hard
and the road was slippery, but:
America and her allies were winning the war in Europe

by 1945, but advertisers did not slacken their pace. Most advertisements in the early part of the year showed military
equipment rather than automobiles. General Motors depicted
tanks, aircraft, and other military hardware in its advertising.
Where have we met before? asked Fisher Body (whose peacetime slogan, Body by Fisher, had been amended to Armament by Fisher) in March, 1945:
It was at Tarawa on the beach at Anzio in Normandy in
bombers over Berlin.... These are the recent places where the
craftsmanship symbolized by this emblem has been meeting
up with the men who are winning the war.... Major assemblies for the B-29 and other bombers ... delicate aircraft instruments ... tanks the flood of Fisher Body armament
knows no end until nal victory.
Buick Division, whose long-running slogan, When Better Automobiles Are Built Buick Will Build Them at last
seemed appropriate, pointed out that Buick powers the Liberator.... Shes got four Bs in her bonnets! In May, 1945 it
was the turn of the M-18 Hellcat tank. A mock newspaper cutting was shown: Buick M-18 Hellcats score in 21 days of
Steady Action. The text lauded the Armys war effort, and
pointed out the contribution that Buicks tanks had made:
Rain or shine, Mother never fails them. Neither does the family car. De Soto cars are rolling up 100,000 miles ... 200,000 ...
even more. Because in all our 17 years in business, weve had
this thought foremost in our minds: keep making a better
car.... Today, De Soto manufacturing skill is going into
bomber sections, airplane wings, guns and other war goods.
But when were making cars again ... better decide on De
Soto. Its the car thats designed to endure.
Long ago we decided something about the American ghting

man. Give him good weapons to ght with and hell do the
rest. That thought ... guided us when we sat down to design
the M-18 as an answer to the German Tiger Tank.
Studebaker was less triumphalist: What flyers say counts

most with us began one piece showing the Boeing Flying
Fortress, for which Studebaker provided engines. A few
136
10. T HERE S
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137
A 1945 prestige advertisement showing a 1942 model. The purpose of the piece was as much to keep the marque name in the public mind as to prime the market for peacetime production (1945 campaign).
138
Above and opposite: Contrasting war-time styles. As teenagers in the 1930s, many World War II soldiers had built models of the
Napoleonic coach for the Fisher Body Craftsmans Guild competition. Nash described the war effort in unusually personal, human,
terms (Nash: February, Fisher: March, Studebaker: April, and Buick: May 1945).
140
months later, Studebaker emphasized the important role of

the father and son production-line teams who would reappear in postwar copy. Many such teams had been split up by
the exigencies of war. Theyre half the world apart but still
working together said one advertisement, which described
the careers of Edward and Roman Kowalski and their father, who remained in America to carry out skilled manufacturing work on equipment which his sons used abroad.
A more personal and sentimental approach was favored by Nash in February, 1945. A soldier was shown contemplating his fate as he stood in front of a heavy bomber:
Back here ... Back home ... With our missions done and the
roar of guns and the bombs fading and faint in
my ears ... I dont want to kill any more ... I
dont want to destroy ... I want to work and
build and make things live and grow.... Now I
know this war will not be fought in vain ... this
Victory can be made real for all of us ... if we
keep on working together not to destroy but to
create ... if we turn all the power we have
gained in war, to peace ... there can always be
for me and every man a boundless opportunity
... to build our America the way we want it to
be....
If saccharine prose was an inevitable concomitant of

traumatic circumstances, it was not universal. A 1945 Plymouth advertisement from N.W. Ayer & Son showed a man at
home in his armchair, holding an imaginary steering wheel
with a smile of pure contentment: Just wait till you get your
hands on the wheel of the Latest, Greatest PLYMOUTH.
Buick was more modest in the summer of 1945. It illustrated
a car, too:
No, the ghting isnt over.... But victory in Europe is releasing
many ghting men to come home and permitting the country to turn, at least in part, to the making of things they will
nd nice to come home to. To many a ghting man, this will
The copywriter then took over in his own voice,

and promised cars to come:
When Victory comes, Nash will go on ... from
the building of instruments of war to the making of two great new cars designed to be the
nest, biggest, most comfortable, most economical, most advanced automobiles ever produced for the medium and low-priced elds ...
the new Nash Ambassador Six and the new
Nash 600.
There followed a very small picture of a 1942

Nash to remind the reader of the car he was
longing for.
Peace had returned by December, 1945, and
Studebaker was jubilant. Beneath a painted
street scene in which cars drove in the snow past
a lighted Christmas tree, the copywriter
summed up national relief that war was over:
This year, the beautiful old Yuletide sentiment peace on earth means something
far more real to most of us than it did at any
previous Christmas.... [P]eace is a dearly won
and precious acquisition we know we must
treasure vigilantly .... [A]s the lights of this inspiring Christmas twinkle at our hearthsides ...
our nation hopefully, condently and resolutely faces the opportunity to shape its destiny.... Studebaker, Builder of cars worthy of
Americas homes.
Within months, that destiny would include

some startling new Studebakers.
Studebaker captures the national mood for the rst peace-time Christmas since
1940. Cars were not mentioned at all in the body copy (December 1945).
10. T HERE S
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141
Anticipating postwar demand. The car is a 1942 convertible, one of the most modern-looking of its year (September 1945).
mean such pleasures as an open road, a glorious day and a
bright and lively Buick.
Admittedly, the car shown was a 1942 model, but it heralded

the high standards to be surpassed in new models now being
made ready. A yellow Roadmaster convertible stood under
the gaze of a military searchlight, with tanks and low-flying aircraft dimly visible in the background.
By December, the new model had arrived, reassuringly familiar: Yes, its Engine is still out Front said the headline.
The car was similar to the 1942 model, but there were improvements to the engine, which employed:
... matchless valve-in-head principle used in the engines of
every American warplane. Its a power plant, indeed, which
in a stful of vital dimensions is actually made to closer tolerances than modern aircraft engines are.
This was perhaps risky, but the good reliability record of

American aircraft precluded misinterpretation, and service
personnel would know that in aeronautical use tolerances varied according to design and materials. In 1946, the same Buick
would be sold with the mixture of euphemism and hyperbole
that characterized most postwar advertising.
Amid the patriotic fervor that accompanied the end of

hostilities, one campaign stood out by capturing the national
mood, and for imaginative artwork. Early in 1945, Fords advertising agency since 1943, J. Walter Thompson, released the
rst advertisement of a new series. It showed a clear, bluegreen crystal ball, held in the palm of a hand. Across the ball
was written the legend, Theres a Ford in your future! Beneath the illustration was the single copy line, Ford has built
more than 30,000,000 cars and trucks.
This advertisement, which was widely published, immediately caught the public imagination. The theme was developed during the year in many different pieces, each of which
emphasized a particular virtue which the new Ford would possess.
In March, 1945 the slogan was taken out of the crystal
ball and placed underneath it. Within the ball could be seen
pedestrians looking down a street, all in one direction, apparently startled by a vehicle that had just passed, but which was
now out of view:
Whoosh! And youre out in front.... You will scarcely know
its running when it idles. Yet when that smooth, soft-spoken
motor springs into action, youll go surging out ahead.... This
10. T HERE S
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143
Above and opposite: Evolution of a successful campaign: Ford promotes 1942s style with new trim, grille, and engine in 194546.
The teaser ads, in particular, were novel and effective. (This page and opposite, upper left to right: January, September, and
November 1945 and January 1946. Opposite, lower: September and November 1946).
is not wishful thinking. When the green light is given, we will
be ready to start production plans. In the meantime, the full
resources and energies of Ford are engaged in turning out war
goods to help speed the day of nal VICTORY!
A similar advertisement was prepared for May; the theme was

ride comfort, and within the crystal ball could be seen a
mother with her child and dog playing in the back seat of
the new car as it glided across the countryside. Youll take
your ease in style, began the copy, Some day when Americas biggest job is done peace will return. And with it
will come a big, new Ford.... Then youll have the kind of gentle ride youve always hoped for. So smooth, so packed with
comfort ... youll nd yourself at ease and completely relaxed.
The copy concluded with a description of the planned improvements to the pre-war Ford in the new model, and the
usual assurance of Fords continued contribution to the war effort.
The new 1946 Ford was scheduled for introduction in
September, 1945, but production difculties delayed its appearance until October. By September, however, the car which
would be the pride of the family could at last be seen in the
crystal ball. A proud family took center stage, and, in one corner of the picture, the tip of a maroon fender was visible.
October 26, 1945 was designated V-8 Day at Dearborn,

and the new model was nally announced. 1946 Ford with
many advancements now in production! declared a November advertisement. For the rst time, the crystal ball contained
only a maroon Fordor sedan:
Here is the most beautiful Ford car ever built with more
improvements than many pre-war yearly models.... Under the
broad hood theres new and greater power.... Colorful interiors invite you to relax in luxury.... New-type springs assure a
full-cushioned level ride.... Ask your Ford dealer about the
smartest Ford cars ever built.
Smartness was enhanced by a newly restyled radiator

grille, and greater power (100 bhp rather than 1942s 90 bhp)
came from the adoption of a Ford truck engine, modied for
installation in a car which had been technically outmoded
even in 1942. But in car-starved postwar America, such shortcomings did not matter.
During 1946, the car and crystal ball were separated. The
new sedan was shown speeding along, while in a separate illustration 1945s expectant family could be seen within the
crystal ball, dreams fullled. Eventually, conventional copy
took over, with both crystal ball and slogan retreating to the
foot of the page and the maroon sedan, now widely available,
144
taking price of place and occasionally being replaced by a maroon convertible. Towards the end of the year, in a related but
distinct campaign, Fords out front with ..., the car was surrounded by proud owners while individual features were
demonstrated in separate illustrations. Cartoon demonstrators added a light touch. The overall theme continued into the
1947 model year with the slogan, Theres a ner Ford in your
future. In June, 1948, Fords rst new postwar car was announced for the 1949 model year. The slogan was extended to
Theres a New Ford in your future and, for 1950, to Theres

a Ford in your future with a future built in!
The continuation of 1945s advertising theme into the
1950 model year was an indicator of the campaigns success, and
it was much better rememberedand more affectionately recalled than Plymouths earnest cross-examination of lowpriced car buyers during the same period. In the late 1940s,
Americans wanted not only a product, but a promise of future happiness as well, and Ford provided both.
Chapter 11
Lady, Relax!
It is positively uncanny how a woman senses style.... Mere beauty never deceives her ... unless the subtle scent of
her perfume ... the cut of her bob ... the curve of her brows ... unless all these things are in vogue her day is utterly
ruined.... It was men who christened Paige The Most Beautiful Car in America ... but it is women who have seen
beyond that beauty a smartness and exclusiveness that stamp Paige motor cars style leaders of the season.... Drop
into a Paige-Jewett showroom when next downtown.... Your visit will prove quite as engaging as an hour along the
Rue de la Paix.
reliably, allowing the copywriter to escape from technicalities.

Paiges copy was an extreme example of a genre which had
persisted in upper-class American magazines for several years,
and which percolated downmarket in the 1930s.
In 1936, Ford was more overtly patronizing, as copy by
N.W. Ayer & Son sought to persuade the female buyer that the
modern V-8 was not an unruly mechanism whose efciency in
traveling fty miles without mishap was largely a matter of
luck. The mechanical niceties which brought about this reassuring state of affairs were nevertheless largely unmentioned.
(It may be debated whether women were assumed to be uncomprehending of them, or merely uninterested.) Lady,
Relax! invited one headline:
With these words, a well-known but relatively minor

American manufacturer enticed affluent, upper-class readers
of The Ladies Home Journal into contemporation of a colorful and carefully styled product in 1927. The advertisement itself was elegantly composed. A modish rendering of a fashionable woman was placed in the center of a display of
fourteen highly colored coachwork designs, whose variety was
intended to beguile her into believing that her car, though
fashionable to the highest degree, was nevertheless an extension of her own personality. She would conform to dominant
aesthetic mores, yet exhibit originality and taste in her choice.
General Motors was not the only company whose awareness
of the value of style in car choice had consolidated into considered policy by 1930.
For Paiges target buyer, the car was not merely a means
of transport. It had to be integrated into an immaculately nurtured world-view whose values were determined largely by
appearance. Those values together with promises of comfort and handling ease would characterize most attempts to
sell cars to women for the next forty years.
Economic independence was enjoyed by few women in
the 1920s, and it could be assumed that the cost of the car was
ultimately derived from the fruits of male economic labor. But
in this upmarket corner of the automobile market, the car was
nevertheless intended to be chosen as well as driven by its female owner, and the use of it brought freedom, if only on a limited scale. By 1927, it was expected that the car would work
A ride in a Ford these days [sic] is a journey in contentment.... Everything is just as you would like to have it. Many
times you will nd yourself leaning back and saying Its a
grand car to drive.... You drive relaxed in the roomy, comfortable Ford V-8 sure of its safety condent of its performance and dependability over many thousands of miles....
[T]his kind of driving adds a great deal to motoring enjoyment explains the popularity of the Ford V-8 tells why it
is the rst choice of so many women nowadays....
Omit the explicit appeal to women, add a few performance

statistics and describe the features which gave the car its safety
and poise on the road, and the copy could have been aimed at
anyone and in generally targeted copy these aspects of the
V-8 were usually mentioned in some detail. But their omission
145
146
here was typical of advertising that was aimed deliberately towards women and, indirectly, towards the men who, by purchasing the product, would provide for their safety and wellbeing. Unlike Paige in 1927, Fords copy was essentially
practical, but it was practical in a limited sense, and reassurance, rather than explanation, was considered appropriate for
the female reader.
Fisher Body, promoting its Turret Top construction in
Chevrolet guise in 1936, appealed more overtly to male protective instincts. In an advertisement headed, Just between
us Girls, safety was included more insistently in the makers
canon of desirable virtues, with an eye to the well-being of a
little girl, shown with her parents admiring the new sedan:
To this curly-haired young lady, the solid steel Turret Top
may be merely a new and more exciting place from which to
view the world. But to her parents, its the crowning glory of a
car chosen for style, for safety, for sturdiness, for comfort.
It was implied that the parents chose the car together, but their
underlying points of view differed. While Family Man looked
on mother and child indulgently, his wife, at the wheel,
beamed grateful thanks to him, with the clear implication that
he was the provider, and she the supplicant upon his responsible nature. Her motorized independence was granted, not
assumed.
Insofar as their respective roles in choosing the familys
car differed, the mans was usually portrayed in automobile
advertising as the more active, purchasing the product and
thereby ensuring his familys well-being. His wifes involvement
was largely receptive, once she had expressed her preference.
When both were shown in the car, it was the man, in most
cases, who drove.
In the 1930s, one car sufced for the average family, and
if the man had overall charge of it, his wife would nevertheless be expected to use it from time to time, and Ford was not
alone in realizing that her opinion of the automobile in question would be instrumental in its purchase.
In 1939, Buick ostensibly appealed to women in an advertisement which appeared to be written from a womans point
of view, but which was also intended to bring indirect pressure to bear on any husband by holding out the prospect of a
loyal and contented wife: She married an Angel, began the
copy above a photograph of the new sedan:
You can tell from the car she drives, she has a husband approaching perfection as nearly as any mortal can!... Hence the
Buick in the family, smart of line and brilliant of behavior ...
and comfort-cushioned for life with the soft, slow spirals of
BuiCoil Torque-Free springing. A car, in short, to delight any
woman and to thrill any man by its action and life and ability to travel.
The angelic husband was clearly looking over his wifes

shoulder in the matter of car choice, and would need to be
assured that her preference, if heeded, would not force him
into a sluggish, unexciting automobile. Custom dictated that

the female motorist rarely spoke for herself in copy; in most
cases, as here, she was spoken for, either by her husband or
by an impliedly male copywriter.
The prevailing view expressed in advertisements of the period that men and women thought in different automotive
categories and consequently were attracted to a given car for
different reasonswas stated with unusual clarity and conciseness by Mercury in 1946:
Women judge a car mostly on its beauty, comfort, safety, ease
of handling, and its perfection of detail. To men power,
economy, and how its put together are most important.
Whether this condent statement of the sexes respective concerns was accurate or not, it was a representative account of
what copywriters, overtly or otherwise, chose to portray as
accepted wisdom.
These advertisements typied copy aimed at those sectors of the market in which men and women chose cars together for the familys use. Where the independent woman
was explicitly targeted (usually in the upper and upper-middle sectors), she was encouraged to choose a car as much for
the impression it would create among her social peers as for the
sensual enjoyment or lack of discomfort that came from
actually driving it. And in the realm of the truly upmarket automobile, the car might be chauffeur-driven, which meant
that there was little point in boring the prospective owner with
mechanical mundanities in which she would have no practical interestsuch things could safely be left to the back pages
of the catalog. In this context, it was irrelevant whether or not
women were assumed to be able to understand them.
There were, however, some striking exceptions to the
prevailing trend. Several of Plymouths ordinary-user testimonials of 1937 came from independent women. Miss C.
Eleanor Hinkley ... drove over 7,000 miles in her Plymouth in
the summer of 1936, through mountains, deserts, sandstorms. In all, shes driven 31,025 miles ... and her car has never
been touched for repairs ... is still on its original tires. Another Plymouth, used by rural nurse Margaret W. Davison of
Maryville, Montana, was Never on sick list in 166,000 miles
... goes through in all kinds of weather. Nurse Davison had
averaged over 20 miles per gallon of gas ... never had the head
off an engine!... Never yet ... has Plymouth failed me.
The purpose of these advertisements was not, in fact, to
appeal to the woman driver as such, but Plymouths decision
to cite the experiences of realistic independent women indicated that public portraiture of female motorists did not always
follow private reality. By 1937, women habitually drove high
mileages, particularly in rural areas where potential buyers
would not be impressed by metropolitan fads.
Throughout the 1930s and beyond, womenwhether or
not specically targeted as consumers retained an important, decorative role in automobile advertising across the
11. L ADY , R ELAX !
147
Happy is the woman who marries a responsible man, for she shall drive a new Chevrolet. Sexism was not an issue in 1936 (April
1936).
148
Plymouths female motorists were tough, realistic, and independent (April 1937).
149
social spectrum. The appeal of a glamorous

model, artfully posed, transferred itself to the
product advertised, which was sometimes
sorely in need of vivication.
The model who posed with a Buick in a
1939 Fisher Body advertisement to set the
Style note for Spring could have been dispensed with without any great loss of impact,
but she was altogether more necessary in the
realm of the car tire, an object which possessed
no inherent aesthetic or social appeal.
General Tires showed its Squeegee tires
on a wide variety of upper-middle market cars
in 1938 and 1939. Each car was painted white
in order to lend it a sense of glamour (differentiating it from the unexciting norm in paint
colors of black, blue, grey, and green), and to
complement the fashionable furs worn by
posed models. White bodywork also allowed
the black tire, with or without whitewall, to
dominate the artwork. The advantages of the
product itself were explained in the copy,
rather than by illustration, and the overall effect was attractive, upmarket, and instantly
recognizable. In many cases, Generals advertising was more distinctive than advertisements for the actual cars depicted (such as
Packard, Oldsmobile, and Lincoln-Zephyr)
a result not seriously compromised by an occasional surfeit of copy.
In 1945, Generals use of fashion models
was taken to its logical conclusion in a colorful series of wartime advertisements in which
the tire/woman relationship was more than
one of mere proximity. Just alike? Not when
you know them ran the slogan, above pictures
of apparently identical babies, female Service
personnel, brides and, most notably, invitingly
posed chorus girls sitting at a bar. Intimate ac- Fashion models, stylishly photographed in color, were widely featured in Fisher
quaintance with the tire, explained the copy, Bodys advertising of the late 1930s. A 1939 Buick is shown here (1939 campaign).
revealed that, in spite of supercial appearfamilies were able to afford two cars, of which one, in many
ances, it was quite unlike any other, just as (the reader incases, would be used almost exclusively by the housewife for
ferred) closer acquaintance with the chorus girls would reveal
access to town from a suburban home.
beguiling diversity. Automobile use was restricted in America
Given that more women owned cars, and used them more
during much of 1945, and with little likelihood that readers
often, copywriters increasingly targeted the woman motorist
would themselves often be able to buy tires, Generals name
exclusively, without attempting to balance the male and fewas kept alive in the minds of servicemen by mock-erotic artmale appeals of a car by trying tortuously to reconcile diverse
work and suggestive copy which demonstrated, as the pay-off
priorities within a single advertisement. A few advertisements
line put it, that General goes a long way to make friends.
for a marque during a model year could be devised to appeal
Peace brought consolidation of earlier advertising themes
to the woman driver alone, and, in the 1950s, the car makers
in many areas and, from around 1950, it brought increased
placed several series in womens magazines. If a man bought
middle-class affluence and rapid expansion of out-of-town
the car for his wife to use, it did not matter whether he would
suburbs. Automobiles became cheaper in real terms, and more
150
Tire advertisements were frequently utilitarian and sometimes alarmist, but Generals were more imaginative than most (1939
campaign and February 1945).
necessarily have chosen it for himself. Show this to your husband ... when his moods just right! advised Chevrolet in
1956, beneath a photograph of a pale green and black Bel Air
Sport Coupe. If he complains about those last-minute dinners, put this next to his napkin, advised another advertisement in the series.
Thus there emerged a distinct style of feminized copy
which emphasized color and trimmings and the automobiles
potential as a fashion accessory the very preoccupations
which had hitherto been mainly conned to upmarket magazines with a female readership. In August, 1946, Studebaker
advertised its new Champion in The Ladies Home Journal:
Heres fashion on wheels that mirrors your personality as
effectively as a Bruno costume.... Its an eager-to-go, low, long
lovely melody in metal, agleam with gay, exciting color. Its
richly upholstered in soft, harmonizing fabric .... Its a dream
of a car to handle steers, stops and parks with delightful
ease and the comfort of the ride is really beyond description.... Dont miss seeing what it does to you and for you....
The car was shown alongside a painting of a woman in a fashionable Bruno tweed ensemble, with close-up drawings of her
shoes, hat, and handbag. The overall tone of such copy was
carefully devised to appeal emotionally to the female reader.
Studebakers advertisement was a mild foretaste of what was
to come in the 1950s, when women were enticed into consideration of the latest cars with plenty of exclamation marks,
scrupulous avoidance of technicalities, and frequent use of
selected words and phrases (thrilling, delightful, and utterly for example) in a variety of combinations. Though concentrated by 1955 in copy for medium-priced cars, this trend
was occasionally evident further upmarket, even in magazines
and papers with a general readership of both sexes.
Cadillac advertisements continued to be targeted principally towards men, and sometimes to the affluent couple, but
one 1952 advertisement typied its genre. The latest Sixty Special, costing $4,323 and resplendent in salmon pink and
chrome, was shown outside an elegant suburban house. The
copywriter set out to demonstrate the social potentialities of
Cadillac ownership:
Perhaps its to be a visit to a friends home ... or perhaps shes
meeting the man of the house in town ... or, again, it may be
only for the days shopping. But whatever the trip for the
151
woman who enjoys possession of a Cadillac car,

this is the highlight of the days activities.... Out
on the highway theres nothing for her to do
but relax! She merely preselects the type of performance she wants for the miles ahead ... and
the car does her bidding as if by magic.... She
just leans back, with a queenly sense of wellbeing, and listens to the quiet lullaby of the passing breeze.
Unlike her compatriot in the 1936 Ford, who had

to cope with the vagaries of stick-shift and transverse springing. If one believed the copywriter,
driving a Cadillac was an almost passive activity,
demanding no energy, little intelligence, and no
interaction with the outside world. Driving pleasure in this context lacked any suggestion of the
excitement to be had from operating a powerful
machine, and in this anaesthetized interpretation
of handling ease, Cadillac echoed equivalent upmarket copy of the 1920s.
There was a strong suggestion in much feminized copy that while men drove cars, women
formed relationships with them. In 1952, Mercury:
... built a new car and made this challenge:
Match Mercury if you can. Now we know weve
got the sweetest thing on wheels since the ladies
began to drive ... this is a love affair you can afford.
Nash acquired a reputation as a ladies car in

the early 1950s, in spite of 1953s appeal to the
boy who wanted a Stutz Bearcat. The 1952 Ambassador, upholstered in Mediterranean Blue
needle point and striped homespun, was promoted as the means above all others by which
your golden dreams can come true!
De Soto elded an implied testimonial in
Suburban ecstasy in 1952. Not every man could afford to buy his wife a Cadil1955. The caption, Anne Fogarty, famous fash- lac, as many British GI brides discovered after World War II (May 1952).
ion designer, drives a De Soto Sportsman, appeared underneath a studio shot of the designer
Have you ever dreamed of a car so handsomely crafted, so
looking out of the car towards the camera. As the copy made
distinctive in concept and color that it would stand out like a
rare jewel?... A glamorous new three-color treatment, exciting
apparent, the Sportsman name was in this case misleading:
Theres no word in the English language that quite describes
the utter satisfaction, the thrill, the delightful ease of driving a
De Soto.... Here is a car that translates your wishes into action
almost with the speed of thought itself.
In the spring of that year, a special-edition sedan was announced, called the Coronado. It was available only in threetone white, turquoise, and black, at a $100 premium over the
regular Fireflite, and the copy gushingly highlighted its role as
fashion accessory as much as transportation:
and exclusive new fabrics .... No detail has been spared to

bring you a car that is a distinction to own ... a car to turn
heads wherever you drive.
A fashion model was posed beside the car, her clothes carefully coordinated to the paintwork and to matching white and
turquoise interior trim.
If any doubt remained about who was the target audience, it was necessary only to compare this advertisement with
equivalent copy for the regular Fireflite, shown in two-tone
blue, on which the Coronado was based:
152
Above and opposite: An implied testimonial from a fashion designer and a luxuriously trimmed Coronado invited women into
De Soto ownership in 1955. A man was in charge of the regular Fireflite, however. (Sportsman: 1955 campaign; Coronado: May
1955; Fireflite: April 1955).
Take a turn at the wheel of a De Soto, and its certain youll be

spoiled for other cars.... Not only has its mighty V-8 engine
the sheer power you need for instant response but there is
... a sureness of control, a solid feel, that puts De Soto in a
class by itself among American cars.
The Coronado buyer was urged to make a date with your De

Soto dealer and see and drive the fabulous Coronado today.
The prospective (male) Fireflite owner, on the other hand,
was much more dynamic, and interested primarily in power,
rather than fabrics: Take a Firedome or Fireflite out on the
road. Try a stretch of cobbles, the steepest hill in town, a bit
of heavy trafc .... See if the De Soto isnt the nest car youve
ever driven.... De Soto Division, Chrysler Corporation.
In a 1956 advertisement, Plymouth emphasized color,
upholstery, and a conspicuously fashionable appearance, offering, in the Aerodynamic Plymouth 56, a Dream car ...
dream deal! Women love this dream car ... and, with a vital
stake in family budgets, love the dream deal that Plymouth
dealers offer.... The copy pointed out useful design features
such as wide doors that never snag frocks ... generous headroom, so hairdos stay beautifully in place ... rich fabrics ... and
utmost safety for the children....
A supposedly female perspective was thus tacked onto
153
such advantages as interior roominess, and it was noticeable

that children of neutral copy became the children when it
was feminized in order to entwine the product within the
panorama of the readers own emotional relationships. It was
not considered sufcient just to assume that the reader would
apply relevant features to her own circumstances unaided, and
an underlying belief that a woman would remain unmoved
unless the product were overtly integrated into her personal
world-view, and into the circumstances of her own particular
life, was widely apparent.
By the mid1950s, this pattern was most noticeable in
copy for those types of car which would be chosen by the prosperous suburban housewife for her own domestic and leisure
use: in other words, convertibles and station wagons. A 1955
Ford advertisement promoted the Two-Ford family, showing a man in charge of a low-priced station wagon, while his
partner sat in a luxurious black and yellow Fairlane Sunliner
convertible.
A year later, Pontiacs top-line Star Chief Custom Convertible was promoted in flowery, cocktail-party-invitation
script as a Very Special Car for a Very Special Person! A
metallic purple and white car was shown outside an exotic,
upmarket venue, tended by the obligatory femme la mode.
Where women were shown with station wagons they were
154
Plymouth appeals to fashion-conscious women in 1956 (March 1956).
155
Spoked wheel covers, a continental kit, bumper guards, and a pillar-mounted spotlight enticed would-be sophisticates in 1956
(May 1956).
156
undistracted by passengers or admiring neighbors. While his

wife might recline elegantly in the bench front seat, he would
sit up straight, decisively grasping the controls. If women
steered effortlessly with two ngers, men drove with both
hands on the wheel. Where a woman sat in a stationary car, and
her husband was present, she usually looked up at him standing beside the car; she smiling, seeking admiration; he indulgent and solicitous, proud to be the means of his wifes contentment. These visual codes transcended socioeconomic
boundaries, and were apparent whatever the statusphere of
the car advertised. There were few exceptions to the stereotype until the late 1960s.
From the earliest days of automobile advertising,
womenas models, drivers or passengershad
one more active role: that of gadget demonstrator. The theory ran (although it was rarely stated
as such after around 1925) that if a girl could
operate an automobiles controls, it would be
effortless and simple for anyone else. In 1911, the
Star Starter Company of New York had offered
women motorists relief from the painful and
potentially dangerous hand-cranking which had
led many towards electric cars with the slogan,
Any Woman Can Start Your Car and, in the
years that followed, the theme of effortlessness
became rmly established.
In some cases, the demonstrator of gadgets
was included in order to appeal to the female
buyer, but the idea had a much wider application. Occasionally, the gadgets were not easily
operated at all, a fact from which the readers
attention was diverted by the operators wellpracticed smile which, if unconvincing on lm,
could be touched in by an artist later.
In 1946, for instance, Buick showed a
woman of medium height operating the ventiheater control of a Roadmaster sedan. The necessary switch was located under the dashboard
and the operator, in order to reach it, needed to
lean against the steering wheel for support.
Since the wheel rim was approximately level
with her forehead, she had to turn to the side, in
which position it was impossible either to steer
or to see out of the windshield. Had the driver
been facing forward, she probably could not
have reached the switch at all. It was characteristic of the period that such disastrous ergonomicsplanned around the average male frame
were actually promoted as advanced and
convenient for women as well.
In 195354, optional power steering,
Cant drive, can pose: a Chevrolet owner wanders all over the road and looks
brakes,
seats, and windows arrived on loweverywhere but in front in 1958. The stereotype survived into the 1960s (May
priced
cars,
and the gadget operator was drafted
1958).
usually luxury versions, and suburban rather than rural locations prevailed. By 1958, luxury wagons were commonplace,
the type having lost all vestige of its austere ancestry for good.
Chevrolet Nomads, Brookwoods, and Kingswoods were photographed in fun and family leisure contexts, with mothers and children outside supermarkets and antiques shops.
Given prevailing assumptions, it was not surprising that
where women were depicted as drivers in automobile advertising, they were almost invariably seen gazing out of side windows, talking to passengers, or waving to their partners or
friends in the distance.
The archetypal male driver, by contrast, usually looked
forwards, conspicuously concentrating on the road ahead,
157
ing, and young, and were able to choose their cars without
deferring to male patronage of one kind or another. Lacking
families, they were not solely motivated by practical considerations and, being socially mobile, they were not much concerned with the admiration of suburban neighbors; the consumer saw little point in keeping up with the Joneses if she
neither knew nor cared who they were.
The diminution of male influence in the automotive
market-place also meant that, from being largely a symbol of
male dynamism, the powerful automobile could be promoted,
albeit subtly, not only as a giver of freedom but also as an element in a womans sexual equipage as it had not been, except intermittently within the highest income groups, in the
1930s. Add to these developments a growing informality in
advertisers social tableaux and a rejection by many younger
buyers of old snobberies and social habits, and it became necessary for automobile advertising, in relation to women as in
other areas, to evolve rapidly.
How far away will you have your heater control? 1946s Buick
driver smiles bravely during a move best attempted while at a
standstill (October 1946).
in to explain their advantages. A 1954 advertisement for the

Ford range, and especially the Crestline, included four illustrations. The rst showed the cars interior, with Family Man
driving his wife and mother through lush green countryside,
rejoicing in the no shifting no clutching that that came
with Fordomatic Drive. In the back seat, his mother operated a window switch with exaggerated delicacy. In the remaining pictures, it was a female leg which demonstrated the
cars power brakes and her nger which moved the electric
seat adjustment. In the nal picture, another woman maneuvered a two-tone pink and black Crestline hardtop out of a
parking space with the aid of newly optional power steering.
Examples of such advertising were legion, and when the
Chrysler Corporation promoted its station wagon range to family car buyers in a concentrated campaign during 196062, maternal priorities, little different from Chevrolets in 1936, inltrated the mixture of established clichs as an anxious mother
protected her children in the back of a Dodge Dart or Plymouth Suburban by flicking the electric lock activator switch.
In the mid1960s, the gadget operator was increasingly
combined with the seductive passenger who demonstrated
hazard warning flashers and cassette decks from the comfort
of a sporty bucket seat. The seductive passenger had the merit
of appealing to both male and female buyers, particularly in
the sports and personal-luxury sectors of the market.
Several factors combined to encourage the modication
of long-lived stereotypes. The growing sexual and economic
liberation of women meant that more of them bought cars.
Increasing numbers of those buyers were single, self-support-
The woman as gadget demonstrator: Ford employed an age-old

theme in 1954. The man (hands on wheel, looking ahead) drives
a dark-colored car, while the woman has a two-tone hardtop
(May 1954).
158
By the mid1960s, the male benefactor was in retreat as more women chose their own cars and enjoyed a measure of autonomy
(June 1966).

Earlier, distinct images of women in relation to automobiles as fashion models, drivers, and gadget demonstrators became intermingled and, by 1965, the woman who owned
a car was assumed to understand and be more
interested in what made it enjoyable to handle.
The bland, patronizing assurances of earlier
years were no longer enough. Little now distinguished a woman who drove from her male
equivalent; both desired power and comfort,
and Mercurys earlier statement of the sexes
respective priorities, plausible in 1946, had little application twenty years later. Moreover, the
cars of 1965 were easier to drive: Power steering and brakes removed the need for strength;
and larger windows, combined with lower
hood lines and rear decks that were visible from
the driving seat, made height less of an advantage when maneuvering a full-size car.
A 1966 advertisement for the Chevrolet
Caprice Custom Coupe illustrated the vinyltopped car with a bikini-clad model lying on
the roof. She was not looking at the reader and,
intent on applying her make-up, suggested that
the car was her own domain. She was as feminine as her forebears, but independent. The
car in contrast to equivalent station wagons was portrayed as a liberator and not
merely as an ameliorator of domestic drudgery.
In 1967, a mink-clad model promised that
the Oldsmobile Toronado was next to mink ...
the most exciting animal around.... The kind
of car a man buys for his kind of girl! Was this
a reversion to the assumption of male patronage? Perhaps but in this advertisement it was
very denitely the girl who took the initiative.
The copy added, in a pointed aside, Who says
its a mans world? It also revealed changing
expectations of both car and driver:
159
Who says its a mans world? Oldsmobiles girl would not be satised with a
dull sedan or, perhaps, with the kind of man who would choose it (April 1967).
Now take the wheel. Toronados front wheel drive negotiates

tight turns, deep snow and rugged terrain effortlessly. And
makes pulling into a parking place as easy as pulling on a kid
glove.
Promises of driving ease and age-old obsessions with parking

were apparent, but technical features (such as front-wheel
drive) were considered, along with the challenge of driving in
the potentially difcult conditions which, in 1952, Cadillac
had ignored. Oldsmobiles driver was more dynamic than her
predecessors, and the copywriter had arrived at a point
roughly midway between De Sotos male (Fireflite) and female (Coronado) priorities of 1955.
The seductive passenger, who appeared in advertisements

for Pontiac GTOs, Chevrolets, Mercury Cougars, and any
number of Thunderbirds and Mustangs, was an ambiguous
motif intentionally so. Was she the cars owner, or the
owners partner, or where the copy was aimed partly at
men the kind of girl that a male buyer of the automobile in
question might attract if he drove the new car? Or was the car
simply a means by which a womans attractiveness, to herself
as much as to any man, was enhanced? Or did the car interpose itself between man and woman, providing that independence and excitement which, in earlier years, a man alone
would have been able to provide? It was impossible to determine which was the case unless the copy made it clearwhich
160
it did rarely but the woman motorist unquestionably enjoyed a greater physical and mental autonomy than did her
predecessor of 1935, or even 1955.
It would be a mistake to infer from this development that
the social climate changed overnight it did not, and the
trends depicted by copywriters were not equally prevalent in
all states, or in rural, as opposed to urban, communities. A
buyers social class and level of education mattered, too. But
among those traditionalists who maintained that it was, and
should remain, a mans world, the automobile advertisers were
less and less common. A successful appeal to independent
women could have a signicant impact on an automobiles
sales.
Images of women in automobile advertising did not
change radically after 1970, and the liberation which was
bound up in the wider climate of the 1960s was increasingly

taken for granted. Housewives continued to load groceries
and children into station wagons, but women were habitually
portrayed at the wheel of other types of car, without a man in
sight, and their body language grew noticeably more
condent. Models were still posed in and beside cars, but it
was taken for granted by all involved that many women bought
cars for fun and for business use as well as for domestic convenience. Compared with the changes that had taken place between 1930 and the mid1960s, it was a relatively small step
from Oldsmobiles Toronado theme to the Mercury Capri
owner in 1991s catalog who declared, as she got into her red
convertible, that the end of my workday opens up endless
possibilities.
P ART T HREE : R EALITY S UPERVENES

Chapter 12
Justifying the Indulgence

The new 1938 Plymouth celebrates 10 years of building great cars! Plymouth started in 28, a newcomer. Today
Plymouth owners number millions! Because Plymouth offers more value.
Out on the General Motors proving ground in the research laboratories along the assembly line men are busy
working to the same broad purpose. Their steady aim is to give the public extra value. The benefits of these activities are clearly shown in what you get for what you pay when you buy any car in the GM family.... The next time
you buy a car, remember General Motors means Good Measure.
unbeatable value for money. More fanciful advertising themes

were generally conned to copy for particular marques with
specialized features and carefully dened (and often mutually exclusive) target markets.
Beneath the fantasy, therefore, lay a conservative and
value-conscious attitude to the automobile as mechanism.
Even the overt anti-functionalism of the early postwar period
would be rejected by many consumers in the 1960s and, more
comprehensively, in the 1970s. In the 1920s, the automobile,
though widespread, was much more of a novelty to individual buyers, and styling in its modern sense had not yet obscured the cars essential purpose.
For Henry Ford, that purpose was simple. It was expounded in Fords My Life and Work, published in 1923, which,
though autobiographical, served also as a statement of personal ambition and corporate policy. Ford cited his rst advertisement as a concise account of what he set out to achieve:
Both of these advertisements appeared in December,

1937. One was typical of its marque, and consisted of captioned photographs which demonstrated particular features of
a new low-priced model. The second advertisement had a similar purpose within a corporate framework, underlining the
value for money inherent in General Motors cars of all class
categories, from Chevrolet to LaSalle and Cadillac. Such copy
encouraged value-conscious buyers to trade up within the
Corporation.
Whatever the particular merits of individual marques
and models, the new car buyer had to be convinced that he
was getting value for money. This applied to second-hand cars
as much as to new ones, for marque loyalty nurtured by a used
car often led to the purchase of a related new model.
General Motors published corporate advertisements from
1922, when it was found that people throughout the United
States, except at the corner of Wall and Broad streets, did not
know anything about the parent company of so many popular marques.1 The Ford name, on the other hand, was associated with a man, a company, and a product line.
Thus General Motors two-tier advertising structure was
born. Corporate advertisements were necessarily general in
content, but they often featured (with divisional consent) individual marques, or particular features such as Fisher bodies
and 1934s new Knee-Action independent front suspension.
The underlying message of such advertising was that the Corporation, with its unmatched production resources, offered
Our purpose is to construct and market an automobile specially designed for everyday wear and tear ... an automobile
which will attain to a sufcient speed to satisfy the average
person without acquiring any of those breakneck velocities
which are so universally condemned; a machine which will be
admired by man, woman, and child alike for its compactness,
its simplicity, its safety, its all-round convenience and last
but not least its exceedingly reasonable price....2
The identication of the product with its manufacturers

personal ambitions and desires was a popular advertising
161
162
Above and opposite: Practical advertising in a recessionary model year, when competition amongst the Big Three was intense
(Both ads: December 1937).
strategy of the 1900s; it suggested a personal commitment to

buyers which had not yet been rendered foolish and improbable by the complexities of mass-production. It was ironic that
Ford, a pioneering mass-producer, should have been able to
trade on that personal reputation, directly or indirectly, until
well into the 1930s. Ford, however, occupied a unique position
in the automotive arena, and such advertising techniques
could not safely be attempted by any other popular manufacturer.
Chrysler tried a similar trick in 1936, by writing a Plymouth advertisement around one P.C. Sauerbrey, Plymouths
vice-president in charge of production. The narrative took the
reader round the Plymouth factory, describing the equipment
and machinery used to produce Plymouth cars to a consistently high quality. P.C. Sauerbrey kept in personal touch
with the job. Because his chief concern is to get a superbly engineered car superbly built. And from the boss down thats
true of every Plymouth worker.
This personalization of advertising was intermittently
popular as a counteracting force to the perceived depersonalization of the industry through mass production. It was also,
perhaps, a cynical attempt to appeal to the small-town values
of Plymouths target market. The Plymouth name had been
chosen for the marque in 1927 because it was familiar to
American farmers through Plymouth Binder Twine, and advertising for the marque reflected the associations which the
name already held in the American mind. It was therefore perhaps not surprising that buyers of regular Chryslers and
Chrysler Imperials were not introduced to Mr. Sauerbreys
colleagues in the Corporations other plants.
Overall value for money was a nebulous characteristic.
Even disregarding the purely emotional element in a new car
purchase, priorities varied from buyer to buyer and were not
always easy to place in order. Quality, initial cost, reliability,
and renement were all desirable; in each area of the market
it was necessary to create a tailor-made combination of
virtues, and copywriters had to ensure that buyers were convinced that the best possible compromise had been achieved.
12. J USTIFYING
By 1927, the determinants of what the public perceived as

value for money had changed, and they included an element
of style. For this reason, as much as for its mechanical crudity, Fords Model T was no longer viable, and it was discontinued in that year. While many new car buyers might have admired Henry Ford personally, and even his Model T as a
contributor to American progress, they actually went out and
bought Chevrolets in increasing numbers.
In 1928, Ford replied with the mechanically more conventional and up-to-date Model A, a car which was deliberately styled as the Model T had not been. A new Tudor sedan
was declared to be roundly at home in any company ... distinguished by its low, trim lines and the quiet good taste of
every detail of nish and equipment. It was not merely cheap
transport, but the advanced expression of a wholly new idea
in modern, economical transportation. It was apparent, even
to Henry Ford, that utilitarian virtue alone was no longer
enough to sustain sales. Value for money was a more complex
amalgam of features in 1928 than in previous years, and the
aesthetic component had come to stay.
In 1930, with competition intensifying, particularly from
the Chrysler Corporations new Plymouth, Ford staff began
THE I NDULGENCE
163
discreet work on a new V-8. The rst engine was laid out in
May, 1930, and by early 1931 an experimental motor was running. It was followed by further prototypes, and once Henry
Ford had become convinced of the types worth as a replacement for the Model A after a meeting with his son Edsel in
December, 1931, the company worked frenetically to prepare
the new car for launch to the public at the beginning of April,
1932.3
The V-8 was a long way removed from earlier Fords, and
advertisements for the car traded on the companys reputation as a general provider of transport for the people, while at
the same time promoting the stylistic and technical merits of
the latest models compared with the Model A and by indirect implication the four-cylinder Model B. If Henry Ford
had once scorned V-8 engines, he now wanted to consolidate
the single obvious advantage that his new model had over the
six-cylinder Chevrolet. Light bodywork enabled the V-8 engine of little more than average power for its time, at 65
bhp to propel the new car fast and smoothly. By 1938,
streamlined V-8 sedans were shown in dramatic poses which
drew attention to the low-priced Fords resemblance to the
glamorous, middle-market Lincoln-Zephyr.
The V-8 was marketed in Europe as well as America. Ford
realized that European-assembled V-8s would occupy different areas of their markets from their American equivalents at
home. Yet within their target, upper-middle class markets in
Europe, they could still be promoted as offering better allround value for money than their competition which, in most
cases, was domestically designed and produced in small numbers by American standards. Ford could never sell its cars on
exclusivity, but it could, and did, draw consumers attention
to the economic advantages of large-scale production.
Advertising strategies were adapted accordingly by Fords
agency between 1927 and the early 1940s, N.W. Ayer & Son:
It was evident that American-made advertising and selling
methods could not be successfully transplanted to England....
The rm decided to have a British staff under an American
manager who had proved himself in the parent
organization...4
This policy was reflected in British copy for the V-8, which
was made palatable to its market without being complacent
and insular. It was largely devoid of the smugness and
difdently expressed snobberies with which many British advertisements for the V-8s competition were infused. Where social climbing was attempted, it was attempted boldly, veering
occasionally into self-parody, but never to the extent that the
virtues of the car itself were obscured. The most exaggerated
forms of this genre were reserved for the smaller Eight and
Ten models of the late 1930s, which were not sold in America.
Unlike these smaller Fords, the V-8 was never perceived
by British motorists as anything other than an American car,
164
Corporate advertising increased the likelihood that, when he traded up, the motorist would choose another General Motors
marque (June 1929).
12. J USTIFYING
THE I NDULGENCE
165
and British buyers of American cars in the 1930s bought them

primarily for their low initial cost in relation to the performance offered. At a time (193537) when the cheapest saloon
car in Britain, the Ford Eight (Model Y), cost 100, the Dagenham-assembled American sedan sold for a modest 230,
which was superb value for a large V-8. But the cars fuel consumption, and the annual horsepower tax payable on the
V-8 30 engine, were in the luxury car league.
British copywriters consequently found it difcult to target the V-8, promoting it both as a luxury car whose rst cost
happened to be extraordinarily low, and as a mid-priced car
with the performance of an expensive sports saloon. Body
styles changed every year or two from the V-8s introduction
in 1932, but the flavor of N.W. Ayers copy stayed the same. A
September, 1936 advertisement for the Model 68 was typical:
The reader was not told that the really remarkable brakes
were operated by cables, rather than the increasingly widespread hydraulic cylinders tted to Plymouths and Chevrolets
since 1928 and 1936 respectively, or that the suspension was
by transverse leaves, as tted to the Model T. Fuel vaporization
in hot weather was left unmentioned, too, though such
weather did not usually trouble British motorists for more
than a few weeks in a year.
Copy for the 1939 Model 91A de Luxe claimed value for
money, but was disingenuous:
Really De Luxe Touring Comes Easy to the owners of the

Ford V-8, universally conceded to be the luxury car for the
economically-inclined, generous in pleasure-giving, miserly
in fuel consumption, running and maintenance generally.
This was certainly true of the bodywork, if not of the machinery underneath. The copy continued:
A new, streamlined 1937 Model 78 was shown outside an antiques shop in a March, 1937 advertisement:
Hunting Period Pieces, Pictures, Silver, Up and Down the
Kingdom, you could have no better car than the New Ford V8 30, whose appearance indicates your judgement of value,
whose performance is equally gratifying to amateur or expert,
every seat a front seat in restful, comfortable roominess. It
costs very little to buy, run and maintain, over a term of
years, always in prime condition.
Not all advertisements for the V-8 were as high-flown as

these color pieces. According to a small black and white advertisement taking up just one sixteenth of a large magazine page
of The Field in September, 1937:
With accommodation for seven passengers in addition to
the driver the Ford Utility Car [1937 wooden-bodied station wagon] is the ideal vehicle for country house, station or
hotel service. Amply powered with an 8-cylinder engine, the
car will perform heavy duty at moderate cost. Prices from
275 (ex works). Obtainable from South Londons oldest estd.
Ford dealers, F.H. Peacock Ltd. 219221 Balham High Road,
S.W.17.
A full-page monochrome advertisement for the equivalent sedan was almost as down-to-earth in April, 1937:
After even forty years of motoring, you still have something
to learn unless you have tried this new Ford V-8 30. You
may take its wonderful engine for granted, because of the
designers unique experience of V-8s. You expect much: You
are not disappointed. But its clutch, gear-box, steering, suspension, particularly those really remarkable brakes, have to
be personally tried before you can understand such an improvement upon those of other cars.... This Ford V-8 30
gives you multi-cylinder luxury-car motoring at a cost you
can contemplate undisturbed.... We put price last. Satisfy
yourself on every other point. Then consider the price,
permitted only by the matchless production-resources of the

Ford Works at Dagenham [England].
An entirely new car ... it possesses elegant, roomy bodywork

of a class and distinction usually associated only with far costlier cars.
... its typically Ford power-to-weight ratio makes it a car of

incredible economy of running and maintenance, apart from
its very conservative rst cost.
Convenience of servicing apart, this was less true. The Saloon de Luxe cost 280 by March, 1939, when this advertisement appeared. Curiously, no mention was made of the Model
91As new hydraulic brakes, although much was made of Fords
production methods in a spirit of English eccentricity:
Did you know...? King Henry I of England decreed that a lawful English yard was the measure of the distance from the tip
of his nose to the end of his thumb, the arm fully extended.
His word was law, but Ford precision gauges, in hourly use at
Dagenham, measure rather more exactly, if required to a twomillionth of an inch.
N.W. Ayer & Son understandably played it both ways,

comparing the V-8s initial cost favorably with the luxury
eight-cylinder car norm, yet also comparing its running costs
with those of cars whose purchase prices were two or three
times the 280 asked for a Ford V-8. To Britons, the car was
either the best of all possible worlds or an ignominious collapse
between every possible stool, as in England the V-8 was still expensive to run for so inexpensive a car.
Compromise was attempted in 1936 with the V-8 22
(Model 62), a 136 cubic inch small V-8 with a Dagenhamdesigned body which was never sold in America. The new
model was heavily promoted with lavish color advertising in
upmarket British magazines such as Punch, The Illustrated
London News, and The Field from late 1936 onwards. American influence was immediately apparent in the layout and artwork of such pieces which, set against the contemporary norm
in British automobile advertising, were uncluttered and distinctive.
The V-8 22 was announced at 210, at which price it was
only marginally cheaper than the 30. Yet running costs were
166
Above , left and opposite: The Dagenham-built Ford V-8, as

advertised to cost-conscious, middle-class British motorists.
Minor details distinguished British models from their Dearborn sisters, of which the most noticeable were electro-mechanical semaphore turn signals, or trafcators, in boxes beside
the front door hinges on the 1936 and 1937 cars, and hidden in
recesses between the doors in 1939. The 136 cu. in. 22 was a
British-market special, heavily advertised as the ideal compromise for that countrys needs. All Ford V-8s were sturdy, and
surviving 30 variants were popular in the postwar years with
British motorists who could nd the fuel to run them (October 1936, August 1937, February 1938, and March 1939).
claimed to be signicantly reduced, and much was made of

the annual tax of 16 10s (16 pounds and ten shillings) payable,
which was little more than twice the 7 10s charge for a Model
C Ten. You have to see, examine at close range, test on the
road, this New Ford V-8 to realize how ne, handsome, dependable and, above all, how economical a car it is, said a
typical announcement advertisement. In February, 1937 it was
...just as ne a car as its bigger sister, but attractively less
costly to buy, run and maintain....
At the end of 1936, the V-8 22 was advertised as the
ideal Christmas present, repeating a theme used in copy for the
Model Y Eight in 1935: The Season of Peace and Goodwill,
of hospitality at its most lavish, coming and going at their
busiest, calls for this New Ford V-8... the magic carpet of engineering! The car was shown, chauffeur at the wheel, parked
outside a stately home as Christmas party-goers gathered
12. J USTIFYING
THE I NDULGENCE
167
offer such good value for money as the original. Nevertheless,

eight months after the horsepower tax was abolished in Britain
in January, 1947, the regular 221 cu. in. engine was tted into
a facelifted V-8 22 body (called the Pilot) that owed nothing to Americas latest incarnation of the parent idiom, which
had been around since 1941. The Pilot, sold from the outset as
a luxury car, was more successful than the V-8 22, and more
than 21,000 were produced between 1947 and 1951.
On both sides of the Atlantic, Ford pursued the valuefor-money theme relentlessly. In America, the company had
long been a part of the countrys social and industrial fabric,
and could play the role of general provider much earlier, and
more convincingly, than was possible in Britain. Ford was able
to trade on the reputation of a company whose position was not
only established in the annals of motoring history, but also
rmly planted in the fertile substratum of Americas cultural
consciousness.
In 1937, an American advertisement for the Ford V-8
combined elements of the popular contented-ordinary-user
testimonial with an appeal to the readers common sense. The
speaker was a (mythical) retired farmer, who sat in the sunshine surveying the land, his new Ford parked a few yards
away:
around. Beneath the picture was the pay-off line, There is

No Comparison! More Miles per Gallon is Good: Fewer Pence
Per Mile is Better! and an offer: No Motorist Should be
Without The New FORD Book of Maps! Handy in SizeEasily Read, 1s [one shilling], From any Ford Dealer. Another
piece in the series showed the V-8 22 outside a more modest town house, the ideal gift from an affluent man to his wife:
Merry Christmas.... The Best Gift of which I could think....
The New Ford V-8 ... the multi-cylinder luxury car of outstanding dependability, economy and efciency.... There is No
Comparison.
Two years later, aware that detractors considered the V8 22 a gutless wonder which lacked the performance of
the larger V-8 but which was almost as expensive to run, Ford
traded on the larger cars performance image: Sample V-8
performance! No cost! No obligation! Until you have driven
a Ford V-8, you dont know what twentieth-century motoring
can mean.... Watch the Fords go by!
Yet the 22 was not a success, selling only 9,239 copies
as a single model between June, 1936 and February, 1941, while
nearly 12,000 of the 30 were sold in four successive editions
(Models 68, 78, 81A, and 91A) between November, 1935 and
January, 1940. More compact than the American product, the
22 was still a large car by British standards, and it did not
Seems to me, nothing ever takes the place of experience. You

learn to do a good job by going out and doing it. The more
you do it, the more you learn about it. Take cars for instance.
They tell me Henry Ford has built more than 25 million. Nobody else ever had near that much experience. So, the way I
gure, Henry Fords the man I want to build my car. Besides,
all those cars werent sold most of them were bought.
Bought because folks got more for their money because
Henry Ford did a better job every year....5
The cult of Henry Fords personality was employed to

the full. Everyone knew that he had been born on a farm, and
that he had been motivated by a desire to provide transport for
farming communities so that they would not suffer the rural
isolation in which he and his contemporaries had grown up.
But it was signicant that the advertisement made no appeal
at all to the farmers understanding of automobiles; the homespun philosophy so eloquently contrived required absolute
trust on the part of the new car buyer. It was true that many
people did trust Henry Ford to cater to their motoring needs,
but Ford was essentially a paternalist, and it showed.
The onset of economic depression in 1929 reduced advertising budgets in all sectors of the market. For their clients
to remain loyal, agencies needed to demonstrate an ability not
only to cultivate marque images over the long term, but to sell
as many of the present years cars as possible. Automobile production fell by 40 percent between 1929 and 1930, and one result was a renewed concentration among copywriters on the
operating costs and serviceability of their products, at the expense of whimsical and artistic types of advertising. Value
for money became a fashionable theme and, particularly
168
American advertising for the V-8 was less fanciful than the British equivalent, reflecting the cars low-priced status and an essentially practical approach to motoring (February 1938).
12. J USTIFYING
THE I NDULGENCE
169
within the low and medium price elds, it remained dominant for many years, and only
faded once again in 194142.
The independent manufacturers, which
lacked the production resources of the Big
Three, had to try particularly hard. Hudson declared in 1934: You wont believe your ears
when you hear the price of its eight-cylinder
model. The recommendation was earnest:
With due regard for the value of each word,
Hudson believes that the following statement
cannot be successfully challenged: The new
1934 Hudson Eight will out-perform every
other eight-cylinder stock car ever built.
The small print continued with a careful, if

pedantic, analysis of the cars superior comfort
and economy (the lowest fuel and oil cost per
horse-power ever achieved). In the absence of
any one remarkable characteristic, and aware
that the low-priced Ford V-8 offered eightcylinder competition, Hudson strove, like
many others, to offer the best of all possible
worlds.
The Depression reached its nadir in 1932,
and car production rose steadily thereafter until
1938, when sales fell again by 40 percent compared with 1937s total of nearly four million.
Recovery was evident by the end of the model
year, but uncertainty and new competition
from Mercury in the middle price range was
reflected in the noisily persuasive copy that surfaced in 1939. According to Oldsmobile, for instance, America rides and decidesTHIS
YEAR, ITS OLDSMOBILE!
As one of GMs mid-range marques,
Oldsmobile was vulnerable to fluctuations
downwards towards top-range Chevrolets, Oldsmobile encouraged owners of the low-priced three to trade up in 1939.
Fords, and Plymouths, and those who had pre- Modest artwork reflected the functional copy (February 1939).
viously been content with cars of the lowques, but, above the $900-$1,000 level, lists of ttings made way
priced three were encouraged to trade up. Oldsmobiles startfor less starkly factual copy.
ing price of $777 was prominently displayed in the companys
By the late 1940s, the mundanity of much pre-war copy
1939 advertising, and even if most cars that left the factory
was mitigated by a more widespread use of color and elegant
would not be stripped business coupes selling for less than
language, even in advertisements whose primary purpose was
$800 a six-cylinder Series 60 four-door sedan cost $889,
to promote their products value for money. In most cases,
with the equivalent eight-cylinder Series 80 at $1,043 the
value continued to be dened as an accumulation of detail
low starting price acted as a psychological incentive to those
advances and features, rather than an overall package. The
who thought a middle-range marque beyond their means. Ad1950 Plymouth was packed with value and ready to prove it!
vertisements reassured buyers that even the most basic model
but photographs and myriad captions had given way to simcame with safety glass, bumpers, bumper guards, spare tire
ple color illustrations and a single block of text. J. Stirling
and tube, but such luxuries as a second windshield wiper
Getchell, creator of Plymouths starkly photo-realist campaign
were relegated to the options list. Oldsmobiles tactics were
of the 1930s, had died, aged 41, in December, 1940.
common to many other low- and lower-middle priced mar-
170
Contrasting conceptions of value from Plymouth in 1950 and 1954 (March 1950 and January 1954).
Chevrolet had been producing cars since 1911, and commanded marque loyalty that was as erce as Fords and numerically wider than that enjoyed by Plymouth. That loyalty rested
on a reputation for simplicity and reliability and, for the lowpriced eld, an element of style that was not matched by Ford
until 1932. The aesthetic component of the value-for-money
equation was largely responsible for Chevrolets ingress into
former Ford territory in the 1920s, and it was a lead which GM
fought hard to maintain. Thus, while a typical 1952 advertisement for the Chevrolet range showed ten particular features to
prove that Chevrolets were the Only Fine Cars Priced So
Low, the main illustration depicted a two-tone Bel Air hardtop rather than a stripped sedan.
Among Chevrolets cheaper models, which beneted
from the glamour of the Bel Air but which sold in greater
numbers, the clean-lined and attractive De Luxe Sport Coupe
was shown in several advertisements. Chevrolets copywriters of the late 1940s and early 1950s consistently sought to
demonstrate that the car combined all the important virtues
of high-priced cars with low actual cost. Chevrolet buyers did
not wish to feel that they were buying cars that said utility
and therefore cheapness to the world at large. The 1952 twodoor De Luxe sedan in Regal Maroon, for example, was promoted as the way to Keep Up Your Quality Standards and
Cut Down Your Motoring Costs, suggesting a regular acquaintance with quality motoring which, however improbable, flattered and reassured the low-priced car buyer.
In the anti-utilitarian climate of the 1950s, value for
money was not always claimed explicitly, but even in an atmosphere that was far less congenial to the nuts-and-bolts
school of copywriting than that of the early 1930s, car buyers
still wanted to rationalize their purchasing impulses. Plymouth
offered reassurance in 1954:
The deep satisfaction that is part of the everyday life of Plymouth owners results from a unique engineering concept. A
concept that blends beauty with safety, combines elegance
with economy, permits no compromise with mechanical excellence. No other low-price car has such a heritage, nor offers as great a measure of value.
The brutality of earlier copy was thus relinquished, and

the principal appeal was to a satisfaction felt, rather than to
the readers analysis of the car as mechanism. No longer was
12. J USTIFYING
value to be measured purely in terms of a cars functional
equipment, styling, and price. What had been described in
Chryslers earlier corporate advertising as engineering was
now promoted as an engineering concept, and the reader
was implicitly encouraged to form his response to the car on
the basis of how he felt about the concept, rather than what
he thought about the cars engineering, as demonstrated to him.
Thus the value of the automobile as mechanism was incorporated into, and subsumed within, its perceived value as
a bringer of emotional fulllment and satisfaction to the consumer. Ironically, while this development in Plymouths copy
style clearly indicated a recognition by the copywriter of recent developments in the way consumers were encouraged to
think about automobiles (and, in some cases, did think about
THE I NDULGENCE
171
them), the 1954 Plymouth, lacking the style of its rivals, was
not a great success. By the mid1950s, the aesthetic component
of the value-for-money equation was not only unavoidable, but
dominant.
Copywriters continued to claim that their cars offered
value during the remaining years of the decade, particularly
in relation to low-priced versions of full-size sedans, and the
success of the mischievously named Studebaker Scotsman of
195758 (from $1,795 in 1958, compared to $2,013 for a
Chevrolet Delray utility sedan) demonstrated that a stripped
sedan, if priced low enough, would nd a ready market. But
value for money, other than as a bland catchphrase, was
largely sidelined by copywriters until the arrival of the modern American compact cars in 1959.
Chapter 13
The Sybarites Progress

Whether he was an automotive fantasist, a realist, or
drawn uneasily between the two, the American car buyer demanded comfort. By 1930, the automobile had proved itself
as a reliable form of transportation, and much effort was taken
thereafter to ensure that the motorists journey was made as
effortlessly as possible. In Europe, even in the 1930s, a trip of
fty miles or so was considered long; in America, it was short.
If the European buyer of a small car rarely found out how uncomfortable his thinly padded seat could be after three hours
at the wheel, his American counterpart discovered such shortcomings quickly. Most Americans would willingly sacrice a
few dollars worth of gasoline, not to mention race-car cornering, in order to arrive at their destinations feeling refreshed,
rather than sore.6
From the early 1920s onward, Americas automobile manufacturers became interested in the individual and combined
effects of space, seating, ventilation, and silence. The closed
sedan body, an expensive novelty in 1919 which accounted for
no more than ten percent of new car sales, was in most cases
cheaper than a similar open car by 1925, and was tted to more
than 90 percent of new cars by 1930. The science of ergonomics was then in its infancy, but the drivers environment was
given increasingly careful consideration, and the results were
not always haphazard. Copywriters sometimes chose particular features for emphasis, particularly if they were genuinely
novel; more usually, the combined benets of parallel improvements were highlighted.
General Motors made much of a new ventilation system
in the mid1930s. A February, 1934 advertisement for Fisher
bodies showed three elaborately dressed women in the back of
a chauffeur-driven Buick sedan:
No Draft Ventilation ... the new breadth and depth of seats

and cushions, the new and richer beauty of appointments all
contribute to a complete sense of well-being almost beyond
price....
Buick offered a variety of features in the same year:

To ride in [the 1934 Buick] is to know a relaxed ease such as
you have never known before ... because Buick alone combines Knee-Action wheels [Dubonnet independent front suspension], Balanced Weight and Springing, The Ride Stabilizer
and Air Cushion Tires the four factors which produce the
gliding ride as Buick gives it.
In May, 1936, Fisher Body showed an Oldsmobile sedan

with two children sitting on the running-board, examining a
pet tortoise:
These two young moderns have made a great discovery which
we hope will not be lost on any fond parent who drives a car.
Nature herself applies the same principle of protection you
enjoy in the one-piece solid steel Turret Top body by
Fisher.... Under this guardian crown of steel, thanks to Fisher
No Draft Ventilation, you ride in the deep comfort of a car
thats independent of the weather always draft-free, yet ever
amply supplied with fresh air in cold or hot weather.
Improvements were enthusiastically demonstrated,

whether they had been designed for comfort alone, or offered
on the way to providing other, separate advantages over earlier models or the opposition. Independent front suspension
was vigorously promoted by General Motors and, to a lesser
extent, by the Chrysler Corporation during the mid1930s, at
a time when the Ford Motor Company stayed resolutely with
the transverse leaves that were ideal for rough ground, but
which gave a comparatively bouncy ride. They would be tted
to all Fords, Mercurys, and Lincolns until 1949.
Weight distribution was improved on most cars too, by
moving the engine forward over the front axle line. Chrysler
These fortunate people have forgotten it is night, forgotten

they have miles yet to journey, forgotten a chill and importunate world outside.... The smart Fisher Ventipanes controlling
172
13. T HE S YBARITE S P ROGRESS
173
By 1940, independent suspension was no longer a novelty, and

Studebaker declared simply:
Your Commanders sound, solid, dependable Studebaker
craftsmanship enables you to keep any travel schedule you
set. And you cover every mile with the velvet smoothness and
sure-footedness that only exclusive planar independent suspension can give a car.
Silence was a matter of engine design as well as sound

deadening, and Buick, avoiding the mundanities that lled
advertisements for some other marques, was euphoric in June,
1936:
So hushed is the oil-cushioned action of the great Buick
valve-in-head engine that even in full flight this marvelous
car seems ghosting along its silky mobility matched only
by the ease and certainty of its ngertip control.
The car was shown in the bottom left-hand corner of the page,
photographed at bumper level. Gulls soared above the car,
flying with it as it sped across the ground. It was one of the
rst in a successful series of advertisements by Buicks new
Draft-free ventilation was promoted vigorously in Fisher Body

advertising of 1934 (February 1934).
capitalized on the innovative design of the new Airflow in this

respect in 1935 Plymouth advertising:
If Plymouths looks give you a thrill, what a thrill youll have
from Plymouths luxurious Floating Ride! Weight is redistributed like in the famous Airflow cars. New soft-action
springs iron out the bumps. A sway eliminator keeps you
steady on curves.
In a 1937 advertisement for the regular, conventionallystyled Chrysler line, the wife of a new Chrysler owner explained the advantages of independent front suspension from
a female (and therefore subjective, non-technical) point of
view:
I think we both made up our minds when we got to the railroad tracks on Sixth Street. We braced ourselves as usual ...
but that love of a Chrysler just glided over them as if they
werent there at all. So John took up weight distribution, and
hydraulic shock absorbers and independently sprung front
wheels ... and I just asked him gently if Chrysler engineering
wasnt reputed to be the best in the industry. He said it was.
So I told him we could probably accept what everybody knew.
Weight re-distribution moving the engine forward to

increase passenger room and lessen a tendency to oversteer
was not conned to Chrysler Corporation products. Plymouth
capitalized on public interest in the Chrysler Airflow two years
before it was discontinued (June 1935).
174
agent, Arthur Kudner, who had left Erwin, Wasey and Company in 1935 to set up his own agency and who did much to
revitalize Buicks image in the 1930s. Comfort and power, usually in euphoric combination,were the marques selling-points.
Nash consolidated a reputation for imaginative copy in
1940, promoting the sophisticated Weather Eye ventilation
system rst tted in its 1938 models. A September, 1939 advertisement was headed Night Flight and described a long winter journey: Theres magic in the air tonight. Fleecy clouds sail
high above, and your road is a ribbon of glistening moonlight.
Keen and crisp is the whistling wind. But inside your Nash,
youre sitting snug and coatless, in the never-changing June
of the Weather Eye.
The system drew fresh air into the car through a cowl
vent, keeping dust and drafts at bay by lightly pressurizing

the interior, and included a replaceable pollen lter. A February, 1940 advertisement was devoted to the feature:
Weather Eye Magic.... The mercury tumbles ... the wind
howls louder but stop or go, fast or slow your comfort is
automatically kept the same. That little thermostatic sentinel
just inside the windshield never lets a chilly breath slip by.
Yes its Weather Eye magic that even outguesses old man
Winter!
Until the advent of power features in mainstream cars in

the early 1950s, postwar copy consolidated earlier themes.
Fords early postwar advertising was strongly comfort-oriented, but copywriters were hampered by the companys continued use of non-independent transverse leaf
springs, front and rear. General Motors Knee
Action front suspension gave far greater highway comfort, even if Fords multi-leaf Restride springs were more suitable for really
rough ground. A day behind the wheel of the
big new Ford will show you what real comfort
means! declared one 1946 advertisement which
showed the new car speeding along a country
track. By 1948, however, roads were improving
and sturdiness alone was not enough to remain
competitive, and the 1949 model, with independent coil-spring front suspension, marked
the end of a Ford tradition.
For Plymouth, true comfort was achieved
in 1948 with Airfoam Seat Cushions and
Super-Cushion Tires together with that
perennial Chrysler Corporation feature, chair
height [seats] so a man can sit up like a man.
In the early 1950s, this requirement would play
havoc with body styling, as rival Chevrolets and
Fords became longer and lower, while Plymouths stayed boxy and comparatively upright.
The early postwar Buick was more modern than its rivals in its styling and engineering,
and was promoted as an effortless highway
cruiser. What other car has so much that clicks
for Forty-Six? asked a Canadian advertisement
in October, 1946, which listed several features
designed to increase the passengers comfort.
Old-fashioned euphoria featured, too:
You build up the milesve hundred, eight hundred, a thousand. Faultless miles they are, cradled
on the gentle action of all-coil springing.... The
soft, floating action of BuiCoil springing becomes
gentler, it seems, with each hour on the road....
Mild euphoria from revitalized Buick advertising in 1936 (June 1936).
The Nash Airflytes of the late 1940s and

early 1950s were sold on comfort and gadgets
rather than speed. In 1954, the worlds rst
175
Rarely was so much copy expended on so small a component in this case an adjustable thermostat. Nash cars containing lightly
clad models were driven about in winter to push the point home (February 1940).
176
Seats that were chair-height so a man can sit up like a man featured in all Chrysler Corporation products in 1948 as did oldfashioned tall and bulbous styling. A new Plymouth would arrive in the spring of 1949 (September 1948).
177
combined cooling-heating-ventilating system

was offered on the Rambler, Statesman, and
Ambassador under the name of All-Weather
Eye to provide Year-round Air Conditioning. Nashs system was a good and remarkably inexpensive version of the refrigerated
air conditioning which had rst appeared on
Packards and Cadillacs in 1940 and 1941 respectively, and which, by the mid1950s, was
becoming an increasingly popular option elsewhere even if it was not yet commonly ordered on middle- or low-priced cars. In the
Nash, all of the major components were located under the hood, obviating the need for
any bulky equipment in the trunk or transparent ducts inside the rear window. To underline the point, an Ambassador sedan was
shown in scenic Arizona. Also described in
detail were the long-established Nash Airliner Reclining Seats which could be quickly
turned into Twin Beds. Optional extras included plastic window screens for repelling
insects. Nash sales nevertheless fell from over
140,000 in 1952 to fewer than 110,000 in 1953
and a mere 77,000 or so in 1954, at a time
when national car production was increasing.
In May, 1954, Nash merged with Hudson to
form American Motors Corporation, or AMC.
The horsepower race of 195257 diverted
copywriters attention from comfort features
for a few years. Effortless control was nevertheless allied with increased power and a proliferation of pushbutton gadgetsparticularly
transmissions. These were offered by, among
others, Packard and Chrysler from 1956 and,
in the middle price eld, by Edsel and Mercury in 1958.
The universal de-emphasis of perform- Clutching at straws Weather Eye ventilation, even in improved form as one of
ance as an advertising theme in 1958 encour- Americas most advanced air-conditioning systems, was not enough of a novelty
aged copywriters to turn to comfort once by 1954, when refrigeration was becoming more widely available (June 1954).
again. Chevrolet tted Full Coil suspension
Chrysler combined power and dynamism with comfort
to give the extra-soft cushioning of deep coil springs at every
in 1959s New Yorker four-door hardtop, billed to highly
wheel, while a real air ridefrom Level Air suspension was
stressed businessmen as the car that Lets you relax before you
an option on Chevrolets and other GM cars. The craze for air
get home. (A similar copyline, identical even in its emphasuspension, which was not conned to General Motors, was
sisFor those who like to sit down and relax before they get
shortlived, as owners complained that their cars bottomed
home would be used by GMs British subsidiary, Vauxhall,
easily over undulations and bumps, bounced and floated too
in a 1976 advertisement for its VX 2300, which was aimed at
much even when tted with self-leveling equipment and, crumuch the same market in Britain.) Chrysler elaborated:
cially, that the systems were unreliable. Packards 195556
Torsion-Level torsion bar suspension, with self-leveling at
At days end your Chrysler invites you to relax. The newly
the rear, had been much more satisfactory. The new 1959
available Swivel Seat turns into the car with you. You lounge
Chevrolet came with conventional suspension and foamin your own private world. Tasteful colors and fabrics and
cushioned seats that feel like theyre riding on a sunbeam.
clear tempered safety glass windows surround you.
178
Comfort and space were Chevrolets priorities in 1959 (May 1959).
179
Power was taken for granted, and was available more

for peace of mind than for wheel-churning thrills, if
one believed the copy.
Another 1959 Chrysler advertisement, for the
Windsor hardtop sedan, explained how Chryslers designers had increased the cars roominess at a time
when rear-seat headroom, in particular, had in many
cars taken second place to styling: The big news in 59
is roominess ... and Chryslers got it! No longer was
the Windsor a dowdy concoction with out-of-date
looks; it was low, long, and sleek, and its makers reassured long-term adherents of the marque that although Chrysler had the style that set the standard
for an industry with its second-phase Forward Look,
old-fashioned comfort had not been sacriced.
By 1960, full-sized low-price cars were imitating
traditional ne cars, and the 1960 Chevrolets were
claimed to be sumptuous. The 1961 models would
glide over the bumpiest byway with the kind of poise
and stability youd expect only in the most expensive
makes while a 1963 headline made the point forcefully: There may be something more comfortable and
luxurious at the price, but it isnt a car!
In the early 1960s, the compact Chevrolet Corvair catered to the utility end of the market which,
ten years earlier, would have been offered an austere
full-size Styleline sedan. The 1963 Impala convertible
was described as the Most comfortable thing since
grandmothers lap. Even copy for the Sport Sedan
version, which seemed at rst glance to recapture the
spirit of 1957, was mild: You dont take a back seat
to anybody! suggested speed and handling, but the
true emphasis was made clear in the small print,
which described how the car moved effortlessly, quietly with a Jet-smooth ride.
Just you and your new Chrysler humming the miles aside. Chrysler
It seemed inevitable that Chevrolets would one
targeted tired executives with Swivel Seats and Auto-Pilot cruise conday be as comfortable as Cadillacs, and Chevrolet ad- trol (February 1959).
vertisements for the early part of the 1967 model year
made that leap. The full-size Caprice explicitly set out
In 1965 Ford moved upmarket, too, with a super-luxuto offer Cadillac standards of renement at Chevrolet prices.
rious LTD based on the full-sized Galaxie 500. Impressed with
Instead of being shown in traditional Chevrolet settings on
the quietness of Fords prototypes, a member of J. Walter
beaches, in the countryside, on freeways Caprices appeared
Thompsons team on the Ford account wondered aloud
outside hotels and fashionable upmarket resorts, their paswhether they might be almost as quiet as Rolls-Royces. Shortly
sengers in evening dress. Squint slightly. Now couldnt this
before the new models announcement, the agency asked the
Caprice almost pass for a you-know-what? asked an April,
independent acoustical consultants Bolt, Berenek, and New1967 advertisement for the Caprice Custom Sedan.
man to test three of the cars none specially prepared
The layout, copy, and theme of the advertisement were
against two new Rolls-Royces bought for the purpose. The
pure Cadillac, and while the strategy might have flattered and
Fords actually proved quieter than the British cars by 4.9, 5.5,
amused Chevrolet buyers, it did not entertain Cadillacs marand 2.8 decibels at 20mph, 40mph, and 60mph respectively.
keting department, which ensured that General Motors presA national TV, radio, newspaper, and magazine campaign
ident, James Roche, instructed Chevrolet to abandon the camfollowed, and was consolidated in light-hearted TV and press
paign. He was not convinced by the plea that the you-knowadvertising for the revised 1966 models. Lots of people nd
what was, in fact, a Lincoln or Imperial.7
it hard to believe, said the most famous piece in the 1965
180
Advertising for the full-size Chevrolets focused on size and

comfort during the 1960s and 1970s. The 1967 piece deliberately aped earlier Cadillac copy (March 1963, April 1967, and
October 1976).
series, which showed an LTD owner in conversation with the

chauffeur of a Silver Cloud parked beside him, But its a
fact in tests by a leading acoustical rm, a 1965 Ford LTD
with a 289-cu.in. V-8 and Cruise-O-Matic rode quieter than
a Rolls-Royce. This quiet does not mean Ford is a Rolls-Royce.
But it does mean Ford is strong, solidly built, designed to give
you luxury, comfort and convenience.... A conservative layout reinforced the upmarket look of the dark-colored LTD in
the photograph. Bill Bernbach thought it the best campaign of
the year.
In the early 1970s, traditional large cars were regularly
advertised with photographs of velour upholstery and special
features, as by Oldsmobile in April, 1972 for The LimitedEdition Regency. A very special Ninety-Eight with the Tiffany
touch to mark Oldsmobiles 75th Anniversary.... The exterior
is painted in Tiffany Gold.... Even the face of the electric timepiece has been specially styled by Tiffanys, and bears the famous Tiffany name .... each Regency owner will receive a distinctive sterling silver key ring as a gift. If ever lost, the keys
can be dropped in a mail-box, and Tiffanys will return them

to the owner... Oldsmobile Ninety-Eight. Quite a substantial
car.
An October, 1972 advertisement for the 1973 model featured an endorsement from Walter Hoving, Chairman of
Tiffanys, who declared that The Ninety-Eight Regency is a
car that people with good design judgment will appreciate.
The copywriter took his cue: The Regency interior is extraordinary. Seat cushions and backs are tailored to create a soft, pillowed effect, like that of ne furniture. Zippered storage pouches
are sewn into the front seat-backs. And a distinctive limousinequality velour is included among your upholstery choices.
Such huge cars were out of fashion by 1977, when the
181
Chevrolet Caprice Classic offered enough imposing spaciousness for many in an age of downsized automobiles. With
More head room ... More leg room ... More trunk room, it
was far from glamorous, and compromised with the spirit of
the decade: We made it right for the times without making
it wrong for the people. There were gas mileage gures to
prove the claim to frugality.
Moderately large, comfortable cars were still in demand,
but the copywriters who promoted them were more than a
little nervous of the increasingly hostile, Honda-infested climate. The full-size car was not yet dying, but it kept its head
down.
Chapter 14
Get More GO
From Every Gallon!
owners was drafted in, so that in March, 1938 it could still be
claimed, with a nod to objectivity, that Owners report 14 to
18 miles to the gallon under a wide variety of driving conditions. This variety, of course, might be simply in the
weather on level roads rather than in styles of driving, speeds,
or steepness of hills. Some owners also reported oil starvation,
too, but in spite of the engines questionable reliability in its
early years, the message evidently worked, as production rose
steadily after the sales hiatus suffered by everyone in 1938.
Oldsmobile did not always quote gures, but promised
that, however much gas was used, it would be well-spent: Get
more GO from every gallon! shouted a 1939 headline, in
keeping with the years value-for-money theme in advertising for the marques low-priced 60 series sedans. The years
slogan, You ought to own an Olds, combined a hint of snobbery with the suggestion that the car was a rational and sensible choice.
Studebaker capitalized on a reputation for economy in
1940:
In America, paragraphs of fuel consumption gures were

largely a development of the 1970s. Yet economy was by no
means a new preoccupation, albeit that it had not always been
a priority. Even large car buyers preferred their chosen automobiles to be competitive within the full-size luxury category.
The economic trauma of the early 1930s produced a spate
of advertisements which stressed, or at least quantied, their
products fuel consumption. This was to be expected from Plymouth, whose unfanciful approach to copy during the 1930s
lent itself to gas mileage statistics and other indications of mechanical worthiness which, in later years, would be deemed
too mundane to mention. According to a March, 1937 advertisement, Plymouth owners report 18 to 24 Miles Per Gallon
of Gas, and, with phrasing that varied only slightly, the claim
was repeated in much Plymouth advertising of that year.
Ford consistently combined style and thriftiness not only
in copy for the Ford marque itself (as with Economy is a Ford
Word in 1938) but also in advertising for the Lincoln-Zephyr.
Having drawn attention to its V-12 engine, copy reassured
those with aspirations beyond their pocketbooks that twelve
cylinders did not necessarily entail the ruinous gas mileage of
an earlier big Packard or Cadillac. The new engine is even
smoother, quieter, with the same economy of 14 to 18 miles to
the gallon! crowed a typical advertisement in December, 1937
for the 1938 model year.
Once the reassurance had been given, the copy could discuss the cars comfortable interior and sometimesin a country where buying on credit was not encumbered with the social stigma that prevailed in Britain the convenient terms
which could be obtained through Authorized Universal
Credit Company Finance Plans. With the Lincoln-Zephyrs
reputation established by 1938, the inevitable Greek chorus of
When you travel this winter to new vacation places or old favorites, go in this smartly styled, restful riding, new 1940
Studebaker Commander. You can do so for less gasoline expense than in many lowest price cars because this Commander is powered by the same thrifty Studebaker engine that
scored an overwhelming gas economy victory over all cars in
the GilmoreYosemite Sweepstakes of 39.
After World War II, economy was not a popular theme

among copywriters outside the world of the compact and subcompact cars, but Studebaker, with an established reputation
for economy and with 194750 models that were smaller and
lighter than most, was able to capitalize on the additional
benet of its new shape. The 1948 Land Cruiser not only rode
182
14. G ET M ORE GO F ROM E VERY G ALLON !
183
The nuts and bolts school of copywriting worked well with the theme of fuel economy. This realistic illustration shows just a
single windshield wiper (1939 campaign).
184
Low gas mileage was a Studebaker preoccupation before and after the war (September 1939 and May 1949).
low, wide and handsome straight into the heart of discriminating America, but was also Americas cost-cutting luxury
car! A 1949 advertisement pointed out that the Studebakers
flight-streamed designing bars out all burdensome excess
bulk theres no squandering of gasoline. Frugality was
made palatable for the consumer by the undeniably modern
styling of the Starlight coupe shown above the copy.
For 1950, a measure of objectivity was re-introduced in
Studebakers copy. The Champion Regal De Luxe four-door
sedan with overdrive was billed as the car that convincingly
proved Studebaker gas economy in this years Mobilgas Grand
Canyon Run. The car averaged 26.551 miles per gallon to
beat 30 other cars of 16 makes in straight-out gasoline
mileage. The styling may have been only three years ahead of
its time in 1947, but Studebakers economy-biased copy was
more typical of the 1970s.
Chevrolets assurances of good gas mileage were more
typical of their period, as was the Chevrolet itself. Rather than
promote fuel consumption as a separate issue, copywriters
combined it with escapism and suggestions of technical
modernity. One 1953 advertisement was headed, How
Chevrolets new high-compression horsepower takes you more

places on less gas....
The theme was a concise way of killing at least three birds
with one headline, and it was continued for the similar 1954
models. An April, 1954 advertisement showed a Bel Air Sport
Coupe easily climbing a steep hill on an unmade road above
the headline, How the new Chevrolet wrings more power and
more miles out of every gallon of gas.... Under the subtitle,
Its a long way from full to empty, the technicalities were
explained in non-technical language for the benet of the
widest possible audience:
Higher compression means simply that the fuel mixture is
squeezed more tightly in the engine to get more power and
more work out of the same amount of gas. That is why the
Chevrolet gas gauge takes such a long time, and so many
miles, to move from full to empty.
It was assumed that readers would not be familiar with automobile jargon, and that they did not mind admitting to ignorance so that the advantages of the product could be explained simply. This was a risky ploy, as one readers helpful
185
Spelling it out. Chevrolet promised improved gas mileage and increased performance in 1953-54, although no gures were given
(August 1953 and April 1954).
guidance might appear to another as disdain for his intelligence. This approach was expressly rejected by Doyle Dane
Bernbach in advertising for the Volkswagen from 1959.
The imagined abyss between those initiated into autospeak and the ordinary consumer was bridged in another advertisement, this time for the Bel Air sedan seen at a Sunday
social event outside a town or church hall:
Frankly, what would these people really say about the new
Chevrolet? Were frank to admit it. Most people really dont
talk about cars the way the manufacturer would like them
to.... No-one up there is likely to go in for technical engineering talk about higher compression ratios resulting in increased horsepower and ner performance with outstanding
fuel economy. But that new Chevrolet owner would probably point out the same things to his friends in his own
words. Something like this, maybe: This new Chevrolets got
a lot more stuff in it. And its the easiest car on gas I ever
owned.
But one way to get him to talk about cars the way the
manufacturer would like [him] to was perhaps to tell him
that, in doing so, he was using the technical engineering talk

that marked him out as an expert. Yet it was always difcult for
a copywriter truly to imitate an expert or even an ordinary
human being, as an attempt at either could very easily end in
a mixture of bowdlerized jargon and language-school informality that sounded more contrived than conventional copy,
for which the reader would make mental allowance at the start.
Volkswagenno mean promoter of economy in carswould
start afresh at the end of the decade.
Gas mileage gures returned with a vengeance after the
Arab oil embargo was enacted by OPEC in October, 1973.
Gasoline rose from 30 cents to $1.20 a gallon, fuel sales restrictions and speed limits were imposed, and it became apparent that fuel might be expensive in the future and that oil
supplies were unlikely to last forever. Legislation which required the products of each manufacturer to conform to a
stated mean consumption gure focused the attention of automobile makers and their customers on the subject. High fuel
consumption in a manufacturers large cars would have to be
offset by frugality further down the line.
Above and left: Vague assurances of economy were not enough

by 1976, when ofcial test gures were given in advertising.
Dodge took a swipe at the opposition, too (Chevrolet and Pontiac: February 1976; Dodge: March 1976).
Many consumers were happy to buy small cars, but others wanted the space of a large car with the fuel mileage of a
small one, and the satisfaction of these apparently contrary
goals preoccupied copywriters in the mid1970s as never before. Figures became headlines. In February, 1976, a typical
advertisement for the Chevrolet Chevelle was headed, Two
roomy Chevelles priced under $3671. 26 MPG Highway, 18
MPG City, EPA. The EPA gures could only ever be a guide,
however, and advertisers added a qualication, of which
Chevrolets form was typical: Thats nice mileage, but remember: EPA ratings are estimates. Your actual mileage will
vary depending on the type of driving you do, your driving
habits, the cars condition and available equipment. It made
for sober copy. Sandwiched between the mileage gures were
earnest descriptions of the Chevelles passenger space and reasonable rst cost.
The Dodge Aspen was another mid-sized car that tried to
be all things to all buyers. A March, 1976 advertisement reassured readers that compactness also meant style: The Aspen
has the look of a ne European road car.... The Aspen was de-
187
Big American cars, and some Australian Fords and Chryslers, were occasionally advertised in Britain in the early 1970s. They did
sell, albeit in small numbers, despite rising fuel prices and the improbability of achieving, in day-to-day driving, the kind of
mileage claimed here (August 1974).
188
signed with as much attention to its outside appearance as to

its inside engineering. Even in an advertisement concerned
with styling, ride comfort, and convenience features, a paragraph was devoted to fuel consumption: According to EPA estimated mileage results, the Aspen sedan and coupe got 27
MPG on the highway and 18 city. The wagon got 30 MPG
highway and 18 city. And then there was the catch: All were
equipped with a 225 six and manual transmission. Add air
conditioning and automatic, let alone a V-8, and the gures
would not be as impressive. Californian drivers, with their
own emissions regulations to meet, were advised to see your
Dealer for mileage results.
Even the Pontiac Firebird, one of Americas most sport-
ing cars, was shown speeding along a freeway below a headline

which read, Our sporty Formula Firebird beat out every other
car with a 350 V-8 in the 1976 overall EPA gas mileage guide
ratings. It was not mentioned how many other 350 V-8s took
part, or whether an optional high-ratio back axle had been
used, although the cars comparatively light two-door body
must have helped. The purpose of the advertisement was to
invite the reader to just imagine what our small cars can do.
The smaller cars mileage gures were given, and the copy
concluded with a brave attempt at recapturing the carefree
climate of ten years earlier: So if you want your car to look
exciting, drop in at your Pontiac dealers. Hes got cars thatll
take your breath away. Without taking away all your fuel.
Chapter 15
Padding and Prejudice

If you are one of the millions of Americans with a soft spot in your heart for the original Buick Roadmaster, portholes and all, this is for you. The new Buick Roadmaster and Roadmaster Limited 6-passenger sedans will be available in the spring of 1991 as 1992 models.
In the inter-war period, safety was not ignored, but it

was usually promoted as a facet of generally improved design.
The safety feature which had no other purpose or benet
than to protect passengers in an accident was rare. General
improvements included four-wheel (and, later, hydraulic)
braking, reliable electric lamps, and Safety Plate Glass, the
latter noisily heralded as a feature of General Motors Fisher
bodies in the 1930s, though not conned to them.
There was the occasional gadget, such as Hudsons DashLocking Safety Hood of 1939 a front-hinged hood which
could not be blown open by the wind at speed or unlatched
from outside the car. The safety of the Lincoln-Zephyrs steeltruss body frame received mention alongside its other advantages, and similar claims were made for the GM Turret Top
and the Chrysler Airflows new conception of strength and
safety. Anything that contributed to an automobiles structural integrity or ability to avoid an accident was promoted as
safe.
Occasionally, entire advertisements were devoted to the
theme, as in one piece for the 1936 Chevrolet, in which a wife
and mother said: I want them to have the SAFEST CAR that
money can buy! allowing the copywriter to describe the delights of hydraulic braking, a valve-in-head engine and the
manifold advantages of a Fisher body. All with a gleeful overthe-shoulder glance at the years Plymouths and Fords, of
course.
From a modern perspective, however, safety promotion
was half-hearted and fragmentary, and there was little evidence that aesthetics were sacriced to safety considerations
as a matter of course, if at all. According to Nader, pedestrians
With this announcement, General Motors revived an old

name. Beside the text in Buicks 1991 catalog was a picture of
a sleek new sedan with roof-pillar mounted portholes, together with a soft-focus shot of a nostalgic enthusiast with his
immaculately preserved 1953 Roadmaster. But the earlier
Custom Built Roadmaster by Buick had not been universally loved. Indeed, it was not loved at all by one Robert Comstock, a garage mechanic whose leg had been crushed by a
runaway Roadmaster with defective power brakes which, in his
and other cases, did not lighten the task of quick, sure stopping as promised in 1953s advertising.8
The accident, and the subsequent court case, became famous in Ralph Naders 1965 book, Unsafe at Any Speed, which
criticized faulty design in the American automobile and
launched a vitriolic attack against what were considered by
the author to be inadequate recall procedures for cars, like a
number of 1953 Buicks, which were known to be potentially
hazardous through manufacturing defects.
By the time that Buicks 1991 catalog was published nearly
forty years later, American motorists were protected by
lemon laws, mandatory recall procedures and, in the Roadmaster itself, lap and shoulder belts for driver and outboard
passengers, plus a Supplemental Inflatable Restraint System
(air bag) for the driver.
It was not always thus. In the early days of American motoring, a safe car was one that could be relied upon not to explode under its owner, break his wrist while being started, or
veer out of control while being driven at moderate speed along
a smooth road. Rapid braking was achieved by imaginative,
and usually terminal, use of the transmission.
189
190
Power brakes lightened the task of quick, sure stopping in a 1953 Buick Roadmaster in most cases (May 1953).
15. P ADDING
AND
P REJUDICE
191
were being impaled on the tail ns of Cadillacs built as late as 1962. A child such as
nine-year-old Peggy Swan of Kensington,
Maryland in 1963did not have to hit such
a n very hard to be killed.9
There was one area in which a more robust approach would be taken, and that was
in the eld of tire design. Advertisers who
wanted to persuade new and used car buyers to change brands pulled few punches.
Do You Want to Keep Your Daughter?
asked a 1937 advertisement for Goodyear
Lifeguard tires. Accidents are no respecters of persons threatened the copy,
Your daughter ... your wife ... yourself ... all
are in equal danger of serious accident if a
tire should suddenly collapse.... The implication was clear no man who had the best
interests of his family at heart should drive
on any but the best tires; to do less would be
culpable and immoral. He would be a disgrace to his family, his church, his neighborhood; he would be known as the Father Who
Did Not Care. Pseudo-scientic diagrams,
and the assurance that Lifeguard Tires were
easily obtained and tted, offered the motorist a way out of social and moral oblivion.
In the same year, General Tires offered
the Dual 10, a tire which allowed quicker
stopping and resistance to wet road skidding
with a flexible tread that wrinkles into
squeegee-like action when you apply the
brakes. In case the reader still wondered
whether to bother changing his tires, he was
shown a picture of some children crossing a
road, who had been narrowly missed by the
large and expensive Dual 10equipped car
behind them.
Where safety was mentioned in pre-war advertising, it was usually as a facet of
For those who were willing, but unable, generally improved design (April 1936).
to buy a set of Dual 10s outright, a convento one early advertisement for the car, Riding beside the
ient payment plan was available. These aggressive advertising
driver, the front-seat occupants ... are immediately conscious
tactics which were more commonly associated with patent
of the extreme roominess, the excellent vision, and a feeling of
medicines, detergents, and life assurancewere not usually desafety and solidity. Then, too, it is a comfort to notice the soft
ployed on the motorist, as the car manufacturers, whose copy
crash pads that line car and dash. There was a padded cell
made up most automobile-related advertising, were not prointo which passengers would fall in the event of a frontal colmoting products whose absence would lead to illness, injury,
lision, rather than being impaled on a conventional dashboard.
or the death of the consumers family. Gentler strategies had
If the windshield were hit from inside, it sprang out, preventto sufce; in the absence of an effective stick with which to
ing severe head injuries.
goad the consumer, the carrot had to be made as tempting as
The Tuckers safety features received much publicity, but
possible.
as only a prototype and fty cars were completed before the new
The rst postwar car to be sold consistently on its safety
model was discontinued, the impact of Tuckers advertising
was the rear-engined Tucker, introduced in 1948. According
192
Above and opposite: Three typical advertisements from the most famous and controversial of automobile safety promotions
(Above: April 1956. Opposite: November 1955 and December 1955).
15. P ADDING
was limited. It became clear, however, that the rest of the industry was unhappy that Tucker had tried to bring the issue
to the forefront of consumers minds.
Crash padding was not conned to Tucker. In 1949,
Chrysler offered A safety feature of major importance! Front
passengers, especially children, are given new protection
against possible injury in the event of sudden stops or collisions by the new sponge-rubber Safety-Cushion [which] extends across the top part of the dash, and is upholstered in
leather to match the interior. But this description was given
in the catalog, rather than in advertising, and it did not constitute a major component of Chryslers 1949 publicity campaign. The 1951 Kaiser gathered sales with a dashboard from
Brooks Stevens which combined a new Safety-Cushion
Padded Instrument Panel with recessed instruments and control knobs, and the car also had a pop-out windshield within
its thin pillars. But fewer than 140,000 Kaisers were built that
year, and the make disappeared for good in the United States
in 1955.
Almost twenty years after Goodyear warned motorists
how easily they could lose their children, the Lifeguard name
reappeared under the aegis of J. Walter Thompson, Fords advertising agency, in the fall of 1955. The rst modern safety-
AND
P REJUDICE
193
led automobile advertising campaign was launched for the

1956 model year. Youll be safer in a 56 Ford! crowed an
early headline.
The strategy immediately attracted controversy. The implication was clearly not only that the Ford was safe, but, by
extension, that the rival Chevrolet was less safe. This suggestion was reinforced by the photographs that dealers were instructed to display in Ford showrooms, which claimed to show
that passengers in a new Ford were more likely to survive a
given accident than those who traveled by Chevrolet. Traditional advertising priorities were replaced by earnest injunctions to social responsibility which threatened to undermine
Detroits entire promotional apparatus. The fantasy was not
simply being bypassed it was threatened with destruction.
The actual features offered were modest. A dished steering wheel whose deep-center structure ... provides a cushioning effect under impact was tted as standard equipment,
as were a Lifeguard rearview mirror that gives on impact
and resists shattering and new Lifeguard door latches,
which were claimed to reduce the possibility of doors springing open under strain and occupants being thrown from the
car. The remaining major features, new Ford seat belts, and
Lifeguard padding on the dashboard and sun visors, were
194
optional extras at $9 and $16 respectively, representing less

than two percent of the $2,274 which bought a Lifeguardequipped Fairlane Victoria Hardtop Sedan. It was this new
body style that featured most prominently in advertisements.
There was a widespread belief among Ford personnel,
and in the automobile industry generally, that the campaign
would not sell cars, and it became apparent, to the industrys
relief, that most consumers did not wish their automotive fantasies to be eroded by the suggestion that they might crash at
all. Any manufacturer who promoted passive safety features
(that is, features that minimized the harm to passengers in an
accident, but did not help the driver to prevent it) ran the risk
that an association would be created in the consumers mind
between the trauma of an accident and the marque name of the
manufacturer who, for whatever reason, brought such trauma
to mind in safety-related advertising.
It was this association that was believed to be critical, regardless of whether or not the motorist would survive a crash
in the advertised vehicle that would be fatal in another car.
Moreover, such an association could harm sales even if the
consumer, if asked, acknowledged the advertised marques
superiority. It was the juxtaposition in the consumers mind
of crash and the marque name that was held to be critical.
At the parochial level, General Motors vehemently disputed
Fords claim to make a safer car than the 1956 Chevrolet.
As Fords campaign progressed, the message was made
more palatable by the introduction of Grizzly, Fords cartoon bear who, with the aid of colorful diagrams, pointed out
the new cars features while clambering over the steering wheel
or grinning at the padded dashboard. Headlines ceased to suggest that any other car was necessarily less safe than the Ford,
although any mention of Fords precedence in offering advanced safety provision carried such an implication, if only
indirectly.
Features from the low-priced Ford found their way into
Lincolns and Mercurys. Lincoln offered important safety advances: retracted steering column with safety-flex steering
wheel ... triple strength safety-plus door locks ... optional safety
belts in one advertisement and, in another, safety and styling
were combined in the largest windshield of any car.
Early in 1956, the campaign was dropped, and J. Walter
Thompson was instructed to stress performance, styling, and
other conventional inducements. Little was remarkable in the
advertisements which followed, and Lifeguard Design was
henceforth mentioned only in passing, although the features
themselves remained available. Performance became a dominant theme. Call out the reserves with a touch of your toe!
began a May 1956 piece which showed a Fairlane sedan pulling
out to overtake a truck. The safety advantages of the 225h.p.
Thunderbird Special V-8 were obliquely suggested in the slogan that followed, which suggested that power was there for
instant go when instants count! Ostensibly underlining the
safety advantages of good acceleration, the advertisement also
suggested excitement and danger only just avoided. There was

nothing novel about the assurance in a July advertisement, for
the Fairlane Fordor Victoria, that The GO is great in a Ford
V-8.
Was the campaign successful? In later years, Ralph Nader
maintained that it had been cynically torpedoed by vested interests within Detroit, and that it was deliberately prevented
from continuing long enough for objective results to be obtained. According to Nader, Ford Division chief Robert McNamara was ordered to reinstate more conventional advertising by senior personnel in the Ford Motor Company, who in
turn had been put under pressure by former colleagues of
theirs at General Motors who objected both to the comparison with the 1956 Chevrolet, and to a campaign any campaignthat highlighted public awareness of an issue which it
was not in the commercial interest of the automobile industry as a whole to promote.
Nader cited a Ford press release of November 18, 1956,
which suggested that the campaign had been at least moderately successful:
Since two of the ve featurescrash padding and seat belts
were optional with the customer, it was possible to measure
demand.... No optional feature in Ford history caught on so
fast in the rst year ... 43% of all 1956 Fords were ordered
with safety padding.10
Nader went on to draw attention to McNamaras testimony before a House of Representatives subcommittee in the
summer of 1956, in which he stated that seat belts had been so
much in demand that the belt manufacturers could not supply the 1,000 belts required every day. Apparently, Ford Division ofcials estimated that the safety campaign was directly
responsible for selling 200,000 Fords that would otherwise
have remained unsold, out of a model year total of 1,392,847
units.11
Naders citations were impressive, but they left several
questions unanswered. It was not clear, for instance, whether
or not the 14.4 percent of sales attributed to the campaign
could equally have been achieved by another imaginative campaign which made no claims to safety on behalf of the product. Were all sales of the safety padding achieved through public awareness of its advantages, or did its appeal lie partly in
novelty alone a novelty-value which might have been
achieved by other means? And how much of the apparent consumer interest in Lifeguard Design was generated by the advertising, and how much by dealers enthusiasm for the optional features? In how many cases could Lifeguard-equipped
cars be supplied more rapidly to customers than otherwise
identical non-equipped models? In short, how many consumers were motivated towards Ford because of the campaign,
and how many would have bought Fords in spite of it, or regardless of it?
If Ralph Nader believed that the Lifeguard campaign had
been strangled soon after birth, one of those involved at the
15. P ADDING
AND
P REJUDICE
195
time remembered it differently. Lee Iacocca, who later became

President of the Ford Motor Company before joining Chrysler
in 1978, was assistant sales manager for the Philadelphia district when the 1956 Fords were announced. Taking his cue
from an experiment in a promotional lm that had been circulated to sales managers, Iacocca decided to demonstrate the
effectiveness of the dashboard safety padding to his salesmen.
The padding was claimed to be ve times more shock absorbent than foam rubber. In his autobiography, Iacocca recalled that the demonstration did not go entirely as planned:
Instead of having the salesmen learn about the safety padding
from the lm, I would make the point far more dramatically
by actually dropping an egg onto the padding.... I had spread
strips of the padding across the stage, and now I climbed up
on a high ladder with a carton of fresh eggs. The very rst egg
I dropped missed the padding altogether and splattered on the
wooden floor. The audience [of about 1,100 men] roared with
delight. I took more careful aim with the second egg, but my
assistant, who was holding the ladder, chose this moment to
move in the wrong direction. As a result, the egg bounced off
his shoulder.... The third and fourth eggs landed exactly
where they were supposed to. Unfortunately, they broke on
impact. Finally, with the fth egg, I achieved the desired result, and got a standing ovation.... [I]t turned out to be a
prophetic symbol for our 1956 cars. The safety campaign was
a bust. Our campaign was well conceived and highly promoted, but the consumers failed to respond.12
The campaign remained a conspicuous one-off, and advertisers continued with their existing priorities. Chevrolet
drew attention to a new X-built Safety-Girder frame in 1958,
and Goodyear had long since abandoned the blood-curdling
scenarios of 1937 for an innocuous There is no more distinctive way to travel in support of the New 3-T Nylon Cord
Double Eagle. The tire was shown on a 1958 Continental
Mark III, in atmospheric soft-focus, tended by a couple in
evening dress.
As in earlier days, where safety was a side-effect of improvements introduced for reasons of styling or handling ease,
it was emphasized in otherwise conventional copy. The 1958
Oldsmobile was available with Safety Power Steering so that
the consumer could trust the wheel with the safety feel according to an advertisement which showed a pink convertible
being conducted effortlessly along a cliff-top road by a fashionable mother with her two children. It was an indication of
how much ground remained to be covered that one of the children was shown standing up on the front seat, his head only
inches away from a projecting vent window frame.
Safety continued to be attributed to a variety of engineering and styling features in the 1960s. In the roof of the
1966 Ford Thunderbird, above the windshield, was an overhead Safety Convenience Panel of control switches and warning lights. A seat belt warning light was built into the panel, but
the intention was primarily to glamorize the driving experience by association with aeronautical practice.
Tire manufacturers had abandoned blood-curdling scenarios

by 1958. The car is a Continental Mark III, a behemoth whose
relative failure was tacitly acknowledged by the makers when
they called the 1968 Lincoln Continental a Mark III, too (August
1958).
On the other hand, Buick encouraged passengers to use

the seatbelts which had been standard equipment in all cars
since 1964. With controversy over Unsafe at Any Speed in full
swing, a February, 1966 advertisement for the Electra 225 mentioned within brackets: (The following safety items are standard on all Buicks: front and rear seat belts, inside and outside
rear view mirrors, padded dash and sun visors, dual-speed
windshield wipers and washers, back-up lights. Our suggestion on the subject of front and rear seat belts: Use them.)
Not that every Buick advertisement for the year went into such
detail, but this time the subject was here to stay. Announcing
its 1968 models in October, 1967, Pontiac mentioned that two
shoulder belts are standard in the front seat of every new 1968
Pontiac. In the same month, Buick reflected increasing public (and political) awareness of the issue, and of the controversy
affecting GM, by stating even in an advertisement with short
copy for a sporty new Skylark that All Buicks have the full
line of General Motors safety features as standard equipment.
196
The Safety Convenience Panel of the 1966 Ford Thunderbird recalled aeronautical practice, and made the subject glamorous
(December 1965).
15. P ADDING
AND
P REJUDICE
Passive safety was rmly established in the minds of all automobile manufacturers by 1968 (October 1967).
197
198
Chrysler promoted and capitalized on public concern in 1968 (June 1968).
For example, seat back latches and padded windshield corner

posts. These advertisements were typical of their year.
In the summer of 1968, Chrysler Corporation described
a safety awareness campaign in which a group of young Americans, called the Spurrlows, visited high schools, carrying with
their Music for Modern Americans a special message about
safe driving.... As Americas fth largest industrial corporation, we feel that our responsibility doesnt stop at the end of
a production line. As music lovers, our favorite records are
the ones about safe driving. European car fans would have noticed that the list of Chrysler marques at the foot of the page
now included Simca and Sunbeam.
In a long-copy advertisement of June, 1971 Cadillac asked:
[W]hat could be more practical than the host of safety features that are an integral part of every new Cadillac? From
side-guard beams to the energy-absorbing instrument panel
and steering column. From dual-action safety hood latches to

easy-to-use seat and shoulder belts.
Now that certain safety provisions were mandatory, and

the issue was irreversibly on consumers agenda, it was worth
stressing the competitiveness of ones product. The features
which had been promoted so vigorously by Ford in 1956 were
taken for granted by the end of the 1960s.
By the 1990s, whole advertisements were regularly devoted to the safety theme, as in 1993: We have seen the future
and are prepared to meet it, side on.... The 1993 Buick Roadmaster Sedan meets the 1997 federal side-impact standard
four years in advance declared a typical Buick advertisement
of that year, which included a freeze-frame of actual side-impact safety test being conducted on the car. But at the bottom
of the page, a small slogan, Buckle up, America! reminded
readers that not all motorists actually wore their seat belts.
Chapter 16
From Utility to Suburban Chic

The vogue for wooden luxury bodiesfueled in part by
the upmarket ancestry of the British shooting brake bodies
tted to elderly Rolls-Royce chassis for estate work proved
to be strictly a phenomenon of the late 1940s. There were some
interesting variations on the theme by Packard (Station
Sedan) and Nash (Suburban sedan), as well as by Chrysler
and Ford. The conventional wooden-bodied station wagon
lasted a few years longer, but became extinct in the early 1950s.
Plymouths unpretentiously named Station Wagon of
1949 was typical of the breed. Practicality, a theme which tted
more easily into the general tenor of Plymouths advertising
than any other, was emphasized:
The station wagon was an integral part of the American

automotive scene by 1935, but the angular, wooden body of the
average wagon was expensive to build and looked ungainly
when attached to the streamlined front of a regular sedan.
Chrysler recognized the difculty in 1941, when the rst
Town & Country was introduced. Advertised as having a
swank appearance (two years after British Ford V-8 copy
claimed that the possession of two Fords was not swank or
vulgarly ostentatious!), the Town & Country was promoted as
the smartest station wagon on the road ... designed for the
discriminating owner who wishes exclusive, distinctive transportation. It also promised handling ease, particularly for
women driversa theme to which promoters of station wagons, including Chrysler, would often return.
The Town & Country combined the partly wooden construction of a wagon with the more streamlined form of a conventional sedan which, depending on the buyers point of view,
was either a combination of virtues or of vices, as wooden
bodywork demanded maintenance that conventional steel
paneling did not.
In 1947, Mercury promised: One day in the life of your
Mercury Station Wagon shows you why its just about the most
useful car that you ever owned! A picture story showed the
owner picking up guests from the station and taking them to
the beach, adding, Nice part of it is your Mercury Station
Wagon is the smartest car wherever you go at the beach, the
club, the local playhouse or even in town. If the even suggested that social acceptability could not yet be taken for
granted, the wooden look was nevertheless considered attractive in its own right by 194748 and had spread to convertibles.
Among them were the Ford and Mercury Sportsman models and Chryslers own Town & Country convertible, which
was briefly fashionable enough to form the centerpiece of an
advertisement for General Squeegee tires in December, 1947.
This great new Plymouth Station Wagon sets new standards

for beauty, utility and long life.... Comfortably seats eight
full-sized passengers. Both rear seats quickly and easily removed for maximum loading space. Handsome, easy-to-clean
vinyl plastic seats and seat backs. Natural-nish bonded plywood body panels with long-life nish on all wood surfaces.
This sounded more like copy for caf dcor, yet it did not come
cheap. The copy was unassuming, but Plymouth was able to
capitalize on the element of chic which percolated down
from the wooden Chrysler convertibles. For true utilitarians
there was the DeLuxe two-door, steel-bodied wagon which, at
$1,840, was $532 cheaper than the Special DeLuxe wooden
four-door. By 1951, the steel version had taken over entirely, as
the wooden wagon was offered for the last time in 1950.
But steel did not inevitably mean only the barest utility,
as Nash proved with its compact but well-nished 1950 Rambler wagon, and Plymouths 1953 two-door Savoy, costing
$2,207, was targeted upmarket: Dignity of design, quiet good
taste in styling and appointment, assure this cars welcome in
any company. It was illustrated at Long Islands Meadow
Brook Polo Club, rather than in the countryside of earlier
years, and the advertisement as a whole indicated Plymouths
199
200
Frazer and De Soto, looked like the sedans on which they were
based.
Late in 1950, Frazers copywriters tried to inject some excitement into their product. In one advertisement for the
whole Frazer line, the Vagabond was trumpeted as the famous 2-cars-in-1converts in 10 seconds from luxurious 6passenger sedan to spacious carrier ... for sports or business
equipment! A later piece for the Vagabond alone called it
beautifully new as a sedan! which was true semantically even
though it had been lifted from the earlier Kaiser line. A halfhearted attempt was again made to sell it to the sportsman,
but its principal market was the estate owner or commuter,
particularly the latter.
The Vagabond was claimed to supersede conventional
wagons: ... here is the 1951 successor to the station
wagon ... truly a car built to better the best on the
road!... For merchant, farmer, technician or professional man the Vagabond serves double use in
transporting products or equipment. As a parting shot, it was claimed to be the years smartest
buy for smart people, although, in this case,
smartness had more to do with sound commercial
sense than cocktail-party credibility. The word was
usefully ambiguous.
Frazers 1951 model year ended early, when it
was decided to market all future large KaiserFrazer cars as Kaisers, with a new Traveler succeeding the Vagabond. Only about 3,000 Frazer
Vagabonds were sold; even allowing for mid-market targeting, this did not compared well with Plymouths 34,457 steel-bodied and 2,057 wooden
wagons produced in 1950. Vigorous copy and novelty alone could not revive a car that, at $2,399,
was even more expensive than Plymouths top-line
wagon.
Nor was the Vagabond helped by advertisements that were less than attractive. The new
handcrafted 1951 Frazer Vagabond was not only
nothing of the sort; it was also shown in uninspired tinted monochrome illustrations which suggested a lack of funds and, therefore, a less than
successful product. Amid a rash of V-8s from the
Big Three, the Frazers new Supersonic Engine,
a 115bhp L-head six, was comprehensively outclassed, and promises of power and the copy
styles that went with them were out of the question.
The result was novelty by default. The car was
illustrated in the hand of a craftsman, as if it were
a scale model. The motif was reminiscent of the
hand-held crystal ball with the Ford in your fuGeneral made the most of the glamour of Chryslers Town & Country ture of 194546, and was almost identical to
British artwork of 1938 for the compact Ford V-8
(December 1947).
desire to integrate the wagon into the mainstream of automobile fashion. The car was shown in a smart metallic red
rather than in the somber brown cellulose that had been adequate in 1949.
Between 1949 and 1953 Kaiser-Frazer offered Vagabond
and Traveler utility sedans which, like the early Town &
Country, aimed to offer in one package the combined advantages of sedan and station wagon. But while Chryslers priorities had been largely stylistic, the 1951 Frazer Vagabond (which
took its name from a 194950 Kaiser) was a more genuinely
practical vehicle. Often said to have pregured the hatchback
of later years, the Vagabond (and its closest American precedent, a similar De Soto of the late 1940s), were in fact much
more akin to the pre-war French commerciales which, like the
16. F ROM U TILITY
Above and right: Station wagons lost their wooden body framing
and were gradually integrated into the mainstream of automotive fashion in the early 1950s (October 1949 and August 1953).
22. The theme was original for 1951, and undoubtedly suggested that the Vagabond was a car apart. But it was also at
least ten years out of date.
By the mid1950s, the steel-bodied station wagon had
taken over from its wooden forebears, and most advertising for
the breed was conventional and unadventurous. Maturity
brought diversication, however, and styling which had
been rudimentary on the Plymouth Savoybecame more important. Luxury and sporty wagons complemented the
conventional two- and four-door utilities. The 1955 Pontiac Safari, for example, was promoted in an advertisement of almost Continental-like restraint and clarity. Pontiac creates an
entirely new type of car combining Catalina smartness and
station wagon utility, said a headline which introduced copy
and studio photographs that owed nothing to the rest of Pontiacs 1955 campaign.
Chevrolets 1954 Nomad concept car combined racy
Corvette styling with a novel, ribbed roof and raked B-pillars
that were successfully echoed in production two-door Nomads during 195557, and on the Pontiac Safari. The Nomad
was essentially a revival of the original Town & Country
theme. As that car had marked a rebellion against the utilitarian functionalism of most boxy, wooden wagons, so the
Nomad represented a deliberate move away from boxy, steel
wagons towards something more luxurious and distinctive.
TO
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201
202
Echoing French commerciales of the 1930s, the Frazer Vagabond appealed to merchant, farmer, technician or professional man
(June 1950).
16. F ROM U TILITY

There was, however, an obscure stylistic link between the
two. In 1954, the British coachbuilders Abbott of Farnham
converted an Austin Atlantic convertible into a station wagon.
The rear body was part-metal (retaining the rear fender prole
of the convertible) and part wooden, with raked B-pillars and
a sloping tail; it was sporty, practical, and good-looking. It
was an interesting coincidence that both the Atlantic and the
prototype Nomad were based on their respective makers
sporting models, and they both combined similar, novel
styling features to dramatic effect.
If the production Nomad, Long, low and very different, glamorized Chevrolets station wagon range, 1955s bestselling two-door wagon, the Two-Ten Handyman, was resolutely boxy and practical. Copywriters attempted to inject
some glamour:
Never have you seen Station Wagons as wonderful as the new
Chevrolets! You can have your cake and eat it too with
Chevrolets spanking-new line of Station Wagons! For here is
sophisticated big-city style ... plus pack-horse performance
and astonishing new utility features.
By 1955, it was big-city style rather than bucolic charm that

impressed buyers, who had to be reassured that a workhorse
need not be crude or dmod. The rest of the copy described
new practical and mechanical features and the optional
Turbo-Fire V8 engine which had revitalized the whole
Chevrolet range.
In the same year, the long-established two-Ford family, which had even appeared, albeit tongue-in-cheek, in prewar British copy, made a come-back in a distinctive advertisement. A black and yellow Fairlane Sunliner convertible and a
red and white Custom Ranch Wagon were proposed as the
ideal combination for the affluent suburban family. The theme
was perpetuated in a 1956 television advertisement in which
a man got into his Ford sedan to drive to work while his wife
went shopping in her new station wagon.
In 1956, Ford and Chevrolet each offered six models in
their full-line wagon advertising. Fords selection include a
hastily contrived answer to the Nomad, called the Parklane.
It was added to the Fairlane line, and promised limousine
comfort in a car that still did not mind rolling up its sleeves.
It was slightly cheaper than the Chevrolet Nomad, and with
bodywork shared with lowlier versions it was more practical.
A raked B-pillar effect was achieved by artful use of stainless
trim rather than with a genuinely novel conguration. The
Parklane outsold the Nomad by almost two to one, but it
lacked the Nomads individuality and trend-setter status.
Chevrolets station wagon advertising for 1956 focused
not so much on the Nomad as on a four-door luxury wagon
called the Bel Air Beauville. A typical advertisement illustrated
the Beauville at the top of the page, while smaller color pictures
showed the ve other wagons in the range, including the distinctive, luxurious Nomad. Fords Parklane was seen outside
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203
the latest in modern, suburban supermarkets; Chevrolet accommodated a baseball team beautifully in the Beauville, in
keeping with the marques new, dynamic image.
Between them, Ford and Chevrolet highlighted the two
areas of modern suburban American life shopping and
recreation that would feature in most subsequent advertising for station wagons of all sizes and prices for decades afterwards. The similarities between these particular 1956 advertisements also graphically illustrate the intensity of the
competition between Ford and General Motors in every sector of the market. Direct model-for-model duplication within
specialized areas of complex product ranges became commonplace, particularly in the low-price eld, and these rivalries
would grow in the 1960s.
By 1958, the station wagon was rmly entrenched as an
integral part of Americas expanding suburban landscape and,
to remain socially acceptable, it had to become fashion-conscious. Copywriters emphasized the fun, freedom, and recreational activities that wagon ownership facilitated. The wagon
was, above all, a family car, and children gured prominently
in artwork. It was implied that the man who provided for his
family ought not to deny his wife and children the independence and convenience that ownership of a wagon could bring.
De Soto showed children playing happily in the back of
a Fireflite Explorer, nished, according to the caption, in
Wedgwood blue and pearl white with matching interior. It
was a far cry from the 1957 sedan that could flick its tail at anything on the road. Unfortunately for De Soto, the colormatched interior, heap plenty room, and convenient steps
... on the tailgate persuaded only 1,734 buyers to choose either this or the equivalent Firesweep Explorer in 1958. By 1961,
De Soto the exciting look and feel of the future was extinct.
Dodge combined suburban leisure with upmarket aspiration in copy for its similar Sierra wagon in the recessionary
market of 1958. Two couples were shown in a park with the
new car, picnic basket balanced on the open tailgate:
What the Millionaire said to the Bystander.... How much
does it cost to own a yacht like that? a millionaire sportsman
was asked about his 200-foot luxury vessel. His answer was
simple: If you have to think about costs, you shouldnt own
one.... Now maybe you have that attitude about a SweptWing 58 4-door station wagon. Certainly this land yacht
costs more [$3,354] than other body styles.... But heres a new
way to look at the cost: If you divide the purchase price by the
number of times youll use this wagon, it may be the least expensive car you could buy. Because, you see, youll use it for
everything: Its that great.
Chevrolet also pursued the recreational theme during

195859. For 1958, buyers had a choice of ve new wagons
with wonderful ways. The Nomad, by now a four-door, was
shown with several boys and their balsa wood toy airplanes,
about to set off for flight trials in the countryside. In the same
204
In 1956, Ford and Chevrolet competed head-on in an expanding sector of the market (February and May 1956).
advertisement a Brookwood, in two-tone blue, was parked

outside an antiques shop, with the predictable (and hideous)
grandfather clock being loaded into the back. In the absence
of genuine novelty, the copywriter clutched at straws:
Notice that the larger liftgate curves clear around at the corners. Its hinged into the roof and raises completely out of the
way for easier loading and maximum-size loads.
The idea was not conned to Chevrolet, or even to General Motors, and a wrap-around liftgate had appeared on
American Fords in 1957. Surprisingly, a similar wrap-around
rear window had also been seen in 1956, on another English
prototype by Abbott of Farnham, called the Frensham (after
a nearby village). Abbott built it onto the rear of a Ford Zephyr
Mk II before opting to adapt its existing Farnham conversion, with a side-opening tailgate, for that car; while Britains
Rootes Group, always alert to American influences, tted a
roll-down tailgate window, in the style of an early1950s
Chrysler Town & Country, to its Humber Hawk Mk VI Estate Car of late 1955.
For 1959, Chevrolets Brookwood was either a four-door
or a two-door. The car thats wanted for all its worth could
hold everybody and his brother according to copy for the
two-door. The car was shown in a suburban driveway; a young
mother sat on the wagons open tailgate, reading to a toddler
as other children played in a paddling pool. According to another advertisement, a four-door Nomad was the Handiest
helper a family ever had.... All ve 59 Chevrolet wagons are as
beautifully at ease with a delicate bit of greenery as they are
with a rough-and-tumble cargo of kids.
By 1960, the station wagon market had expanded enough
to allow Chrysler, in its corporate advertising, to offer 27
wagons built with families in mind. The Corporation ran
several advertisements for its wagon range; in another, it was
claimed that The 1960 wagons from Chrysler Corporation
put space in its place inside, not out.... They give you more
room inside than ever before, yet t in the same parking space
as last years models. In another piece, Chrysler explained
that the Corporations wagons were built by people who
know what parents are up against, and promised that in a
new Dodge, Plymouth, or Chrysler, Even the kids seem quieter.
16. F ROM U TILITY
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A dying marque offered the exciting look and feel of the future in 1958 (March 1958).
205
206
Classical station-wagon advertising from Chevrolet in 1959. With sharp ns and corners everywhere, this was not the safest place
to play (July 1959).
16. F ROM U TILITY
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207
One of a series of Chrysler Corporation advertisements from 1960. The Valiant, in particular, was distinctively styled (April 1960).
If anyone feared a return to drab and boxy wagons, they

were reassured by the ns and chrome highlighted in the accompanying photographs. The cars New Unibody Construction and Torsion-Aire Ride with torsion-bar suspension
the former new to Chrysler but not unique to it and the latter
a Chrysler feature since 1957 were promoted heavily. The
early 1960s, like the early 1950s, were years in which Chryslers
corporate styling was fussy and out-of-date when set against
prevailing trends. Even in 1961, a Chryslers wagons smart
looks included enormous ns when General Motors had
abandoned them, and Ford had reduced 1960s sweeping horizontal blades to miniature proportions. In station wagon advertising, however, Chryslers copywriters could, with some
credibility, ignore styling that was conspicuously outdated and
concentrate on the cars practicality.
Although wooden-bodied station wagons had been costly
to make and time-consuming to maintain, the wood looked
attractive if carefully styled, and it gave an upmarket feel to a
carpartly because of its actual cost, and partly for its traditional connotations. Mock-wood trim was tted to obviously
steel Fords and Mercurys from the early 1950s onwards, and
to a handful of prestigious Cadillac conversions by Hess &
Eisenhardt in 195556; it also enjoyed widespread popularity
on other marques in the 1960s. During its transitional year of
1949, Chevrolet replaced the wooden upper body framing of
its Styleline DeLuxe wagon with steel that was carefully shaped
and painted to look almost identical to the original wood. The
price was unchanged.
A 1964 advertisement for the Mercury Colony Park,
headed, Imagine calling anything as elegant as this a wagon,
typied the trend. The car was shown outside a fashionable
apartment at night, where warm, mahogany-like paneling
gave it a distinctive appearance. The idea was even used by
Ford of Britain, at rst with modest strakes on the flanks of its
small 1955 Squire wagon, and then with the full Di-Noc treatment on the sides and tailgate of the 1963 Consul Cortina
Super Estate Car. But what was elegant and sophisticated to the
American motorist was vulgar in Britain, not least because
mock-wood trim looked fussier on a small car than on a large
one, and this version of the Cortina was quickly abandoned.
208
Mercury and Chrysler offered mock-wood paneled luxury wagons in the 1960s. A Mercury Colony Park and Chrysler Town & Country are shown here (April 1964 and April 1968).
The British still had a genuine if antiquated woody in 1964,

in the form of the Morris Minor 1000 Traveller, a 1953 style
which looked either appealing and unpretentious or like a
dodgem car sticking out of a shed, depending on the viewers
taste.
The idea continued to thrive in America, however, and
1965s Mercury wagons, for people who dont mind being
looked at, were joined in 1968 by a Di-Noc trim option for
the Park Lane convertible and hardtop. The similarly decorated 1967 Pontiac Executive wagon was claimed to be a trendsetter in one advertisement which declared, It looks like a lot
more people will be driving station wagons this year, echoing Dodges appeal in 1958.
Chrysler, whose top-line 1968 model revived the Town &
Country name after a sabbatical in 196667, billed its full-size
luxury wagon as sort of the penthouse of luxury cars ... a
world apart from the plain-vanilla wagons. Unusually for a
station wagon, this car was targeted at the male buyer, and
was promoted not merely as a socially acceptable commuting
car, but as a status symbol in its own right. There was a
similarly nished full-size Dodge Monaco, and even the less exalted 1967 Chevrolet Chevelle Concours Custom Wagon with
a look of hand-rubbed walnut panels, and Dodges mid-size
contender, the Coronet 500, indicated by their fake-wood trim
a loyalty to big car priorities.
Comfort and novelties dominated copy for the majority
of station wagons in the late 1960s. The 1965 Chevrolet Impala
offered an under-floor stowage compartment, together with
comfort-oriented suspension: Some bumps get through
Chevrolets new suspension. But when a bump gets through
those 4 double-acting shock absorbers, 4 coil springs, 1 GirderGuard frame and over 50 rubber shock cushioners, you must
be off the road. The smaller 1965 Chevelle included a more
modest improved suspension system incorporating a softer
coil spring at each wheel to take care of the rough spots.
In the mid to late1960s, Ford chased Chevrolet by introducing a number of new models to cater to expanding specialty sectors, and several new features in its regular models.
Many were highlighted in the highly successful Ford has a
better idea campaign. Among the most noteworthy of the
16. F ROM U TILITY
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Chevrolets Impala was a far cry from the utilitarian wagons of the 1940s (March 1965).
209
210
Fords better idea campaign of the late 1960s included an advertisement highlighting the two-way tailgates of Ford and Mercury
wagons (March 1967).
16. F ROM U TILITY
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211
Modest precursors to the SUVs of later years. Of the two, the Jeep was the better known and more car-like, while copy for the
Travelall, which was visibly related to Internationals light trucks, recreated the practical flavor of much 1930s advertising (April
and June 1964).
new ideas was a two-way tailgate promoted in a 1967 advertisement in the series which showed a Ford wagon: Exclusive! Only Ford and Mercury wagons have it. Use the handle on the side, it opens like a door. Use the handle in the
middle, it operates as a tailgate. The idea was well received and
was soon adopted elsewhere.
In 1966, Ford showed a wooden-bodied 1946 Station
Wagon (Classic) with a modern Country Squire (Son of
Classic) and reminded car buyers that it had been a pioneer:
Since 1929, when Ford invented the mass-produced station
wagon, Ford wagons have been the standard of quality ... the
prime innovators year after year.... Even apart from the unique
Magic Doorgate (swings down for cargo, swings open for people), these 66 Fords are classics. Best-selling. Best of Breed!
Other innovations included the multi-window roofs of the
Buick Skylark Sports Wagon and Oldsmobiles Vista-Cruiser,
the latter promoted as All new from the top down in 1964 and
in 1965 as a family-room-on-wheels with a New skys-thelimit look in station wagons! Brooks Stevens Studebaker
Wagonaire of 196366 had a novel retracting rear roof section

to accommodate long or tall loads.
There were two main exceptions to the generally antiutilitarian trend. The Kaiser Jeep Corporations Jeep Wagoneer
of 196392 was seen by many as a semi-truck at rst, but it
soon lost its early, commercial-looking frontal styling to become a familiar suburban sight in the 1970s. It was a forerunner of sport utility vehicles of later years which included its own
successors. Stop running scared, began a March, 1964 advertisement depicting a Wagoneer climbing a steep hill at night:
The rain is wet ... the road is slippery ... the wind is erce ...
but that doesnt trouble the Jeep Wagoneer.... Jeep 4-wheel
Drivepower is what ... keeps all four wheels gripping the road,
providing the kind of traction that you cant get with any ordinary vehicle.... So for the love o your family get a Jeep
Wagoneer!
An April, 1964 advertisement showed a row of Jeeps and
Jeepsters from the 1940s and 1950s above the caption Evolution with the All new Jeep Wagoneer captioned Revolu-
212
Plymouth combined small-car dimensions with big-car styling in the compact Volar wagon. Its poor build quality soon had
Americans cursing, however (December 1977).
t7
16. F ROM U TILITY
tion.... The world-famous army Jeep vehicle started it all....

And the Jeep heart and spirit are still there. Pull one simple
lever and youre in Jeep 4-wheel Drivepower ... Wagoneer station wagons new, improved and exclusive 4-wheel drive system ... theres hardly a hill that can keep you down ... hardly a
mud hole that can bog you down. The copy style was straight
from the mid1930s.
In the same year, the International Harvester Company
rebelled against luxury wagons with multiple photographs of
its upright, four-door Travelall:
This is what a station wagon is supposed to be like.... Two
adults plus seven husky kids (or adults) ride comfortably anywhere.... A big fellow sits tall on a chair-high seat, without
crushing his hat.... With all-wheel-drive, you dont have to
stop when youve run out of road.... And it has everything else
you could possibly want in a wagon, including smart looks.
This was trying hard, and one sensed a copywriter resenting the need to mention looks when the car itself was so
useful. But it did have two-tone blue and white paint. In another piece the Travelall was, like Oldsmobiles Vista-Cruiser,
a Family room on wheels.... Mom, Dad, seven kids ... and the
family poochplus a load of camping gearcan ride in comfort.... You can get in without twisting yourself up like a
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213
pretzel. The Travelall was strong enough to pull a boat trailer

or house trailer without wagging its tail. When the makers
asked in April, 1964, Will you buy it for LOVE ... or
MONEY? the love was for hunting, shing, boating, skiing,
camping, exploring rather than for the cars styling. And, like
the Frazer Vagabond, it was for the small businessman, too: If
you make money delivering parcels, cartons, hard goods ...
workers, kidsthe TRAVELALL will do a lot of work for you.
This was a station wagon in the spirit of the 1940s.
By the late 1970s, huge luxury wagons were no longer
fashionable, and producers of mid-size models emphasized
their products convenience and space efciency. It convinces
you, assured an advertisement for the 1977 Dodge Aspen,
that its a much bigger wagon than it really is, while the larger
Chevrolet Caprice Classic Wagon [e]liminates excess inches
and ounces. Uses space more efciently. Plymouth returned
to practicality for the 1978 model year with the Volar. This was
not the extraordinary wagon claimed, but the wagon that
has America singing was nevertheless the No. 1 selling wagon
in America according to the makers. It was efcient and economical by comparison with the nned Sport Suburbans of
1960, but by 1978 the competition included not only domestic rivals, but increasing numbers of imported cars.
Chapter 17
Back to Basics
to offer more in Beauty, Custom Luxury, Economy and Ease
of Handling than ever before! It was cannily introduced in
station wagon form and as a convertible, which gave all the
thrill of the open car with the comfort and safety of a sedan,
thanks to unitary construction and xed roof rails in the style
of West Germanys Opel Olympia.
The Hudson Jet was conceptually less radical than the
Rambler, but it was a car that squandered its makers limited
resources. While undoubtedly practical, it was made available
only as a two-door or four-door sedan. In England, The Autocar, testing a four-door in July, 1953, found it in many ways
a car with a European character. It is trim and compact, has
good performance, and is well nished. Few were sold in
Britain, or in the rest of Europe, although it was enthusiastically advertised in Italy. Crucially, however, it lacked the novelty and attractive appearance of the Rambler; it was altogether
too rational for the American market of its period, and was
sold for only two model years, during 195354.
Kaisers Henry J (named after Henry J. Kaiser) was a
slightly smaller car than the Hudson Jet but, unlike the Hudson, it showed no sign of having been influenced by European
thought and had a character quite different from European
cars of similar overall dimensions according to The Autocar,
which tested an example in December, 1951. The Henry J suffered in its home market from being too utilitarian, with little compensating appeal to the motoring enthusiast. Trumpeted in 1951 as the most important new car in America,
the car for today! and Americas smartest new car! it
achieved no lasting success. Its rst model year, 1951, was easily its best, with just under 82,000 sales; eventually just over
130,300 were produced overall. Like the Hudson Jet, it did not
survive beyond 1954. It had no successor, although a modied
version was badged and sold as the Allstate through Sears department stores during 195253. This venture was an even
Americans did not take easily to small cars. The pre-war

Austin Seven-based Bantam was not a success, and the postwar Crosley enjoyed only a brief vogue in the late 1940s before
extinction in 1952, thirteen years after the marques rst car
had been produced. Even the Crosley Hotshot roadster, which
was of a similar size to imported British sports cars, attracted
only around 2,500 buyers between 1949 and 1952.
The compact car, large to Europeans but small by
American standards, enjoyed greater, if initially fragile, success. During and immediately after World War II, Detroit tinkered with compact prototypes. The Chevrolet Cadet, designed by Earle MacPherson, was technically advanced when
the rst prototypes were tested in 1947.13 But the car would
only have been protable with sales, beyond those of regular
Chevrolets, of at least 300,000 a year, and the project was quietly sidelined.
The Cadets creator joined Ford in England, where many
of the prototypes design features, including MacPherson
strut front suspension, saw fruition in the British Consul and
Zephyr sedans. Both British and American road testers were
impressed with the result.14 Fords American division also experimented with a light car in the late 1940s, but, like the
Cadet, it did not see production, although unlike the small
Chevrolet it reappeared in recognizable form, as the French
Ford Vedette.
Apart from the long-established Willys, three new compact cars did reach American buyers in the early 1950s, and
all were produced by independent manufacturers. The Nash
Rambler was deliberately conceived as a luxury compact rather
than an austerity model, and it was successful; it survived for
fourteen years, in Nash Rambler guise from 1950 to 1955,
lightly modied as the Rambler American during 195860,
and continuing with new outer bodywork from 196163. Promoted in 1950 as Something completely new, it was claimed
214
17. B ACK
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215
greater failure, as only an estimated 2,363 Allstates

were built,15 although it pregured the combination
of car showroom and sales/leisure complex that reemerged intermittently in the late 1980s.
Of the regular Henry J, Joseph W. Frazer,
Kaisers erstwhile partner in the Kaiser-Frazer combine, said: I would have brought it out dressed up,
and undressed it later. It became apparent that, in
the climate of the early 1950s, it was wiser to produce a utility version of an established compact with
a luxury or semi-luxury image than to add gee-gaws
and two-tone paint (or, in the Henry Js case, a continental kit and opening trunk lid) to a car whose
rst association in the public mind was one of austerity.
It was against this variegated background that
the modern generation of compacts was announced
by Studebaker, Chevrolet, Ford, and Chrysler Corporation, the rst in 1958 for the 1959 model year, the
others in 1959 for 1960. Chryslers Valiant initially
a stand-alone model and from 1961 a Plymouth
was slightly larger than the others and more obviously related to its makers regular lines. Even in 1960
the Valiant was advertised in a style closer to that
used for the Corporations other cars. Further compacts followed with the Falcon-based Comet in
March, 1960 (as a stand-alone model at rst and as
a Mercury from 1962) and, from General Motors,
with the Buick Special, Oldsmobile F-85, and Pontiac
Tempest in 1961. A Valiant-derived Dodge, the
Lancer, arrived in the same year.
The Studebaker Lark, with scads of scamper,
marathon mileage, common-sense cost, was visi- The Hudson Jet was compact, spacious, fast, and handled well for its time.
bly an abbreviated version of the regular product, al- But it was the kind of functional design that had fallen from grace since
the mid1930s, and it sold badly in America and only in penny numbers
though it offered a measure of charm and individuin Europe. It was a good concept introduced at the wrong time (1953 camality and, if one believed the copy, more luxury and paign).
good taste per dollar than the opposition. Curiously,
its unique, lively styling, with a semi-classical grille
Ford competed in this sector with the Falcon. It was methat mimicked that of the Hawk coupe, together with large
chanically conventional, and combined simplicity with neat
wheels and wheel cutouts, a short hood, and a stumpy tail, all
styling that distinguished the car from the regular full-size
combined to make it look even smaller than it actually was.
Fords, but was in no way unusual. It was advertised in late
The principal contenders came from the Big Three,
1959 as the easiest car in the world to own, and was prowho had hitherto shunned compact cars, preferring to offer
moted as an economy vehicle with all the advantages of a larger
stripped versions of full-size sedans. By 1959, a growing procar.
portion of the motoring public desired not only a reduction in
An early advertisement was headed, Introducing a wonthe rst cost of its automobiles, but also a reduction in their
derful new world of savings in the new-size 1960 Ford Falsize, which had been growing steadily since the early 1940s.
con. A painting of the car surrounded by a crowd of admirMoreover, a stripped full-size Studebaker Scotsman with
ers was shown above a cutaway diagram, of a kind unusual
painted hubcaps suggested poverty, while a well-equipped
since the early 1950s, that illustrated the amount of room in the
Lark indicated merely a disinclination to be ostentatious.
car. Up to 30 miles a gallon on regular gas were promised (alMany families bought compact cars not only as second cars, but
though in real life 2324 mpg were more usual), along with
as their principal transport, deserting traditional full-size
ruggedness, something for which the Volkswagen had become
sedans completely.
famous.
216
Three of the modern compacts announced in 1958-59. The Lark

(boxed in here by a Studebaker Hawk and a 1957 Packard Clipper) was an adaptation of a 1953 design; the Falcon was new, but
conventional; and the Corvair was a controversial freak that
only a highly skilled driver could handle at speed. Sales of
imports fell by 45 percent between 1960 and 1962, with only the
Volkswagen unaffected (1959 campaign, November 1959, and
November 1961).
Americans needed to be reassured that a small car was

not necessarily a delicate one, and the Falcon was claimed to
have been proved over every mile of numbered Federal Highway in Experience Run, U.S.A., a grueling demonstration climaxing Fords 3 years and 3 million miles of testing and development. The Falcon proved to be the most reliable of the
compacts, but servicing was encouraged: The Falcon is a
product of Dearborn, Michigan, automotive capital of the
world. Every part of the Falcon has been designed for maximum durability and dependable performance. Falcon service
is available at over 7,000 Ford Dealers across the country. In
other words, it was not an obscure foreign Lilliputian that no
one could x.
If the Falcon held few surprises, the same could not be
said of General Motors challenger. As anticipated by its
17. B ACK
namewhich blended Corvette with Bel Air and derived
from a 1954 Corvette fastback show car the air-cooled
Chevrolet Corvair was sold from the outset as an automobile
for the enthusiast, as in its rst model year, 1960:
In a Corvair even a ho-hum trip through town can be a happy
experience.... Its a kind of challenge to your Corvairs lighthearted handling and nimble reflexes ... youll get a real boot
out of driving this car ... we know why youll really want this
car. Just drive one and youll know too.
In June, 1964, General Motors settled out of court a suit

brought by Mrs. Rose Pierini of California, whose Corvair
had overturned, leading to the loss of her left arm.16 It was one
of many accidents attributed to the early Corvairs unpredictable handling, which included an unusually lethal version
of the snap-oversteer for which a handful of imported, rearengined cars were well known.
While he had criticized particular Ford, Chrysler, and
General Motors automobiles in passing, a major part of Ralph
Naders invective in Unsafe at Any Speed was reserved for the
Corvair. His attack became famous. A camber compensator
was tted to its swing-axle suspension in 1964 models aftermarket compensators were also available for imported,
swing-axled Triumph Spitre sports cars and the suspension as a whole was substantially redesigned for 1965.
In the meantime, the families of those who had been
Corvaired, together with nascent consumer protection
groups, sought a reevaluation of automobile makers responsibilities for their products. Was it always up to the consumer
to beware? Was a safe car one which could be controlled by an
expert, or must it protect, as far as technically feasible, the
most reckless of drivers? Did safe mean only as safe as immediate rivals or contemporaries? Did tougher standards apply
to cars that were promoted as sporty? And how far should
a design allow for owner neglect? The debate over the Corvairs design continued for several years. Eventually the National Highway Trafc Safety Administration decided that,
properly maintained, the 196063 Corvair was adequately safe
by the standards of its time, notwithstanding that correct tire
pressures were crucial to its performance.
In the early 1960s, the car was advertised not only for its
practical virtues, but on fun-value. A 1962 advertisement promoted the Corvair as The Sporty Car in Chevrolets New
World of Worth.... Built for budget-minded people who go
for sports car driving. By 1964, convertibles were established
in the Corvair range, and this body style featured prominently
in Chevrolets full-line advertising. A more conventional compact, the Chevy II, joined the Corvair in 1962 to compete more
directly with the Ford Falcon. Thus Chevrolet was producing
two distinct compact ranges alongside its full-sized Impalas,
Bel Airs, and Biscaynes and, from 1964, medium-sized Chevelles.
The entrenchment of the compact, at General Motors
TO
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217
and elsewhere, was the rst stage in the subdivision of the new
car market which continued, with ever-increasing elaboration, throughout the 1960s and 1970s. Advertisers increasingly
placed different models in their own market niches. Blanket
coverage of a price eld with several versions of one basic
product was no longer possible as it had been in the 1950s.
Chryslers 1960 Valiant was less obviously a utilitarian
compact than the Falcon and Corvair. Conventionally engineered for the most part, it was a car which, in its early years,
sought to imitate the stylistic flamboyance of larger models
as far as its size and price would allow. Ironically, when the
Falcon and Corvair grew larger in the mid1960s (ultimately
to be undertaken by new compacts and subcompacts), the
Valiant was advertised in 1967 as the rational car par excellence, which had remained true to its compact credentials:
Compact cars sure were a good idea. Valiant still is. In case
youve forgotten, the original idea was to skip the doodads
and concentrate on the most car for the least money possible.
But compacts have been getting chromier and less economic
lately even the foreign economy jobs. Meanwhile, Valiant
Chevrolet returned to the conventional fold with a direct Falcon competitor, the Chevy II, in 1962 (July 1962).
218
Above and opposite: Worthy virtue at its worthiest: Chrysler took on the imports in 1967 with this essay in automotive philosophy (June 1967).
17. B ACK
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219
220
Mildly humorous, anti-obsolescent advertising for the 1971 Chevrolet Vega. Early versions were overweight, overpriced, and unreliable, but the car was eventually improved (July 1970 and July 1971).
stuck to its guns. Which is why its percentage of repeat owners is highest of any American compact. And its depreciation
rate is among the very lowest.
The copy continued for several hundred words, discussing the

advantages of the compact car in general, implicitly knocking
the competition which had deserted the breeds original rationale, and inviting owners of imported economy cars to try
the latest model.
Among the cars which had been getting chromier, if
not a great deal less economic, was the Rambler. Yet its expansion was still modest, and in 1958 Rambler mocked the
Big Threes addiction to large cars with illustrations by famous
cartoonists which showed caricatured dinosaur models stuck
in places a Rambler could get through easily. Get the Best of
Both, said Rambler, 1. Get American big car room and comfort. 2. Get European small car economy, handling ease.
By the early 1960s, the Rambler moniker was comfortably established as a marque rather than a model name within
the American Motors Corporation, and AMC would become
a marque in its own right in 1966. Rambler promoted its
smaller American, successor to the 196163 model, in several

Love letters to Rambler during 196465. The emphasis was
on gas mileage and reliability. In one such letter, Rolf Haefner
of Newark, New Jersey wrote: Rambler has really gone out
to give their customers something good for their money. The
American [220 sedans] styling is pleasing.... It is bigger, more
powerful, has more trunk space and is still economical in gas
consumption. It was advertising of a kind which had last been
seen in quantity during the Depression, but in its pursuit of
an unglamorous niche rather than the whole compact car market, Ramblers was a strategy of its time. The ordinary-user
testimonial would be used in almost identical form by Datsun ten years later.
In the 1970s a new generation of American small cars
emerged, including a 1971 dbutante, the Chevrolet Vega. Early
copy echoed Volkswagens disdain of planned obsolescence.
Under the sub-heading, No shiny new ashtray knobs,
Chevrolet declared in an early advertisement: Before we tell
you anything about the car itself, we think you should know
that once it comes out, its going to stay out. We dont plan to
17. B ACK
change it for at least four years. The piece was headed,
Chevys new little car: If you like the 1971, youll like the
1975, and went on to mention the cars specication and practical features but only in outline as Naturally, all these
things are ads in themselves, so stay tuned to this magazine.
A year later, the Vega had become established, and a more
conventional advertisement introduced the Vega Kammback:
The Vega Kammback wagon is three things. Its a Vega. Its a
Kammback. And its a wagon. Kammback was not just
another fancy word. It refers to the aerodynamic shape of our
little wagon. The housewife, who was the target market, was
promised that while its no giant, itll easily hold plenty of
groceries and rose bushes and antiques and cub scouts, if not
all at the same time.
It was not easy to inject excitement into ownership of a
subcompact station wagon, but an overhead-cam aluminum
engine, front disc brakes, front bucket seats and lots lots more
combined with the Kammback name to give it a hint of
quasiEuropean sophistication. No hint was given in advertisements of the problems which had beset the Vega from the
outset. Early models were heavier, more expensive, and less
well-equipped than originally intended, and the aluminum
engine was prone to oil leaks and overheating. Factory strikes,
bad publicity, and competition from the Ford Pinto, Volkswagen, Datsun, and Toyota meant that it was only in 1974 that
the car started to compete more strongly against its opposition
before falling back in 1975. Imaginative advertising had not
saved it, and disillusioned buyers of early models, having given
the American product one last chance before turning to imports, deserted it. The Vega name was discontinued at the end
of 1977.
The Ford Pinto, by contrast, was advertised as a simple
car in 1972, with a dose of nostalgia under a picture of a Model
T, and an eye to the imports bought in haste by economyminded motorists who later struggled with inaccessible engines and metric bolt sizes that their spanners would not t:
If you nd yourself staring whenever you see a Model T go
by, we dont blame you.... It was simple. It was tough. And if
something went wrong, you could probably x it with a screwdriver and a pair of pliers. Pinto has many of those same qualities. Which is good to know if youre the kind of person who
likes cars, and likes to work on them. Pinto is the kind of car
you can work on, without having to be some kind of master
TO
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221
mechanic.... When you get back to basics, you get back to

Ford.
It was realistic advertising for the kind of person who
would not consider references to home servicing as admissions of unreliability, but Ford adopted it only after an earlier, more traditional approach had proved unsuccessful. As
Vance Packard recalled in 1981:
When Ford rst introduced the Pinto as a sub-compact to
compete with the flourishing foreign small-car market, it
called its entry the Pinto for a special reason. Its creative
image-makers pictured the car as a carefree, frisky vehicle. A
galloping pony was superimposed over it in TV commercials.
The dbut was disappointing, and Grey Advertising called in
the psychographic experts for help.... It turned out that [potential buyers] were not in a carefree mood.... [R]ather they
were sick and tired of high gas costs, planned obsolescence,
etc. So the Pinto was re-imaged into an economical, efcient
vehicle, reminiscent of...the Model A, famed for its sturdy
efciency .... It was soon the largest-selling subcompact in the
USA.17
Yet the typical American compact still remained appreciably larger than the average European sedan a fact highlighted by comparing American and British advertisements
for the 1965 Rambler Classic 770 sedan. This car was promoted in one of AMCs Love Letters as dependable transportation with the low mileage costs essential to my business, according to Carl L. Klocker, who, true to his name,
drove about 50,000 miles a year and who, with his wife, had
owned thirteen Ramblers. For the British market, the same
car, advertised in upmarket magazines in August, 1965 with
the same illustration that had graced American copy, was described as amongst the most sought after prestige vehicles
today which would be elegantly at home in the most distinguished company.
The Classic 770 cost a middling $2,436 in its home country but, as a specialty import from Canada, it was expensive for
Britons at 1,719 from Rambler Motors (AMC) Ltd. in London. For the time being, America imported many more British
sports cars than Britons bought Ramblers, even if the Rambler
was among the most popular non-sporting American cars in
Britain. In the 1970s, Japanese imports would outnumber
both.
Chapter 18
Fantasy Under Siege

594,808 cars in 1953 or just over half of its total output for
that year.18
The battle for colonial markets had intensied in the
1930s, when a few British adventurers drove across inhospitable landscapes, demonstrating their cars (and their own)
durability. In 1932, T. Yates Benyon drove a Hillman Minx
from London to Calcutta in 44 days, covering 8,600 miles.
Humphrey Symons and Bertie Browning took just under 32
days to drive 10,290 miles across the Sahara and down to Cape
Town in a medium-sized sedan, the Wolseley 18-85, in 1938
39. The car fell off a bridge near Niangara in the Belgian
Congo, but was retrieved from the water by a gang of 100 local
men and driven away, battered but intact, towards Juba, and
then to Nairobi, 750 miles away, at an average speed on vicious roads of 25mph. In 1951, Alan Hess, George Coates,
Ronald Jeavons, and Ralph Sleigh drove 9,263 miles round the
world in three weeks in an Austin A40 Sports, which gave no
trouble, consuming one tire and two pints of oil.
All bolstered the reputation of British cars, and led to increased sales in postwar years, necessarily at American manufacturers expense. As Hess remarked of Yates Benyons trip
in his book, Wheels Round the World, in 1951:
In the 1930s, America imported almost no cars, and exported hundreds of thousands. In 1938, for example, the
United States and Canada exported 161,612 and 40,284 cars
respectively, representing eight percent and 33 percent of those
countries annual production. But in 1953 American manufacturers exported only three percent of their production with
Canada exporting eight percent, which amounted to 7,153 and
12,307 fewer cars than 1938s export totals. Yet the world market was expanding rapidly. This decline was only partly accounted for by Americas status as a creditor nation at the end
of World War II. By 1980, American exports in relation to
world production were negligible, and domestic automobile
manufacturers were ghting for survival against a threepronged attack from imported luxury, sports, and economy
cars. From being a world provider, America gradually ceased
to provide even for all of her own needs and, from the early
1970s, increasing numbers of imported Japanese cars made up
the decit.
In the 1950s, the American automobile became a more
and more specialized product, suitable for the wide, flat highways of its home country, but inappropriate for the rugged
colonial conditions in which pre-war Chevrolets and Plymouths had survived for decades. Electrical complexity and
low ground clearance did not make a car easy to repair with
minimal tools, or suitable for use on unmade roads and isolated farms. A smashed double-curved panoramic windshield
could not be repaired by the local glass-cutter with the aid of
some putty. Livestock and machinery were not easily carried
in a hardtop sedan body less than ve feet high.
Britains progress was in the opposite direction. Forsaking small, underpowered, and fragile designs that many colonial Britons had deserted in the 1930s for the rugged American product, the British automobile industry gradually usurped
Americas former role as the worlds provider, exporting
Few solo motor trips can have had such sweeping economic
effects. Here was a convincing demonstration that British cars
could perform just as successfully over the difcult Indian
terrain as the larger American automobiles generally in use
there. This lesson has been remembered to this day and India
is now one of the worlds best customers for British cars.19
The subsequent long continuation in India of Britains

195659 Morris Oxford Series III as the Hindustan Ambassador became famous, and, if Britains was not a lead that could
be maintained forever, for twenty years or so a wide variety of
British automobiles could be seen on American roads. The
majority were specialist sports and luxury models MGs,
222
18. F ANTASY U NDER S IEGE

Triumphs, and Jaguars in particular although several small
family cars gained a temporary toe-hold in the sellers market
of the late 1940s. The $1,660 Austin Devon, for instance, was
advertised as the ideal present from a father to his son when
he graduated from college.
Austins rival, the Nufeld Organization, was jubilant in
January, 1953: Were part of the American scene, too! crowed
a British advertisement showing a Morris Minor and an MG
TD darting amongst the conventional large cars in New York
trafc. From the copy, it appeared that British cars were all
but indispensable to Americans:
You might think that a country with 39 million cars and a
production of 6,680,000 more every year would be able to
supply all its needs. But the fact remains that since the war
Nufeld products have become extremely popular in the
U.S.... The reason for our success is simple. The U.S. does not
produce anything in their class quite as good as, or quite like
... the Morris Minor and the M.G. Sports, which
have formed the bulk of Nufelds car exports to the
Americas.
Given that Crosley, who produced the only comparable domestic sedans and wagons, had expired following a merger with General Tire and Rubber in mid1952, Nufelds claim could be condently made. The
MG developed a niche in the early postwar years, including among returning servicemen, and its TD was
depicted as a symbol of youth, fun, and vigor by
Coca-Cola in its advertising.
On the other hand, America developed no lasting affection for the Morris Minor, and even enthusiastic Anglophiles who were well disposed towards
what appeared little more than a miniature utility car
to most Americans wrote to British motoring papers
to complain that it was too slow for American conditions. Sales declined from over 2,000 in 1952 to fewer
than 500 in 1956, before rising, when the car gained
a new engine, to a peak of nearly 15,000 in 1959 20 on
the crest of an import boom. Imported by Hambro
Automotive Corporation, it sold for $1,495. Buyers
were smart to be curious about ... Morris 1000 ...
Now, more than ever, your biggest small car buy!
But sales declined rapidly after 1960, and, apart from
a modest, fleeting revival in the late 1960s, enthusiasm for the Minor was largely conned thereafter to
automobile hobbyists. With the arrival of the inexpensive American compacts, imported miniatures (as
opposed to luxury and sports cars) suffered stiff
competition. Annual import sales had risen from
approximately 27,000 in 1952 to about 100,000 in
1956 and more than 600,000 in 1959, before falling
by 45 percent to 1962s low point of fewer than
340,000.
One imported small car that did give Detroit
223
serious pause for thought in the 1950s was the Volkswagen

sedan. Early postwar auguries had not been favorable. In 1947,
Bill Swallow of General Motors Overseas Operations reported
to engineers in Detroit that he thought the design had potential as the basis of an austerity model to be sold in developing
countries, but his ndings were not taken seriously, and the
general view was that the car would survive for a few years at
most. The Volkswagen was not considered worth adopting in
any form, and Swallow was apparently considered lucky to retain his job.21
In fairness to General Motors, what was viable to an importer was not necessarily viable for a major domestic producer to make, particularly when it had nothing in common
with established production models, with which it could share
only limited manufacturing facilities. Moreover, British experts were of a similar opinion; according to a report prepared
by Humber in Britain, the car was not to be regarded as an
The dream car for car-haters. Doyle Dane Bernbach made the most of a
unique product in a long-running campaign for Volkswagen in the 1960s.
Advertisements in the series became instant collectors items (October
1963).
224
example of rst class modern design to be followed by the

British Industry.22
By the mid1950s, however, the Volkswagen was selling
steadily in America, making up half of the countrys imports
by 1956, and it was assisted from 1959 by an imaginative advertising campaign from Doyle Dane Bernbach and a carefully structured service organization. The advertising used was
humorous, cleverly illustrated and, almost uniquely among
automobile advertising campaigns, it had a huge readership
which waited eagerly for new advertisements to appear, even
if many enthusiasts for the advertising had no intention of
buying the car itself. As William Bernbach recalled in the late
1960s:
When we were awarded the account, the rst thing we did
was to go to the factory in Wolfsburg.... We spent days talking
to engineers, production men, executives, workers on the assembly line.... We were immersed in the making of a Volkswagen and [from the] off knew what our theme had to be....
We had seen the pride of craftsmanship in the worker that
made him exceed even the high standards set for him. Yes, this
was an honest car. We had found our selling proposition.23
Volkswagen deliberately rejected the conventional advertising techniques suggested by other agencies: Car ads are all
full of mansions, horses, surf, mountains, sunsets, chiseled
chins, chic women, and caviar anything but facts, said one
art director whose agency failed to win the account.24 Bernbachs view was clear:
Cleverness for the sake of cleverness is the worst thing in the
agency business. When an agency gets preoccupied with the
techniques of advertising, these get in the way of the message.... Theres a feel and tone to a page. And these too were
used in the VW ads to convey honesty. The layouts are utterly
simple and plain and clean, the type classic and unadorned,
the copy style factual and straightforward: subject, verb, object.... Weve had ve writers on the account and I defy anyone to tell the difference in Volkswagen copy over the years.25
Timing mattered, too. According to Dr. Carl Horst Hahn,

head of Volkswagens American operation from January, 1959:
We made a rule not to advertise when Detroit introduced its
new models. While Detroit shot off its big guns and rockets,
we didnt want to come in with our pistol. We decided to re
our pistol when it could be heard. Bernbach agreed: [Hahn]
had an intuitive sense of what we were trying to do when we
got started.26
The result was a campaign that appealed to a wide range
of people which included those who could afford more expensive cars if they chose. According to Huston Horn, writing in Sports Illustrated, Volkswagen drivers ... tend[ed] to
have two or more cars, to live in the suburbs, to have college
education, to be younger than the average car buyer and to be
slightly more inclined to outdoor sports than to bowling or
going to the movies.27
Which perhaps explained a 1966 advertisement for the
equally air-cooled and rear-engined Corvair that took up the

theme: If you perked up when you turned this page, our research computer says youre probably well informed, earn
above average income and have more or less in type tastes.
One 1963 Volkswagen advertisement parodied Detroits
obsession with the annual model change by suggesting that, in
order to update a Volkswagen from one model year to the next,
it was necessary only to give it a coat of paint. The car was
shown, covered in masking tape and primer, awaiting its annual freshening-up. Indulgent dismissal of such iconoclasm developed into genuine interest within Detroit when annual
American VW sales exceeded 150,000 in 1959, as overall imported car sales peaked at nearly 615,000.
By the late 1950s a vast range of imports could be seen
on American roads. Some, such as the BMW Isetta bubblecar and the two-stroke DKW 3=6 (Surefooted as the cast of
the Ice Follies ... on three cylinders and seven basic moving
engine parts) were improbable novelties. Others were more
serious: Mercedes-Benz motor cars are distributed exclusively in the United States by the Studebaker-Packard Corporation and sold and serviced through selected dealers franchised by Studebaker-Packard, announced Studebaker in
1958. Buyers were offered an executive motor car of regal
proportions in the 300d pillarless sedan, while a 300SL roadster came with a legacy of perfection ... a tradition of excellence unrivaled by any other motor car. A 220S convertible,
companionable as a four-seater, was also available as a
coupe and a 4-door sedan, and the 190SL roadster promised
joie de vivre in convertible or hardtop form. All were shown
in stylish white-on-black drawings with borders in the style
used for Studebakers and Packards. But the Mercedes-Benz
cars were mechanically sophisticated, very expensive, and in
striking contrast to what detractors called Packardbakers,
of which only about 2,600 were sold alongside approximately
50,000 Studebakers in 1958. These were tiny numbers by
American production standards.
The sale of imports was not a strategy reserved for ailing
companies. General Motors imported Vauxhalls and Opels
from its European subsidiaries to be sold through Pontiac and
Buick dealers, some of whom viewed their task with misgivings. Opel, through its association with Buick, gained a slightly
more upmarket cachet than Vauxhall. Both small cars were
styled in the contemporary American idiom, and were promoted as junior versions of the domestic product.
The Vauxhall Victor was sold for $1,988 in 1959 on the
back of a perceived Anglophile sentimentality, and was illustrated in a pastiche English setting, albeit with left-hand drive.
Pontiac tried to combine novelty value with a reassurance of
familiarity: Built by General Motors in England, the Vauxhall is becoming an extremely popular import among Americans who want something distinctive in a small car. The copy
included the reassurance: And, most signicantly, your Vauxhall can be readily serviced by authorized Pontiac dealers
225
located in practically every village and hamlet throughout the States.

The Victors styling had been deliberately contrived as a reflection of American
trends, and when the body clay was damaged in transit to Fisher Body in Detroit,
Harley Earls team effected a few nishing
touches.28 The car was not a great success in
Britain, and, even in its spiritual home in
America, fewer than 50,000 were sold between 1958 and 1961. It was, however, successfully exported to many other countries.
In 1959, Opel capitalized on the reputation of Germany for thorough engineering
and solid build quality which had grown
with the Volkswagen. The Opel Rekord was
advertised as German made with American style in a series of distinctive black and
white advertisements. It was a practical family-size, economical small car import with
American big-car ideas and, as Opel did
not say, it was better built than the rst Victors. Copy included a list of specications,
invited the reader to send ten cents for a
full-color Opel brochure, and concluded, as
had Pontiac with the Vauxhall, that the car
was sold and serviced all over America, in
this case by Buick dealers. At around 55,000,
Opels sales were comparable with those of
the Victor.
In 1958, a small, unattractive, and
crude-looking car won its class in the Round
Australia Rally. It was one of the rst modern
Datsuns, a 210 sedan, of a type imported into
America from June, 1958 and advertised as
The Foreign Car Classic, built to last for 20
years. It was certainly solid; so solid that
when the rally car suffered an accident,
straightening the front fender proved unexpectedly difcult. Unlike earlier Nissan prodSports and luxury cars from Mercedes-Benz were sold through Studebakeructs, it was not simply a modied or licensePackard dealers in the late 1950s and early 1960s. This is the 300SL roadster (Octobuilt Austin. Advertising for the car was ber 1957).
unpretentious, and concentrated on facts and
specications.
for American freeways and proved so unreliable that cars beIn the same year, Toyota exported a few Toyopet sedans
longing to the company had to be dismantled to provide reto America, and by 1959 was selling them from Los Angeles as
placement parts for customers.
the worlds greatest automotive value. The Toyopet was
Japanese economy cars were not alone in attracting critclaimed to be inexpensive to operate and maintain in an adicism from automotive traditionalists. Many British sedans of
vertisement whose layout was more polished and mockproven suitability for their home market were considered
rened, but also more obviously of its period, than that for
bizarre by mainstream American opinion. The MG 1100, for
the smaller and cheaper ($1,616) Datsun. But the Toyopet, alinstance, advertised as the MG Sports Sedan at $1,898 in
though physically tough, turned out to be a mechanical dis1963, was dismissed by Henry Ford II as less than sophistiaster. Designed for winding Japanese roads, it was too slow
cated in an American context:
226
The Opel Rekord and its British equivalent, the Vauxhall Victor, both featured toned-down American styling, and were sold by
Buick and Pontiac dealers respectively (1959 campaign).
227
Its got a top on it like a box. Americans

want a more graceful, more flowing line....
They had an engineering genius in there
who was only interested in getting his
ideas across.... The American people who
buy the cars I manufacture dont want
things like that. They want beauty and
style and power, and they pay for it.29
The importers long and attractive series of

black and white advertisements echoed
Volkswagens humor and iconoclasm, but
the cheapest 1963 Ford, a Falcon two-door
sedan, cost only a little more at $1,985. Most
American buyers preferred to sacrice the
MGs Proud, deant, staunch British grille
for this known, if conventional, quantity. It
was therefore no surprise that in the early
1960s Datsuns and self-destructive Toyotas
were not seen as a signicant commercial
threat to American automobile makers. The
British did not take them seriously, either.
During the 1950s and 1960s, American
advertising for British cars was very different from that which promoted those cars in
their home market. American themes and
layouts frequently crossed the Atlantic to
reappear a few years later, in diluted form,
in British copy, and many of the agencies
used by British car manufacturers had
American origins or connections. But this
cross-fertilization was between equivalent
market sectors rather than between copywriters promoting a single model. It was,
moreover, almost entirely a one-way process
as Britishness, as sold to Americans, was not
the same as Britishness sold to Britons. In
the late 1940s, American copywriters for
small sedans from Austin, Ford, and Hillman concentrated cheerfully on economy
and value for money in advertisements that
The MG Sports Sedan, based on Alec Issigoniss Pininfarina-styled British bestwere often colorful in a simple style, and seller, the Morris 1100, was sold on the reputation of MGs sports cars, but remained
which avoided the euphorics of domestic an oddity on American roads (November 1963).
manufacturers. Smaller importers with low
budgets advertised sparsely, and their black
domestic cars, too, although later research for the National
and white advertisements did not capitalize on the potential
Automobile Dealers Association found that in 57 percent of
distinctiveness of monochrome illustration in the manner of
cases an import was its owners only car.30 This mattered, as
Volkswagen and its imitators in the 1960s.
the American motorist who chose a British car over an AmerIn September, 1958, the magazine U.S. News & World Reican one made a distinctive choice and needed to be persuaded,
port surveyed buyers of imported cars and found that, as a
against his natural conservatism, that he was buying somegroup, they were younger, better-educated, and slightly better,
thing special. In dollars per pound weight, and in horsepower
paid than the average domestic car buyer, and often lived on
per dollar, a British car was expensive. This was not necessarthe east or west coasts (in particular California). The survey
ily fatal for a specialist sports or luxury model it could even
found that nearly 60 percent of import buyers owned larger
be advantageous, ensuring exclusivity but it militated
228
against British family cars, which in American terms were

usually unremarkable subcompact sedans.
Austin was among those who eventually fell foul of this
difculty, but as an independent company it was Americas
leading importer in the immediate postwar years and in 1954,
as the senior marque of the British Motor Corporation (BMC)
which had been formed in 1952, it enjoyed an Indian summer
of distinctive copywriting from a burgeoning New York
agency, Ogilvy, Benson & Mather. David Ogilvys headline for
the A40 Somerset was unusual and provocative: I am sending my son to Groton [a prestigious private school] with the
money I have saved driving Austins. Billed as part of a Private Letter from [an] Anonymous Diplomat, the headline led
into two pages of terse, factual copy that highlighted this slow
but sturdily constructed cars low gas mileage, build quality,
roadability, and complete equipment. The copy was written in
a direct and unelaborate style which was ahead of its time,
and which would not have been out of place promoting a domestic compact twenty years later. It was also disingenuous, as
Ogilvy candidly recalled in Confessions of an Advertising Man,
published in 1963:
My rst advertisement for Austin cars took the form of a letter from an anonymous diplomat who was sending his son
to Groton with money he had saved driving an Austin a
well-aimed combination of snobbery and economy. Alas, a
perspicacious Time editor guessed that I was the anonymous
diplomat, and asked the headmaster of Groton to comment.
Dr. Crocker was so cross that I decided to send my son to another school.31
Ogilvy does not record whether this advertisement sold

many cars, but his slightly austere yet condent style was ideally suited to a super-luxury product. Ogilvys advertisements
for Rolls-Royce in the late 1950s, recognizably from the same
pen, were masterpieces of calculated understatement. They
described, in numbered paragraphs, facts about the cars construction and features, avoiding the twin perils of overt snobbery and utilitarian pedantry, yet deliberately selecting facts that
were interesting and, above all, quotable.
The most famous in the series, which appeared in two
magazines and two newspapers at a cost of $25,000, was
headed with a quotation from an English road test report: At
60 miles an hour the loudest noise in this new Rolls-Royce
comes from the electric clock. The advertisement concluded:
The Bentley is made by Rolls-Royce. Except for the radiators, they are identical motor cars.... People who feel difdent
about driving a Rolls-Royce can buy a Bentley. The reaction
of Rolls-Royces chief engineer in England to Ogilvys copy
was brief: Its about time we did something about that
damned clock.32
Ogilvy was surprised to discovery that the theme was not
original. Charles Brower of the agency Batten, Barton, Durstine & Osborn wrote to Ogilvy, citing an advertisement he had
written for Pierce-Arrow in 1933: The only sound one can
hear in the new Pierce-Arrows is the ticking of the electric

clock. Ogilvy replied, What a fascinating thing. I picked up
that headline from an article in a British motoring magazine.
Ford notoriously adopted Ogilvys theme in a headline for its
luxurious 1965 Galaxie 500-based LTD: Ford rides quieter
than Rolls-Royce. Oh come now, old boy! The claim was
true, but the Rolls-Royce in question the Silver Cloud III
would be superseded by the new Silver Shadow during 1965.33
Ogilvys advertisements for Rolls-Royce were unusual
for their length as well as their style at a time when upmarket
manufacturers, including Rolls-Royce in Britain under Dorland Advertising Ltd., preferred an atmospheric photograph
and a line or two of grandiose prose. A 1957 advertisement,
showing the radiator of a Silver Cloud beside a lake with The
best car in the world printed in small capital letters below, was
typical. By contrast, as Ogilvy remembered:
When I advertised Rolls-Royce, I gave the facts no hot air,
no adjectives ... no gracious living.... In my rst Rolls-Royce
advertisement, I used 719 words piling one fascinating fact
on another.... Judging from the number of motorists who
picked up the word difdent and bandied it about, I concluded that the advertisement was thoroughly read. In the
next one I used 1400 words.34
Recalling the success of this campaign, Ogilvy born in

England of Scottish descent criticized the established paradigms of American automobile advertising:
I have never admired the belles lettres school of advertising,
which reached its pompous peak in Theodore F. McManuss
famous advertisement for Cadillac, The Penalty of Leadership,35 and Ned Jordans classic, Somewhere West of
Laramie. Forty years ago the business community seems to
have been impressed by these pieces of purple prose, but I
have always thought them absurd; they did not give the reader
a single fact.... I share Claude Hopkins view that ne writing
is a distinct disadvantage. So is unique literary style. They
take attention away from the subject.36
Ogilvys approach, iconoclastic as well as individual, was

expressed almost as a philosophy of advertising, which he applied to automobiles as to other products. But Ogilvy himself
had initiated many image-led rather than factual campaigns,
and, with Rolls-Royce as with Austin, was able to build upon
the obvious uniqueness of the car itself an advantage denied to the promoters of most domestic automobiles.
Moreover, Ogilvys preference for facts was not founded
on utilitarian disdain for emotion in advertising copy. Rather,
he realized that the appearance of rationality, order, and restraint appealed to the emotions of the particular consumers
who might buy Rolls-Royces. His campaign was of a kind that
could only succeed in the most upmarket of sectors. To this
extent, it reflected the self-conscious classicism of much upmarket American copy of the 1920sthe difference lying in the
fact that, in Ogilvys case, the classicism rested in the writing
itself rather than in the images and objects associated by the

copywriter with the car. It was Ogilvys method, rather than
its underlying premise, that was distinctive.37
Despite the campaigns success in selling Rolls-Royces
(sales for the year 1958, when it began, were 50 percent greater
than in 1957), it did not make money for Ogilvy, Benson &
Mather, and Ogilvy resigned the account when he became dissatised with the quality of the product. Rolls-Royce, however, was sanguine. According to Ogilvy:
They went through a very bad two-year period.... I knew what
was going on. Automatic gears had just come in and their automatic gearbox didnt work, so they had to go and buy one
from [an American manufacturer] which did work. And then
they put in air conditioning for Americans and other people
who lived in hot countries.... The manager of the American
company went down and got these new air-conditioned Rolls-Royces off the boat. The rst one he
drove around Central Park. He didnt go half way
round Central Park before the windows fogged up.
He couldnt see out. Things like that happened all
the time. I wrote this dreadful letter resigning.
Even then I thought it was dreadful. Now I think it
was unpardonably offensive. But do you know
they didnt take offense at all. The head of RollsRoyce, who was an engineer, wrote back and said I
dont blame you at all. I think you have a point.38
Two years later, Ogilvy recalled in 1983, we took

Mercedes, and sent a team to interview their engineers in Stuttgart. From this sprang a campaign of
long, factual advertisements which increased sales
from 10,000 cars a year to 40,000.39
The factual Mercedes-Benz campaign
stressed build quality, durability, and safety at a
time when consumers were paying ever greater attention to those subjects. You give up things when
you buy the Mercedes-Benz 230S. Things like rattles, rust, and shabby workmanship, said a typical headline, and the theme and style of the series
were continued through the 1970s. The elegant but
supercial advertising of Studebaker-Packard days
would not return; quality and safety had to be
demonstrated, not assumed.
Concern about safety and reliability was not
conned to Mercedes-Benz. Many American consumers believed that a small car was necessarily an
unsafe one, but, in the aftermath of Ralph Naders
Unsafe at Any Speed, importers capitalized on increasing mistrust of the domestic product.
In 1966, Rover promoted the 2000TC Sports
Sedan as among [the] elite of the worlds best-performing cars, adding, It is also quite likely the
safest, citing the provision of four-wheel disc
brakes and steel-cage construction (that popular
1930s phrase) as noteworthy features. Increasing
public interest in automobile safety was reflected
229
in a note at the end of the copy which challenged those diehards who scorned the debate by insisting that all accident injuries were caused by drivers mistakes: In the recent furore
over safety standards some spokesmen have pointed out that
most accidents are caused by driver error. So? Is that an offense
punishable by hurt or worse? And what of the innocents who
arent driving?
Occasionally, public awareness could backre on importers. The Renault Dauphine was the second-place import
behind Volkswagen in the late 1950s, and was promoted in
light-hearted, pun-strewn copy that made much of its nationality. It was trs agrable ... confortable ... manoevrable ...
formidable ... budget-able in one piece which showed a
Dauphine and a fashionable mother and children with their
A white elephant, but a safe one. Rover capitalized on public disquiet about
the safety of American automobiles a year after Ralph Nader published
Unsafe at Any Speed (November 1966).
230
father, a pilot, beneath a huge hot-air balloon as colored party

balloons rose from the car. Another advertisement used multiple typefaces in many colors to give a leon franaise de
lautomobile or, how to make your driving fun again, and
boasted, inter alia, of Le Dealer Network: over 800 coast-tocoast sales, service and parts headquarters, 150 more in
Canada.
In 1961, a little cartoon car chugged up a steep line of
blue, sans-serif text: Snow piles up, up, up. Who cares? Let
it snow on we go, on and on and on ..., leveling off as it
reached the top of the page and continuing and on until it
ran off the right-hand margin. The main copy, highlighting
the one advantage of the Dauphines otherwise disadvantageous rear engine, explained: For six winters, Americans have
watched the Dauphine meet every type of snow situation and
conquer it as no other car in the history of cars. The Winter
Wonder-Car has not been fazed by snow-clogged drive-ways,
nor by sloshy, slippery slopes....
But it was fazed by a good deal else, and Renault suffered
in the 1960s from the Dauphines reputation for fragility, unreliability (caused in part by a fragile bre timing gear), and
unpredictable handling. The Dauphine shared the early

Chevrolet Corvairs rear engine/swing axle layout, and its reputation was further damaged indirectly by association with
that car. American Dauphine sales fell from over 90,000 in
1959 to fewer than 30,000 in 1962, and, in a 1966 advertisement that came closer than any other to groveling apology,
Renault urged car buyers to forgive the Dauphine its failings,
and to try a new (but still rear-engined) Renault 10. Few did.
Among rear-engined subcompact utilities, only the Volkswagen enjoyed any real success, and that car, immune to the
general fall in import sales after 1959 and perceived very much
as a one-off by the mid1960s, was helped by a ne reputation
for quality, reliability, and a good service network. Unusual
handling was not a handicap for Porsche, who sold the 912
and 911 as specialist products for enthusiasts at $4,790 and
$5,990 respectively. The Porsche driver bought a 911 precisely
because it did not behave like a regular American sedan.
There were nevertheless clouds on Detroits horizon,
among them the issue of quality control, at a time when Lincolns 24,000-mile warranty of 1961 was very much the exception. Automotive News was critical in 1963:
Once bitten, twice shy. The horse was a good deal more reliable and better-handling than an early Dauphine and, for most import
fanciers, that was the point. Apologies, photographs of engine parts and half-hearted imitation of VWs iconoclasm by the Gilbert
Advertising Agency did little for the Dauphines successor (November 1966 and November 1969).
231
This famous theme was used by BMW on both sides of the Atlantic. Such direct thematic transplants were rarely successful, but
BMWs campaign was an exception, and is well remembered today (June 1968).
232
Surprisingly conventional advertising for a car that was too different for most consumers. Only a few thousand a year were sold
in the United States before Citron withdrew it in 1972 when safety and emissions legislation threatened (March 1967).
233
Sold on the back of the successful 356, this rear-engined Porsche was not intended to appeal to mainstream automobile buyers,
and consequently prospered within its limited, affluent market (November 1966).
234
In the United States an MGB was not as not nearly as fast, relative to the cars around it, as in its home country, so American advertising in magazines such as Time, Newsweek, and Scientic American concentrated on its distinctiveness rather than on speed
(May 1971).

The American public will not put up with the missing bolts
and nuts, the malfunctioning parts, the squeaks and rattles
and frequent return trips to dealers for adjustments all of
which are the rule and not the exception in present American
cars.40
The industry had suffered quality control problems in

the late 1950s, and they persisted for several years afterwards.
While this did not precipitate a wholesale abandonment of
the domestic product in favor of foreign competition not
least because America still made the best low-priced full-size
family cars in the world a residuum of dissatisfaction was
built up against the increased costs engendered by planned
obsolescence, and against a perceived complacency within Detroit. In the meantime, Datsun and Toyota had returned with
products vastly more advanced than the Toyopets of 195859.
Datsun encouraged small-car buyers to have fun in 1970:
Get into a Datsun! Go like the wind in this sleeky [sic], highpowered machine! Styled in wind-tunnels, this exciting fastback tunnels through the air smoothly... Responds like a compact tornado. Power/weight ratio: 10.3 kg per HP.... Eats like
a sparrow, performs like an eagle. The imagery was confused
and the car, a Datsun 1200 Coupe, was less than exciting, but
by 1970 utility cars were promoted as vigorously as conventional large cars. Careful attention to stylistic details ensured
that, though small, the 1200 Coupe did not look too out of
place on American roads. The success of Datsuns real sports
car, the 240Z, improved the image of lowlier models.
A 1973 Datsun advertisement used a cartoon of the car,
in a style reminiscent of some muscle-car advertising of the late
1960s, to appeal to the twenty-somethings that were a large
part of its target market: New Datsun 1200 Sport Coupe. An
original portrait by Peter Max.... Peter Max has captured the
spirit of our 1200, a Datsun Original. Capture it for yourself
in real, everyday terms at your Datsun dealer.... One copy
line in particular For the ecology minded, its a car that ...
gets around 30 miles out of every gallon of gasoline anticipated a themes of thirty years later.
In 1976, Datsun concentrated on the low gas mileage of
the B-210 fastback: Built to keep its gure (41 MPG highway,
29 City), and built a campaign around the slogan, Datsun
saves. In answer to skeptics who thought small cars
insufciently safe and rugged for American conditions, the B210 was claimed to be Tough all over which, if less than
specic, indicated its makers priorities. Owners were encouraged to keep their cars: Your Datsun is backed by nearly 4,000
factory-trained technicians and a computerized parts network.
We gure the longer your Datsun survives the longer youll
save. And every new buyers more conservative friends, colleagues, and relatives would, of course, watch closely before
eventually taking the plunge themselves.
Toyota capitalized on a growing reputation in 1970 with
the $2,126 Corona: It led the new wave economy cars that
offer more than just a bare set of wheels. A list of detail
235
features followed, and concluded with the slogan, Were quality oriented. In 1971, an advertisement for the smaller Corolla
listed 39 features, ranging from thick, wall-to-wall nylon carpeting and coat hooks via a 30-foot turning circle to up
to 28 miles a gallon which, if not remarkable, was better than
an average domestic American small car and competitive with
the Volkswagen.
The emphasis, in America as in other export markets, remained on the Corollas equipment for the money, which, at
$1,798, was substantially less than the $2,090 that bought the
cheapest Chevrolet Vega. By 1972, Toyotas range included
Corollas and a new Corona Mark II hardtop coupe, the top
of the Toyota line for the American market and the most
comfortable. With leather-like padding. Reclining bucket
seats.... All kinds of luxurious things. And all standard. Then
there was the Celica ST: At rst glance, [it] might come off as
a rich mans sports car. Thats the nice thing about it. However,
in real life, its an economy car. Thats the nice thing about
it.... A high revving overhead cam engine, tachometer (redline at 6300 rpm), and front disc brakes. Even an AM radio.
Standard. All this and more for $2848. Thats the nice thing
about it. Advertising for the new Carina of 1972 stressed its
makers durability program: It might be new to you but weve
been living with it a long time. We froze, drenched, buffeted,
skidded and crash-tested the Carina prototypes without
mercy. So just in case you dont show yours much mercy, itll
be better prepared.
By 1976, Toyota had established a reputation for build
quality combined with value for money and, within its price
class, an element of style. Even if relatively few of Toyotas exciting S800 and 2000 sports cars had been sold, they had injected a hint of glamour into the latest sedans and station wagons while demonstrating a mastery of modern automotive
technologies.
An October, 1976 advertisement for the Toyota Corona
wagon was typical of the increasingly sophisticated copy that
accompanied consolidation within a growing market. The
wagon that thinks its a sedan included mock-wood paneling and a chrome-plated roof rack for the American market:
The outside looks like a sporty wagon. The inside rides like
our quality sedan. A quality wagon with sedan comfort. You
got it. The Toyota Corona Wagon.
Gas mileage gures were given prominence, and there
was a photograph of a metallic pink car set against a lilac background, with the rest of the page a metallic greyish-blue on
which headlines were white and the copy in black. The effect
was one of parody, yet advertising history had shown that
clever parodies often sold cars. Toyotas copywriters consistently underpinned the chrome and lilac with assurances of
value for money, but utilitarian values were never thrust at
the consumer. Toyota realized early on that utility had to be
made palatable to its market.
Honda, always something of a maverick in design, did
237
What increasing numbers of Americans were coming to by 1976 the Honda Civic (March 1976).
not attempt to imitate American styling with the Civic. It became one of the best-known Japanese imports, emblematic of
the changing car market, and was sold in 1976 on the twin
merits of fuel economy and low price: The 1976 Honda
Civics.... We can explain how we did it in two words: brilliant
engineering. A hint of social responsibility was given in the
slogan, Honda Civic. What the world is coming to, which
taunted automotive philistines at a time when young Americans particularly young professionals whose fathers had
revered the names of Cadillac and Continentaldeserted fulland mid-size sedans for tiny hatchbacks.
Many of those professionals were women, and a 1974 advertisement was headlined with a mock-quotation: Women
only drive automatic transmissions. The copy continued:
Some car manufacturers actually believe women buy cars for
different reasons than men do. So they build a womans car.
Oversized, hopelessly automatic and dull. Honda offered a
stick shift with an astonishing amount of zip.... Or, if you prefer, Hondamatic. Its a semi-automatic transmission that gives
you convenience, but doesnt rob you of involvement. Neither one is a womans car. Were they serious? Certainly serious enough to feel that they had to pretend, which was arguably progress of a kind.
By 1977, executives had begun to discard Buicks and Lincolns for imported luxury cars, among them BMW, billed as
one of the few luxury sedans in the world that wouldnt be
laughed off the Nrburgring. It appeared that affluent Americans no longer wanted sports cars with sedan-like handling
and ride, but preferred sedans that handled like sports cars
while also offering, as BMW put it, all the luxury one could
sanely require.
BMW made no secret of its contempt for the old-style
American luxury cruiser and, by implication, for those who
liked it. To back up its claims, there was a quote from Motor
Opposite: Datsun and Toyota headed the Japanese sub-compact invasion in the early 1970s with astute marketing. The fuel crisis
helped, too (1200 Coupe and Corona: October 1970; Corolla: July 1971; Celica: June 1972).
238
In the late 1970s, even Ford tacitly acknowledged that many Americans aspired to foreign car ownership but should anyone unable
to see the differences between a Granada and a Mercedes-Benz have been behind the wheel of any car? (December 1977).

Trend: The reaction to a BMW is always the same. The rsttime driver takes the wheel and after a few minutes no other
automobile will ever be the same again.
Successful lawyers, nanciers, and executives the very
groups that Imperial had targeted in the early 1960s were
buying BMWs and other imported luxury cars as never before. In the late 1970s, even Ford tacitly conceded that a Lincoln Continental was no longer the ultimate choice in prestigious motoring. Above a picture of a deep red Mercedes-Benz
450 SLC Sports Coupe in one advertisement was the headline,
Remarkable achievement. $23,976. Above a similar picture
of a Granada Sports Coupe beneath the Mercedes was the
headline, Remarkable achievement. $4,189. A December,
1977 advertisement for the 1978 model year began: Introducing the new Ford Granada ESS. Can you tell its looks from a
Mercedes-Benz? The reader was invited to identify details
shown in ten close-up photographs as belonging to either the
Ford or the Mercedes. Answers were given at the foot of the
page, and it remained an unusual case of reader involvement
in automotive advertising. At least by lling in the boxes, one
would remember the advertisement, and, even if no Ford
buyer would be in the market for a Mercedes, it was a poignant
indicator of how much the American car market had changed
since 1960.
By 1980, the European and Japanese importers threepronged offensive in the luxury, sporting, and utility categories threatened sales of the domestic product, particularly
with new compromise models which did not t neatly into
existing sectors of the market, but which lled the gaps between them. Such cars offered combinations of style, handling,
239
equipment, sportiness, and prestige which were not always

available in domestically-produced rivals.
Thus the Detroit-based automotive culture which had
appeared so strong and immutable in the 1950s was eroded by
public demand for automobiles that were economical, soberly
styled and designed with practicality, rather than any antifunctionalist fantasy, in view. This inexorable return to the
rationality which had been deserted by automobile advertisers in the early 1940s was immortalized in advertising for that
archetypally safe and sensible car, the Volvo, in 1970:
Fat Cars Die Young!.... Some cars destroy themselves in the
mere act of carrying themselves around. Burdened with tons
of chrome and huge expanses of sheet metal, it doesnt take
long for a car to collapse under the strain. So in building a car
that will live a long time, you must begin by acknowledging
one basic fact. Fat on cars, as on people, can be fatal.... Unfettered by fat, Volvos live to ripe old ages. We dont guarantee
exactly how long that will be. But we do know that 9 out of
every 10 Volvos registered here in the last eleven years are still
on the road. If you dont believe us, look around. You cant
miss an eleven year old Volvo. It looks a lot like a 1948 Ford.
Only not as fat.
A 1977 advertisement portrayed the Volvo as the car for

the motorist who not only had money, but who valued intelligence as well: It takes more than just money to buy a Volvo
264. There are so many expensive, powerful cars around these
days that the problem isnt nding one, but choosing one. To
make it even harder, the real qualities of the Volvo 264 dont
even show.... Volvo. For people who think.
Had the dream been shattered for ever?
Overview and Conclusion

The idea of the American dream, as reflected in automobile advertising, is an elusive construct. It points to a social disposition, a corpus of ideas and aspirations, variously
personal and abstracted, that are in a permanent state of flux.
Over time, the automotive dream has changed its character
beyond recognition. Even its principal element, a belief that the
present is better than the past, and that the future can be better than the present, is not immune from disintegration. Yet
that stubborn eschatology the imaginative act of will towards a nal, perfect, American society has not wholly disappeared. It has grown older, subtler, wiser, occasionally disillusioned, and it may ultimately reject consumerism as we
know it but for the moment it survives.
At the beginning of the 1930s, the automobile was integrated into Americas burgeoning technological consciousness as never before. Direct parallels could be drawn between
new developments in automobile design, such as all-steel construction and streamlining, and developments in other
spheres. Those innovations that made the automobile of
193339 work better than its forebears were in many cases the
same innovations that allowed bridges and locomotives and
airplanes to perform more efciently. It was a time when automobile styling actually embodied wider technological advances. The automotive dream was integrated, as it never
would be again, into the architectural dream and the aeronautical dream. All were bound up with a widespread belief
amongst designers and social commentators that technology
would improve the lives of Americans, and make them happier. Optimism was rife. As Norman Bel Geddes, arguably the
most idealistic of Americas early industrial designers, wrote
in 1932:
surface will continue to widen and spread with an ever-increasing sphere of influence. By the middle of the present
century, I anticipate that we shall have begun consciously to
achieve that complete mastery of the machine which is to-day
a more or less unconscious goal. By that time, it will be one of
the profoundest facts of our existence. It will make for our
greater peace and contentment and yield not only purely
physical but aesthetic and spiritual satisfaction.1
For the individual consumer, the automobile came to

represent not only the technological novelties of the age and
physical freedom, but, increasingly, the potential for the realization of a personal fantasy. In the late 1940s and early 1950s,
advertisers concentrated on the satisfaction of that individual
fantasy. This development was retarded, but not undermined
or reversed, by World War II. Late wartime advertising,
published in the early months of 1945, concentrated on the
contribution of individuals to the war effort, and promised
individual reward in the form of new cars. Americans would
come home not to a new automotive order in general, but to
their own new Buicks. There was a Ford in your (personal)
future.
In the mid1950s, advertisers appealed explicitly to the
feelings of the consumer. If earlier copy had centered, by and
large, on the satisfaction that would result from ownership of
an automobile that was functionally superior to its predecessors, postwar copy frequently bypassed functionalism altogether. It was sufcient that ownership of a new automobile
would make the consumer feel good, and his (or, increasingly, her) feelings need have no rational, practical basis. Personal, sensual gratication was everything, and was achieved
by the individual in isolation from other consumers.
Vance Packard, writing on this development in 1957, cited
the ndings of the Director of Research at the Chicago Tribune, Pierre Martineau:
Of one thing we can be sure. All the industrial design we have

had in the United States, as yet, is comparable in effect to a
pebble dropped in a pond. The circles that have agitated the
240
O VERVIEW
AND
The automobile tells who we are and what we think we want

to be.... It is a portable symbol of our personality and our position ... the clearest way we have of telling people of our exact
position. [In buying a car], you are saying in a sense, I am
looking for the car that expresses who I am.2
It took advertisers a surprisingly long time to realize that

individuals differed in their feelings about any given product,
and even longer to work out how to appeal with one product
to different groups. And if individual self-expression was the
consumers credo, it therefore called for a diversity of products. Packard cited a study of 352 carefully selected car owners in the Chicago area:
The investigators found that only a minority of the population, mostly men in the lower class, [had] any real interest in
the technical aspects of cars.... People who want to seem conservative ... tend to buy Plymouth, Dodge, De Soto, Packard,
four-door sedans, dark colors, minimum accessories and gadgets. People who want to seem sociable and up-to-date but in a
middle-of-the-road sort of way tend to favor Chevrolet, Pontiac, Buick, Chrysler, two-door coupes, light colors, moderate
accessories and gadgets.... People who need to express unusual status or individual needs favor Cadillac (ostentation,
high status), Studebaker, Hudson, Nash, Willys, convertibles
(impulsiveness), very bright colors, red, yellow, white, latest
gadgets and accessories.... One of the interesting variations ...
is what investigators call conspicuous reserve. Those people
want other people to know their status but at the same time
want to express it modestly. This is a frequent technique of
people who are secure in their high social position. They show
their superiority by displaying indifference to status by purposely buying less expensive cars than they might be expected
[to]. They love beat-up station wagons and old cars....3
Thus the automobile buyer increasingly demanded a car

that not only appealed to the emotions that he held in common
with other Americans, but to his personal scheme of values.
And so a fundamental assumption inherent in early, naive
forms of consumerism that every American thought in the
same way and desired the same things as his compatriots
was revealed to be a myth. Two consumers with identical
amounts of money might wish to buy different cars. To the
dispassionate observer, this proposition might seem so blindingly obvious as hardly to represent an insight at all, but it did
not appear obvious to automobile advertisers until large numbers of their audience bought imported cars. It was this, belated, realization that, from the advertisers perspective, represented the point at which the old American automotive
dream fragmented forever.
The problem was addressed in the early 1970s by the development of a pseudo-science of market research called psychographics the categorization of consumers according to
their attitudes, lifestyles, and likely emotional responses to advertised products. This innovation was graphically described
by William Meyers in 1984:
One of the most widely used psychographic approaches ...
today ... is VALS (Values and Life-Styles), designed by SRI In-
C ONCLUSION
241
ternational (formerly known as the Stanford Research Institute), in Northern California. The world according to VALS is
simple. There are essentially ve basic groups of citizens in
this nation Belongers, Emulators, Emulator-Achievers, Societally Conscious Achievers, and the Need-Directed. Each
segment of VALSociety is driven by its own special
demons....4
Signicantly for the automobile industry, a large percentage

of one category in particular, the Societally Conscious Achievers, drove themselves in imported small and compact cars.
Awareness of this was the demon that drove the domestic
industry to conduct more detailed market research than
hitherto in order to ght back. The success of a campaigns
appeal to this group could determine the fate of a new product.
So have the advertising themes of the 193080 period
nally been laid to rest, or are there only so many ways to
swing an automotive advertising campaign, all tried before,
and all destined to re-emerge from time to time for as long as
Americans buy automobiles, whether or not of domestic design and manufacture? And how do advertisements of
19301980 compare with those of the 1990s and 2000s?
A sample of advertisements for domestically-produced
1993 models reveals that many old themes were far from extinct in the last years of the twentieth century, but that they had
been adapted to modern preoccupations. Paranoia about foreign competition was as intense as it was in the 1970s, although
the American industry was by then facing that competition
on its own ground, rather than by trying to counter foreign
car values with American automotive values, except in the
most traditional sectors. Chryslers 1993 advertising for the
Concorde typied this development: You dont have to own
a Mercedes, Jaguar, Lexus or BMW to appreciate the new Concorde. But it helps.
Another advertisement for the same car cited an independent endorsement from AutoWeek magazine: ... it renders meaningless such adjectives as European, American and
Japanese. Old-fashioned traditionalism was renounced in announcement copy for the larger Chrysler New Yorker and LHS,
which shared the novel cab-forward (short hood, long cabin)
layout with the Concordea look which contributed towards
what Time magazine described in November, 1992 as the companys second amazing comeback.5 The Chrysler New
Yorker has a huge trunk, said the copy, But it doesnt come
with a lot of Detroit baggage. With the LHS, Chrysler took
a swipe at the established competition: Judging from their
products, a lot of people who design luxury cars must think
youre an over-the-hill fogey.
Yet the mature buyer was courted with the suggestion
that, in the excitement that ownership of a Chrysler generated, it would remind him of the rst car you truly ever cared
about. What was it? A 49 Merc? A 57 Chevy? 65 Mustang?
68 Corvette? 70 Hemi Charger? Whatever it was, its back.
242
O VERVIEW
AND
So was nostalgia, 1953 Nash style, though by 1993 few motorists yearned for Nashs boyhood dream, a Stutz Bearcat.
Down-to-earth, feature-oriented copy dominated 1993
advertising for Chrysler Corporations mid-market cab-forward sedan, the Dodge Intrepid, and in successive advertisements favorable citations from the motoring papers were
arranged around photographs of the car. There were semitechnical diagrams of safety features, as in 1939.
Ford, too, concentrated on features in advertising for the
front-wheel-drive Taurus, one of the rst of the new generation of streamlined cars: At Ford, quality, design and safety
are at the top of our list. The car was shown in a moody,
beach-at-sundown photograph, itself no novelty. Copy for the
similar Mercury Sable explicitly reminded buyers who it was
that had been rst with the new look: It Forced Other Car
Makers Into The Copier Business.
Functionalism made a strong return in areas of the market where American cars competed head-on with imports.
General Motors Geo Prism, the Toyota-based product of a
marque created in co-operation with Japanese manufacturers, and aimed at buyers who might otherwise opt for small
Japanese cars imported directly under their own names, was
sold on its common-sense features and after-sale warranty.
GM returned to an old theme with the Saturn, its other
small car contender, which was advertised to young, valueconscious buyers, and young women in particular. The car
was promoted in a series of contented-ordinary-user testimonials from active, extrovert owners, such as Dorsey-Gay
Howser, a solo white-water canoeist and Suzanne Stehlik,
a property tax analyst who bought a Saturn because she didnt
have enough fun in her life. (Her hobbies were sky-diving,
scuba-diving, and skiing.) Saturns women were described by
reference to their occupations, rather than in relation to their
husbands, boyfriends, social sets, or families. Above all, they
were independent. Plymouths Miss C. Eleanor Hinkley of
1937 would have been proud.
Another advertisement showed Barry and Cynthia Nelson who, discouraged by a fruitless search for their ideal car,
dropped into a Saturn showroom and were bowled over by
the Saturn: Ive never been a joiner, said Barry Nelson at the
end of the copy, Im not into any clubs or anything. But this
you know, I wave at every Saturn that goes by. It feels like were
related or something. And the weird thing is all I did was
buy a car. In real life, early Saturn buyers proved highly enthusiastic about the brand and keen to spread the word. A survey found that more than fty percent of them would otherwise have bought Japanese cars.
If Geo and Saturn were aimed at specic markets which
the Japanese were targeting with ever more sophisticated
model ranges, Oldsmobiles 1993 advertising gave the impression that it was aimed at everybody. One single-page advertisement for the compact Achieva sedan carried ten testimonials
from the kind of solid citizens favored by Rambler in the
C ONCLUSION
1960s. They ranged from a homemaker via an aerospace
technician, a store manager, and a retired military who was
really impressed with the Achieva. It was the rst American
car Ive seen in a long time Id actually consider buying.
Oldsmobile did not say whether he actually bought it. Similar uncertainty was apparent in an advertisement for the 88
Sedan: Well, maybe theres a way of being traditional thats not
so ... um, traditional, if you know what I mean.
But why should the reader bother to work out what the
copywriter or the mythical inarticulate car buyer means?
The difculty with copy that tried to sound like real people
was that when it failed it inevitably sounded articial, yet when
it succeeded it so easily made the people sound half-witted,
as the rhythms of private conversation collided embarrassingly with the public, impersonal role of an advertisement.
Understated escapism was chosen for the Cutlass
Supreme Convertible The breeze in my face. The wind in
my hair. And I havent even started the car. The would-be
escapist was offered a hint of the old dream in the pay-off line:
And the feeling that youre as much a part of the universe as
you are part of the road. No mention was made of the merits of the product itself in any of these pieces, and copywriters were no more unanimous in their preferences for factual
or inspirational copy in the early 1990s than at the beginning
of the modern period.
Buick alternated between several well-tried themes, including safety (Years from now everyone will offer this much
side-impact protection) with the Regal Sedan, snobbery
(Leave the sticker on and show everyone how smart you are.
Or take it off and let them think you paid thousands more)
with the LeSabre, quality (Buick quality has never been so
attractive. Or so affordable) in a Skylark Custom and the
promise of easy payment for a luxury model (If youre convinced money cant buy happiness ... consider leasing it) for
the buyer of a Park Avenue. The last, in particular, reflected the
new realism that had inltrated the automotive dream. In
1963, no copywriter would have suggested, even in jest, that
money could not buy happiness.
Visual techniques and layouts changed surprisingly little
between the mid1960s and the 1990s. Photography was universal in 1993 as it had been for twenty years or so, and backdrops were familiar. Neutral backgrounds prevailed in advertisements for mid-market automobiles, and realistic, everyday
scenes were used for inexpensive cars. Moody, lakeside shots
appeared with escapist copy, and to suggest sophistication,
just as they had for Ford Thunderbirds over two decades from
1959. Buick showed a Park Avenue sedan in a snow-covered
eld, beside a lake, its owners dressed in winter clothes, replicating a Nash advertisement of 1940.
Of the themes which survived into the 1990s, the most
robust seem to be those which concentrated on the functional
virtues of the new car, whether by describing features, gleefully
showing up the opposition, or citing ordinary users of the
O VERVIEW
AND
product. The contented ordinary user, in particular, enjoyed

a revival, and the anti-rational themes of snobbery and escapism recurred sporadically, tending to decline in times of
recession before reasserting themselves when consumers
condence increased again. Fun seemed to be increasingly
conned to the leisure vehicle sectorssports cars, off-road
vehicles, and minivans. Recession, in 1993 as in 1933, bred
factual copy, which might explain the curiously old-fashioned
air of 1993s copy, taken as a whole. It resembled the copy of
the mid1930s more than that of any other era.
When the fantasies and condence of the 1950s and 1960s
reappeared towards the end of the 1990s, they took new forms
in a very different market. Several old themes continued into
the twenty-rst century. A sample of one hundred or so 2005
and 2006 advertisements reveals fewer assertions of basic quality, economy, and reliability than appeared in earlier periods,
except from inexpensive comparative newcomers such as
Hyundai, whose monochrome photographs of Sonata bodies
rotating in a primer bath to demonstrate a 360 [degree] approach to quality revived the pre-war spirit of J. Stirling
Getchell. Safety continued to sell, particularly in cars long
noted for it. At our best when things are at their worst, from
Mercedes-Benz, with a picture of a yellow-painted S-Class
being crash-tested, conformed to a decades-long tradition.
Hard-pressed domestic marques such as Mercury periodically quoted independent consumer surveys and tests; a
typical 2006 advertisement offered a comprehensive 5year/60,000-mile extended powertrain coverage and roadside
assistance package to recapture buyers increasingly convinced
of Japanese cars superior build quality. Well-known personalities appeared from time to time, such as the cyclist Lance
Armstrong in advertising for the Subaru Outback VDC
(Everything must be engineered to the last detail).
Established visual traditions were maintained, too. Minivans and crossover vehicles, like the station wagons of old,
were still seen with proud families in suburban driveways;
and restaurants, mock-classical architecture, sports venues,
and highways remained popular backdrops. Sports cars, such
as the Saturn Sky, appeared on winding roads and in real or
simulated motion shots; and twilight remained a favorite time
of day. Yet there were few claims to outright beauty. Jaguars
international Gorgeous campaign remained conspicuously
a one-off.6
With the recession of the 1990s long past and the arrival
of improved computer-based graphic techniques, a visual and
photographic exuberance accompanied copy which was usually much shorter than that of earlier years. Many an advertiser
relied on a hard-hitting, self-consciously witty headline to
capture both the idea in an individual advertisement and the
essence of a products intended appeal. In many cases the only
writing apart from the headline was a list of electronics-based
features, such as Chryslers [v]oice-activated ... Multimedia
Infotainment System featuring a 20 gigabyte hard drive for
C ONCLUSION
243
storing digital music les and pictures in the Sebring sedan,

a car with enough technology to be geeky. Enough style to
avoid it.
Long copy could be used, with advantage, to describe advanced technology in cars of a luxury marque such as Acura,
which demonstrated various active and passive safety features
in a detailed double-page spread in 2006. It could also express
a carefully reasoned case in a text-heavy magazine to readers
whose preferences, occupations, and world-views were well
known to the advertiser. But a disadvantage of long copy in a
culturally fragmented new car market was that as many readers might be put off by its style, content, or apparent weight
as were attracted by it; and there was always the risk of too-obvious banality. What could be said about a feature such as
Chryslers optional heated/cooled cup holder that was not
adequately stated just by listing it?
In a few cases, however, the advantages of long copy were
decisive: How do you brag about a vehicle with low ego emissions? asked Volkswagen in magazines such as Vanity Fair
and The New Yorker about a sober and functional Passat standing beside an empty, spotlit podium. You dont. In its layout, typefaces, long-copy style, and disdain for ostentation, the
advertisement continued an honorable Volkswagen tradition
and assumed for its humorous effect a familiarity with, and
sympathy for, green concerns about global warming and the
deleterious effects on the climate of non-functional consumption. But other, lighter advertising styles were often deployed
for smaller cars of the marque.
Straightforward environmentalism appeared in advertising for individual hybrid cars as well as in corporate copy.
Hondas Environmentology, spelled out in letters made from
stalks, leaves, flowers, and other plant matter promoted the
most fuel-efcient auto company in America and promised
that fuel-efciency could be achieved by advanced technology. A 1974 Honda Civic CVCC appeared behind a modern hybrid: [T]he CVCC demonstrated our spirited commitment
to environmentally responsible technology. Many other rsts
were to follow, such as the rst hybrid vehicle sold in North
America and the rst government-certied fuel-cell car. And
environmental idealism dovetailed naturally with Hondas international slogan, The Power of Dreams.
General Motors, by contrast, promoted FlexFuel Vehicles ... that can run on gasoline or E85 ethanol in 2006 and
invited readers to read a website to learn more about the fuel,
which GM vehicles can run on it, where you can get it and
how you can make a difference. One car company can show
you how. The headline, Energy independence? The answer
may be in our own backyard, offered the prospect of relief
from dependence on Middle East oil, but debate continued
among environmentalists about whether enough carbon-neutral crops could really be grown to feed Americas populations
of both cars and drivers.
Caught on the hop with huge new sport utility vehicles
244
O VERVIEW
AND
in a period of rising gas prices and celebrity-endorsed hybrids, the Detroit Threenow too small, compared to Toyota, easily to be called the Big Three adapted old escapist
themes for a new market. SUVs were shown in macho-metallic shades of silver, grey, and black against rugged backdrops
of urban concrete, industrial girders, cliff faces, shorelines,
and deserts. Often a grey or beige plastic-and-leather interior
was photographed close-up with countryside visible outside
the cars windows. Gives a whole new meaning to cabin in
the woods, announced a headline for the Ford Expedition.
We have brains for rocks, declared anotherperhaps riskily
in a changing automotive climatefor the smaller Ford Escape.
Its That Big promised DaimlerChrysler for the Dodge Ram
Mega Cab. A standard shot of its grey interior, with ice-covered mountains behind, was made gently humorous by adding
brown leather footstools between the front and rear seats.
Hummers orange backgrounds and steel-grey cars were
among the most distinctive: Arrive fashionably said one optimistic 2006 caption for the H3, cleverly implying performance with an omitted late; while Nano-Hummer as another caption appealed to technophiles. The Jeep Commander
Overland was shown outside a restaurant, and a double-page
spread from Nissan showed its Armada in an expensive-looking residential street at night and a Pathnder with bicycles on
its roof on a desert road. Choices. Since birth, these identical twins have dressed the same and enjoyed the same activities until now said the copy about their owners in a variation of the two lives in one theme used by many SUV
advertisers around the world.
The most difcult SUVs to advertise were the largest. Domestic copywriters often allied blatant ostentation to
unspecied American values and hoped for the best, hoping
too that gas prices would soon come down again. Even the
windshield washer fluid is hot said Cadillac of its Escalade,
which promised 403 HP, 417 lbft of torque. Unsurpassed
highway fuel economy in its class [based on EPA estimated 19
mpg and 2006 GM Large Luxury Utility Segment]. 060 in
6.5 seconds. 22 chrome wheels available. It was in a payoff line used for other GM marques as well Nicely
equipped at $60,485. Cadillacs slogan, Life. Liberty. And
the Pursuit, was not one for any reader unsure about what
made him happy. The cheaper ($45,940) Cadillac SRX
Crossover appealed to a wider audience: It doesnt scream
soccer Mom. It just screams.
The 2007 Chrysler Aspen, meanwhile, offered a lot more
bling for your buck, and the Inniti FX45 appealed to the determined extrovert: Dont just make the statement; scream
it .... Move it. They look up. Not at you. But to you. If not
you, then who? Being that brave, being that bold, takes something. Its the recognition of your own greatness. Your own
power. And once you see it, all that is left to be done, is unleash
it.... Lincolns self-absorption was less frenzied for the 2007
Navigator, Mk X, and Mk Z: Once, there was no road where
C ONCLUSION
I wanted to go. So I made my own. And I havent looked back
ever since. My dream is to carve my own path. I was never
one to follow maps. Lincoln. Reach Higher.... Lifes calling.
Where to next?
The copywriter-as-therapist could be either booster, as for
Lincoln, or consoler, as in an appeal to the mainly female audience for the convertible Volkswagen Beetle. A dozen new
Beetles in red, green, and blue were seen from above in plastic bubbles on a silver card: Proven effective against negativity said the only copy line. Dare to be happy. This was a
striking example of a growing trendthe arresting analogy or
unexpected juxtaposition, in which the car was seen in terms
of, or took the place of, something unconnected with automobiles or motoring.
Examples were legion. In 2006, Volkswagen showed its
Rabbit RTS, or Rabbit Transit System, at the top of a map
set in a steel frame against white tiles, subway style. The aerial city view was overprinted with a green route and destinations such as Leather Emporium and Hair and Makeup
Supply Shop. The starting point was a bohemian loft, the
destination a heavy-metal karaoke. Saab announced a Jet Set
Sweepstakes competition with replica airline tickets attached
to a conventional advertisement headlined, Join the Jet Set.
Toyota challenged Fader readers to Scratch off and nd two
of the same on a small card page containing multiple stratchcard images of its Scion hatchback. The reverse side showed
a hand-decorated car with the caption, Create one of a kind.
Jeep depicted a 2007 Wrangler mounted in a wooden frame as
Unparallelicus [o]ffroadicus. A new species from Jeep. Characteristics such as Increased horsepower and torque plus
tougher axles were described on printed cards pinned below
the specimen.
Music became popular in appeals to younger car buyers.
Pontiac showed rubber tire marks on grey asphalt, quavers
and semi-quavers neatly chalked between the treads in each
black line: The rst 5,000 Pontiac G5s come with the digital
mix: A year of XM Satellite Radio, plus an MP3 music download a day for one year. Nissan mixed musical and computing motifs with The Next Nissan Maxima ... Fine-tuned instrument_2.0, seen in a velvet-lined instrument case.
Photographs on the facing page showed a jazz singer, saxophone and bass players, and a percussionist. Hip-hop featured
with vigorous khaki-toned graphics and an artist in full cry in
copy for the all-new Jeep Wrangler Unlimited ... the original
certied vehicle of hip-hop.... The culture grew. So did we.
Other appeals to young car-buyers included Hondas
brightly colored, cartoonish Super Tail Action!... Move over
mullet! You are no longer the undisputed king of stylish tail
technology! for the Honda Fit Sport. Virtual reality-style images depicted the 2007 Jeep Compass against a suburbia-andskyscraper backdrop as gures with speech-bubbles such as
Side-curtain airbags! and All-new design! capered around
the car. Keep it moving! admonished a camp gurine in the
O VERVIEW
AND
foreground. As with Plymouth in 1948, there was a floppyeared cartoon dog at the foot of the page. Advertisers targeted
participants in diverse social and leisure cultures by using tailor-made styles of copy and illustration in magazines about
music, sport, lm, computer games, cartoons, and other interests and activities. The overall result was an increase both
in the number of individual advertisements published, and in
the range of advertising styles deployed at any one time.
Appeals to specically female motorists were more subtle than in the early postwar years, but they still formed a distinct school of copywriting. References to shoes, coffee, handbags, and relationships, individually or in combination, were
commonplace, as from Kia: Attractive, dependable, good with
money. If it made coffee youd marry it.... Youve just found The
One. Sportage is strong and steady.... Mercurys young couple on a desert trip in a Mariner SUV encountered their rst
bump.... Now Karen and Jack were at a crossroads. East or
West? Monster Metal Hits or Books on CD? A Mercury
Milan driver almost missed a sign, Designer Handbag
Outlet This Exit, but in an adaptation of greetings-card
humorjammed on the brakes just in time: 3:12 P.M. Exit 24.
Nicole realizes she doesnt have as much control as her allwheel drive.
More conventionally, Jaguar showed a fashion model with
a Selected Edition Pre-Owned Jaguar X-TYPE.... Jeannel got
into her X-TYPE for under $22,000. Its all red carpet and velvet ropes from here. Can you resist separating yourself from
the masses? For In Style, a couch-bound model with a keep
our secret nger to her lips dangled the keys of a Buick
LaCrosse sedan parked behind her. Consecutive right-hand
pages in Marie Claire showed a Designed for action Pontiac
G6 Coupe (Must have fun), a Solstice sports car (Must have
sex appeal), and a muscular Torrent (Must have style), each
spotlit in black against a black-painted stage. Let the sun
worship you enjoined the same company for a G6 sedan with
an opening four-panel Panoramic Roof.
Typefaces were generally soft; copy concentrated on narrative rather than lists of electronic gadgets; backdrops were
often in pale cream or light mauve; floors were usually tiled
rather than concrete to suggest loft spaces; and grass was
mown rather than wild. For the Toyota Corolla S, twenty-four
pictures showed all the things that the driver could do in a
day; venues included a bookstore, a cuddly animal shop, a
caf, and the inevitable beach at sundown. The driver was a
girl-next-door; her boyfriend slightly idealized, but plausible: Randomize your playlist said the caption. Parenthood
featured in Toyotas advertising, too, as when Toyota targeted
a Highlander Sport, seen beside a lake, at mothers of teenagers:
Best thing to do when your kids leave home: Do the same.
In another piece a hulking freshman stood beside a pile of
bags and boxes, his computer keyboard, skateboard, and giant
electric fan in hand: 5:15 P.M. Dropping the kid off at college.
5:17 P.M. What kid?
C ONCLUSION
245
Copy lines built around greetings-card or water-cooler

humor appeared with both gender-specic and gender-neutral advertising. From intern to mogul in 6.1 seconds, for a
black Mercedes-Benz C 350 Sport Sedan set against a black
background, played wittily to aspirant ofce workers with
numbers signifying age and acceleration. If a late 2006 advertisement for the Dodge Caliber, Respect the unexpected,
made its orientation explicit by featuring Lisa Bryant, 26 ...
Newly Calibrated surfer girl, earlier advertising for the
car appealed to anyone who fancied themselves mildly rebellious. The Caliber, anything but cute, waited outside a door
marked Principal. The theme ran outside America, too. In
Britain the same door was marked Headmaster; and in another British piece the Calibers rump was balanced perkily
on the edge of a flashing photocopier. In a parallel Russian
advertisement, the rear of a bright red Caliber was lovingly
decorated in a tattoo parlor.
Automotive advertising had become selectively international, and the new internationalism was multi-faceted. In the
1960s, most American car advertising was for American cars
while copy from importers was almost always devised specically for the American market. By the 2000s, however,
many cars of imported marques were designed, or adapted
for, or built in the United States. Only with a few cars, such as
the largest SUVs, did advertisers generally set American car
values directly against import values. Export-oriented
American manufacturers, such as the Dodge and Chrysler
arms of DaimlerChrysler, bolstered their brands globally by
employing the same styles of advertising in both domestic
American and export markets. The same applied in reverse to
specialist importers: Porsches American advertising, for example, looked just like its advertising for other markets.
As advertising styles for non-specialist indigenous and
foreign brands converged, however, direct competition between domestic and non-domestic marques, and between individual models, became more common. This did not always
benet the home team. According to industry analyst John
Wolkonowicz of Global Insight, Detroit spent 25 years copying the Camry and emasculating the American car.... Now
they need to bring back real American cars for real American
people, the folks who watch NASCAR and shop at WalMart.7
So the question remains: How can a new domestic car
be distinctly American and yet without being huge or gasguzzling or otherwise retrogressivebe competitive with, distinct from, and superior to its Japanese or Korean (or Chinese
or Indian) rivals? Will America lead the world in inexpensive
cars for the post-gasoline era as it did with conventional cars
in the 1930s? If it can, will American manufacturers intellectual property in their designs be safeguarded internationally
for long enough to allow the domestic industry to recover?
And how will advertisers persuade Americans to adopt such
new cars?
246
O VERVIEW
AND
It will be fascinating to nd out. One thing seems certain, however: American automobile advertising will never be
uniform, though it may, in recession or in times of increasing
environmental consciousness, be subdued.
Perhaps the last word should go to Edward S. Jordan, creator of the most famous of all American automobile advertisements. Asked by Forbes magazine in 1926 to predict the course
of the American automobile industry, he was optimistic:
C ONCLUSION
Roughly speaking, it is safe to say that the saturation point for
the automobile will never be reached until everyone has a car
and none of them wears out.... In any business where there
enters a style element, there need be no fear of monopoly. Just
so long as women continually change their style of head dress
and the length of their skirts, there is going to be a chance for
every dressmaker. So it is with the car.8
Collectors Note
the result that visually unremarkable but historically interesting black and white (monochrome) ads can be hard to nd
from specialists as there is little demand for them. Many specialists, however, will be happy to look out for such pieces for
regular customers.
The serious collector will avoid color photocopies, except for reference or wall decoration, for which they are ideal.
The reproduction, whether in color or in black and white, will
not be as good as the original, and the feel of the original is
lost. Similarly, avoid color copies billed as reproducing the
patina of age of the original, unless faithfully reproduced
coffee and mildew stains, circa 1955, have a special appeal.
Many professional traders offer framed ads. Find out
whether the ad beneath the glass is an original or color copy,
and do not pay over the odds for a cheap frame that you do not
want, and will eventually throw away. Find out before buying
whether the ad can be lifted out of the frame or whether it has
been glued onto the board behind. Where this has happened
the ad will not be easy to le and might be discolored by the
glue over time. A collector will usually consider such an ad as
damaged rather than enhanced by the frame. Some sellers,
who frame their ads simply to appeal to casual buyers, will be
willing to sell unframed ads at a reduced rate, particularly if
you are buying several at a time.
Care should be taken if buying by mail order. You will
not usually be able to see the ads you need before ordering in
order to gauge their state of preservation, although the thumbnail pictures provided by Internet sellers are undoubtedly
helpful in identifying the ads being sold. Be sure to check the
model year of the car shown as well as the calendar year in
which the ad was published. For example, when ordering,
say, a 1948 Ford ad, nd out whether the ad is for a 1948
(JanuaryJune) or 1949 (JuneDecember) model. Remember, too, that some monthly magazines were dated to the
Magazine originals of pre1980 American car advertisements are no longer as easy to nd as they once were, but interesting material, particularly from the postwar period, continues to be discovered by collectors and enthusiasts. Finding
a specic pre-war ad may take time, but it is surprising what
still turns up, even in the 21st century.
There are two ways to build up a collection. The rst is
to buy either magazine originals or modern copies of magazine ads from the companies and individuals who advertise
on the Internet or in the specialist press. A search under historic car ads or vintage car ads or similar words should
yield several sources. These companies provide a valuable service by making available material which would otherwise remain out of reach. The alternative, which entails persistence,
but which is arguably more satisfying and can be less expensive, is to check out every second-hand bookstore, junk stall,
flea market, and charity sale in your area and to do so regularly. Most of the illustrations in this book are chosen from a
collection of nearly 1,000 ads from the National Geographic
(each ten inches deep by seven inches wide) which were gathered in this way between 1980 and 1995. If there is a large elderly population in your district who throw out piles of longaccumulated magazines from time to time, so much the better.
A question inevitably asked by collectors is: How much
should I pay for an ad? There is only one answer: however
much you want to. The prices asked by traders for individual
ads, and by bookstores for complete magazines, can vary by a
factor of ten or more. Many enthusiasts seek out ads for their
favorite marques, and the collector who has found the ad
needed to complete a set say, the 1940 Lincoln-Zephyr ad
which will complete a run of Lincoln V-12s from 1936 to
1948 might well be happy to pay a high price for it. Generally speaking, attractive ads for popular cars will fetch more
than unattractive pieces for unappealing automobiles, with
247
An advertisers original will often contain information about where the advertisement was placed, and in many cases newspaper
and magazine titles will be listed individually. This Lincoln-Zephyr piece was scheduled to appear in rotogravure and black-andwhite newspapers throughout the country during the weeks of December 12 and 19, 1937.
C OLLECTOR S N OTE
month following actual publication, so that a late ad for one
model year could appear in a magazine dated to the rst
month of the new model year. Occasionally an inexpert seller
might mistake one car for another, and send, say, a De Soto
Airflow when you wanted a Chrysler, or even send a different
car entirely. It is perhaps asking a lot of a general nostalgia
dealer to know every subject in detail, and most are willing to
exchange wrong orders quickly (as they should!). Some are
experts, and funds of useful knowledge.
The purist might want to ignore completely ads taken
from magazines, and to concentrate instead on advertisers
originals of ads supplied by automobile manufacturers and
their agents to magazines and newspapers for reproduction in
those media. These pieces are usually printed in a large size on
good, often glossy, paper. They are necessarily of better original quality than the reproductions printed in magazines
though the margin might not be great but such material is
extremely scarce, is not always carefully stored (a magazine
ad is protected by the pages that surround it), and may be
creased where it has been folded over the years.
The advantage of an advertisers original to the academic
researcher is that, in many cases, a list of the publications in
which it appeared is given at the top or bottom, or on the reverse side. Advertisers originals were often pasted into agencies guard-books as records of their work for automotive
clients, and guard-books which have survived in car makers
or agencies archives, or in museums or research organizations, can sometimes be made available for viewing by serious researchers. This may be the only opportunity for a marque enthusiast to see most or all of the ads in a series, and to
discover which magazines and newspapers carried them when
new.
Original magazine ads should be stored in a dry, stable environment, ideally in display les with plastic leaves which
allow easy reference while preserving them from direct handling, moisture and, importantly, sunlight. Label each ad on
its reverse side with a soft pencil, noting its date and source if
known. Never frame and display either advertisers originals
249
or magazine ads, as even short-term exposure to sunlight

and ultraviolet light in particularwill cause fading and damage them irreparably. Display color copies instead.
Automobile advertisements have arrived late to the collectors market, but in recent years interest in the subject has
increased, and continues to grow. It follows from this that
even modern ads, now thrown away, will one day be rare and
sought after by collectors and researchers. Car ads cut from
newspapers and magazines today will be interesting to a whole
new generation of enthusiasts and historians in decades to
come. Only a real optimist, however, would collect ads as an
investment; add up the cost of purchase, storage les and the
fuel used to drive to second-hand bookstores and flea markets, and the money might more wisely be put in a bank. But
where would be the fun in that?
The holy grail for many collectors is a piece of original advertising artwork or a photograph, painted or taken in period
and used as the basis of an advertisement. In some cases as,
famously, with Arthur Fitzpatrick and Van Kaufman one
artist painted the cars while another painted their backgrounds. A few automotive advertising artists and photographers were, or have become, widely known, while others are
little known today. Discreet signatures are sometimes visible
on paintings in magazine advertisements. Dedicated collectors
have worked hard to track down surviving artwork, and there
have been inspiring exhibitions in recent years, as by the Detroit photographer and rescuer of much surviving work, Jim
Secreto, at the Detroit Library in 2005; and by the Museum of
Fine Arts in Boston, also in 2005. Photographs by numerous
artists, including Mickey McGuire and Jimmy Northmore of
Boulevard Photographic, and contemporaries such as Warren O. Winstanley and Walter Farynk, were exhibited at the
Detroit Institute of Arts during 1996.1 At the time of writing
there is not yet an established market for such work and pieces
still occasionally materialize for sale on the Internet, at autojumbles, and elsewhere. A wanted ad placed in car enthusiasts and relevant professional publications might well yield
unexpected results.
Notes
Part One
1. Bauhaus-pastiche describes a visual style
in automobile advertising characterized by the
use of artistic and graphic motifs derived from
the Bauhaus movement which originated in
Weimar Germany in 1919. A rst-hand account
of Chryslers campaign in Britain is given in Advertising and the Motor-car by Ashley Havinden
and Michael Frostick (London: Lund Humphries, 1970).
2. G.H. Saxon [Bingy] Mills. There is a
Tide..: The life and work of Sir William Crawford,
K.B.E., p. 82 (London: Heinemann, 1954).
3. Harold Haliday Costain in F.A. Mercer and
W. Gaunt (eds.). Modern Publicity: An Annual
of Art and Industry 1935-36, p. 20 (London: Studio, 1935).
4. Ibid., p. 20.
5. F.A. Mercer and W. Gaunt (eds.). Modern
Publicity: An Annual of Art and Industry 193435, p. 12 (London: Studio, 1934). For a selection
of approximately thirty representative advertisements from the 1932 model year, see John A.
Conde. In the Face of Adversity: The Cars of
1932. Collectible Automobile, October, 1996, pp.
825.
6. I.e. copy which cites the demonstrable
virtues of the product or appeals to the readers
understanding of the principles of automobile
design, rather than appealing overtly to his or
her emotions.
7. I.e. those manufacturers who were independent of the Big Three, which were Chrysler
Corporation (Plymouth, Dodge, De Soto,
Chrysler, Chrysler Imperial, Imperial), General
Motors Corporation (Chevrolet, Pontiac, Oldsmobile, Buick, LaSalle, Cadillac), and the Ford
Motor Company (Ford, Mercury, Edsel, Lincoln, Lincoln Continental, Continental). The
principal independents operating during the
19301980 period were, in alphabetical order,
AMC (as Rambler from 195865), Checker,
Crosley, Graham (as Graham-Paige to 1930),
Hudson (to 1957), Hupmobile, Kaiser-Frazer,
Nash (to 1957), Packard, Reo, Studebaker, and

Willys. The histories of these and other companies, including minor marques connected with
the Big Three, may be found in John Rae. American Automobile Manufacturers (Philadelphia:
Chilton Company, 1959); and Consumer Guide
(eds.). The Encyclopedia of American Cars (Lincolnwood, Illinois: Publications International
Ltd., 2003).
8. For these industrial relations difculties
generally, see A. Nevins and F.E. Hill. Ford: Decline and Rebirth, 19331962, pp. 302307,
334338 (New York: Charles Scribners Sons,
1963).
9. For two versions of this photograph, see
the advertisement in the National Geographic for
April, 1963; and David L. Lewis and Bill Rauhauser. The Car and the Camera: The Detroit
School of Automotive Photography, p. 48 (Detroit: Institute of Arts/Wayne State University
Press, 1996).
10. Rauhauser in ibid., p. 11.
11. Rauhauser in ibid., p. 19.
12. For the story of the two artists association
with General Motors (195373) and Pontiac Division (195971), see Vince Manocchi. Arthur
Fitzpatrick: Illustrious Illustrator. Collectible
Automobile, April, 2004, pp. 6879.
13. For a selection of muscle-car advertisements of this period, see M.J. Frumkin. Classic
Muscle Car Advertising: The Art of Selling Horsepower (Iola, Wisconsin: Krause Publications,
2002).
14. Herbert Read. Art and Industry: The Principles of Industrial Design, p. 2 (London: Faber &
Faber, 1934).
15. Richard Guy Wilson. The Industrialist
as Artist The machine-age in America 1910
1945, in Angela Schnberger (ed.). Raymond
Loewy: Pioneer of Industrial Design, p. 67 (London: Prestel Books, 1990).
16. The Times Motoring Correspondent. 8Cylinder Airflow Chrysler, in Cars of Today
1935: 65 Complete Reviews, pp. 1718 (London:
Times Pub. Co., 1935). For the story of the Air-
251
flow see, for example, Karl S. Zahm. 193437

Chrysler/De Soto Airflow: Future Shock. Collectible Automobile, January, 1989, pp. 1227.
17. Alfred P. Sloan. My Years with General
Motors (2nd ed.), p. 266 (London: Penguin,
1986).
18. Ibid., p. 268.
19. Ibid., p. 273. For the story of Harley Earls
life and work for General Motors, see Paul Zazarine. Harley Earl: Da Vinci of Detroit. Collectible Automobile, December, 2005, pp. 6675
and February, 2006, pp. 7282.
1986). For a full account of the Edsel dbcle,
see Robert Daines. EdselThe Motor Industrys
Titanic (London: Academy Books, 1994); and
Thomas E. Bonsall. Disaster in Dearborn: The
Story of the Edsel (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002).
21. Raymond Loewy. Never Leave Well
Enough Alone (2nd ed.), p. 307 (Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, [1951] 2002).
22. Raymond Loewy. Industrial Design (2nd
ed.), p. 148 (London: Fourth Estate, [1979]
1988).
23. Bruno Sacco. The Studebaker Connection, in Angela Schnberger (ed.). Raymond
Loewy: Pioneer of American Industrial Design, p.
123 (London: Prestel Books, 1990).
24. Tony Hossain. Studebaker/Loewy Designers Come Home, in The Best of Old Cars
Weekly, Vol. 4, p. 179 (Iola, Wisconsin: Krause
Publications Inc., 1982).
25. Cited in Joseph J. Seldin. The Golden
Fleece: Selling the Good Life to Americans, p. 102
(New York: Macmillan, 1963).
26. Planned obsolescence was not at rst
meant derogatively. Brooks Stevens, the industrial designer who devised the phrase though
not the essential concept in the early 1950s,
recalled in a 1991 interview with Mike McCarthy
of the British magazine, Classic and Sportscar:
I was asked to talk to the Advertising Club of
Minneapolis [in 1954], and was looking for a
252
title. I eventually came up with the phrase
Planned Obsolescence, meaning the desire to
own something a little newer, a little better, a
little sooner than is necessary. It did not mean
organized waste.... The average American earns
enough not to have to run a refrigerator or car
until the thing just stops.... Ironically, I designed
the longest [running] concept [of ] car ever apart
from the Beetlethe Jeep station wagon, which
went on year after year, and eventually became
the Wagoneer and Cherokee. For 29 years we
used the same set of tools, patching them and
xing them and making them over, but using
them. Mike McCarthy. Design Intervention.
Classic and Sportscar, December, 1991, pp. 5258.
See also Glenn Adamson. Industrial Strength Design: How Brooks Stevens Shaped Your World, pp.
129134 (Cambridge, MA: Milwaukee Art Museum/MIT Press, 2003). For Brooks Stevens automotive designs, see Richard M. Langworth.
Brooks Stevens: The Seer that Made Milwaukee
Famous. Collectible Automobile, June, 2005, pp.
6877.
27. Cited in Joseph J. Seldin. The Golden
Fleece: Selling the Good Life to Americans, p. 101
(New York: Macmillan, 1963).
Motors (2nd ed.), p. 265 (London: Penguin, 1986).
29. Vance Packard. The Waste Makers (2nd
ed.), p. 100 (London: Longmans, [1960] 1961).
30. Michael Frostick and Ashley Havinden.
Advertising and the Motor-car, pp. 2022 (London: Lund Humphries, 1970). For Ashley Havindens life and work, see Michael Havinden et
al. Advertising and the Artist: Ashley Havinden
(Edinburgh: National Galleries of Scotland,
2004).
31. Mark Haworth-Booth. E McKnight Kauffer: A Designer and His Public (2nd ed.), pp. 48,
52 (London: V&A Publications: 2005).
32. For the history from 19191990 of Britains leading importer of General Motors cars
(and of American cars) see Geoff Carverhill.
The Lendrum & Hartman Story [Parts IIII].
Classic American, June, 2006, pp. 6062; July
2006, pp. 7376; and August, 2006, pp. 6869.
See also Bryan Goodman. American Cars in Prewar England: A Pictorial Survey (Jefferson, NC:
McFarland, 2004).
33. The Motor Industry of Great Britain [annual], 1955 ed., p. 270; 1956 ed., p. 260. (London:
Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders
Ltd., 1955 and 1956).
34. For the history of American semi-automatic and automatic transmissions, see Byron
Olsen. Shifty Business: Detroits Drive to Automatic Transmissions, 193055. Collectible
Automobile, December, 2004, pp. 2435. For an
expanded version of this article, see Byron
Olsen. The Shift to Shiftless: Transmission Advances in U.S. Cars (192955). Automotive History Review, Fall 2006, pp. 2541.
35. Wernher von Braun in Cornelius Ryan
(ed.). Across the Space Frontier, p. 12 (London:
Sidgwick & Jackson, 1952).
36. For Mustangs and other American cars
photographed in London during the 1960s, see
Steve Miles. Over Here: The American Car in England in the 1960s (Northamptonshire: SGM
Publishing, 2004).
N OTES
Part Two
1. For the story of Jordan advertising and
for reproductions in color and black and white
of many Jordan advertisements, see James H.
Lackey. The Jordan Automobile, pp. C1C15 and
123132 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2005). See
also Ned Jordan: The Man Who Changed Auto
Advertising, in The Best of Old Cars, Vol. 5, p.
79 (Iola, WI: Krause Publications Inc., 1981).
For an interview with Ned Jordan, see B.C.
Forbes and O.D. Foster. Automotive Giants of
America, pp. 155168 (New York: B.C. Forbes
Publishing, 1926).
1986).
3. The Hon. Maynard Greville in Country
Life, April 22, 1939, pp. xxxvixxxviii.
4. See F.A. Mercer and W. Gaunt (eds.).
Modern Publicity: An Annual of Art and Industry
1936-37, p. 82 (London: Studio, 1936).
5. Eoin Young in Autocar, May 4, 1967, p.
91.
6. See F.A. Mercer and W. Gaunt (eds.).
1938-39, p. 29 (London: Studio, 1938). For a discussion of Packards advertising of this period,
and of the damage inflicted on a high-priced
line by using its prestige to sell a lower-priced
line, see James A. Ward. The Fall of the Packard
Motor Car Company, pp. 3233 (Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press, 1995).
7. Stephen Fox. The Mirror Makers (2nd
ed.), p. 165 (William Heinemann, London, 1990).
8. Ibid., p. 166.
9. By contrast, Fords television campaign
for the Edsel of 1957-58 failed, despite the use
of several celebrities and showbusiness stars.
10. My thanks to Taylor Vinson for a large
selection of MG advertisements from this period. For a detailed account of American advertising for the MGB in the 1960s and 1970s under
Reach, McClinton & Co., and from 1970 under
Bozell & Jacobs with the same advertising team,
see David Knowles. MGB, MGC & MGB GT V8:
A celebration of Britains best-loved sports car, pp.
4446 (Yeovil: Haynes, 2004). In the present
book the MG name is written without stops,
as has been usual since the 1960s, except where
the earlier form appears within a quotation.
Part Three
1986).
2. Henry Ford. My Life and Work, p. 54
(London: William Heinemann Ltd., 1923).
3. A. Nevins and F.E. Hill. Ford: Expansion
and Challenge 19151932, pp. 594595 (New
York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1957).
4. Ralph M. Hower. The History of an Advertising Agency: N.W. Ayer & Son at Work 1869
1949, p. 142 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1949).
5. From F.A. Mercer and W. Gaunt (eds.).
1938-39, p. 30 (London: Studio, 1938). Real
farmers gave testimonials in Studebaker advertising in Country Gentleman and the Farm Journal during 1947.
6. A vivid account of American motoring
conditions during the period up to 1939 is given
in Maurice Olleys paper, National Influences on
American Passenger Car Design, read before the
Institution of Automobile Engineers in London
in February, 1938. The paper is reproduced in
the Proceedings of the Institution, Vol. XXXII,
for the Session 1937/38, at p. 509.
7. Thomas D. Murray. The Strange Beginning of the Chevy Caprice. Classic American,
August/September 1991.
8. Ralph Nader. Unsafe at Any Speed: The
Designed-in Dangers of the American Automobile (2nd ed.), pp. 3643 (New York: Bantam
Books, [1972] 1973).
9. Ibid., p. 192. For safety provision in early
American cars, see Tim Howley. Trial and
Error: An Early History of Auto Safety in America. Collectible Automobile, February 2007, pp.
6473.
Designed-in Dangers of the American Automobile (2nd ed.), p. xi (New York: Bantam Books,
[1972] 1973).
11. Ibid., p. xii.
12. Lee Iacocca: Iacocca: An Autobiography
(with William Novak), p. 39 (New York: Bantam Books, 1984).
13. A detailed account of the Cadets development is given in Consumer Guide (eds.). Cars
that Never Were, p. 10 (New York: Beekman
House, 1981).
14. As exemplied in tests such as those carried out by Motor Life in November, 1954
(Zephyr convertible) and November, 1955 (Zodiac sedan). For these and other tests, see R.M.
Clarke (ed.). Ford Consul, Zephyr, Zodiac Mk I
& II 19501962 (Cobham: Brooklands Books,
1991).
15. Production gures from Consumer
Guide (eds.). Encyclopedia of American Cars, pp.
13, 557 (Lincolnwood, IL: Publications International Ltd., 2002).
Designed-in Dangers of the American Automobile (2nd ed.), pp. 23 (New York: Bantam
Books, [1972] 1973).
17. Vance Packard. The Hidden Persuaders
(2nd ed.), p. 228 (London: Penguin, [1981] 1991).
18. Production and export gures from The
Motor Industry of Great Britain [annual], 1954
ed., pp. 23, 216; 1956 ed., pp. 23, 255 (London:
Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders
Ltd., 1954 and 1956).
19. Alan Hess. Wheels Round the World, p. 70
(London: Newman Neame, 1951).
20. From gures in Jon Pressnell. Morris
Minor: Exploring the Legend, pp. 97100 (Yeovil:
Haynes, 1998).
21. Maurice Platt. An Addiction to Automobiles, pp. 151152 (London: Warne, 1980).
22. Cited in Tony Freeman. Humber: An Illustrated History 18681976, p. 51 (London: Academy Books, 1991).
23. Walter Henry Nelson. Small Wonder: The
Amazing Story of the Volkswagen (2nd ed.), pp.
233234 (London: Hutchinson, 1970).
N OTES
24. Ibid., p. 230.
25. Ibid., pp. 237238.
26. Ibid., p. 239.
27. Ibid., p. 251.
28. Maurice Platt. An Addiction to Automobiles, pp. 169170 (London: Warne, 1980).
29. Booton Herndon. Ford An Unconventional Biography of the Men and Their Times, p.
236 (New York: Weybright & Tulley, 1969).
30. See Tim Howley. Into the Unknown:
Imported Cars in Fifties America. Collectible
Automobile, December, 2006, pp. 5869.
31. David Ogilvy. Confessions of an Advertising Man, p. 111 (London: Longmans, Green,
[1963] 1964).
32. Ibid., p. 107.
33. Stephen Fox. The Mirror Makers (2nd
ed.), p. 237 (London: Heinemann, 1990). For
Fords quieter than a Rolls-Royce campaign of
1965, see Chapter 13, pp. 179180; and Tim
Howley. 1965-66 Ford: Quieter than a RollsRoyce. Collectible Automobile, April 1994, pp.
4457.
34. David Ogilvy. Confessions of an Advertising Man, p. 109 (London: Longmans, Green,
[1963] 1964). See also David Ogilvy. Ogilvy on
Advertising, p. 216 (London: Orbis, 1983).
35. This advertisement was published in the
Saturday Evening Post of January 2, 1915. For its
genesis, see Stephen Fox. The Mirror Makers
(2nd ed.), pp. 7172 (London: Heinemann,
1990). The ad is reproduced in Jane and Michael
Stern. Auto Ads, p. 17 (New York: Random
House, 1978).
36. David Ogilvy. Confessions of an Advertising Man, pp. 111112 (Longmans, Green, London, [1963] 1964).
37. For an account of Ogilvys life and bestknown campaigns, see Stephen Fox, The Mirror
Makers, pp. 225239. Examples of Rolls-Royce
advertising of this period are shown in ibid., p.
247; and in David Ogilvy. Ogilvy on Advertising,
pp. 10, 59.
38. David Ogilvy. The Unpublished David
Ogilvy, pp. 164165 (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1988).
39. David Ogilvy. Ogilvy on Advertising, p. 11
(London: Orbis, 1983).
40. See Joseph J. Seldin. The Golden Fleece:
Selling the Good Life to Americans, p. 97 (New
York: Macmillan, 1963).
253
should be sensuous and voluptuous, very sculptured and when I was thinking about it [the actress] Kate Winslet came to mind.... She is naturally a very shapely woman, very British with
an underlying integrity and ability. Like a car,
she has got substance, she is not just a pretty
face. So I designed the new XK body with her in
mind. The interesting thing is that so many
women nd sensual cars more appealing as
well. John Harlow and Flora Bagenal. Its the
Jaguar XK Winslet, The Sunday Times, November 26, 2006, p. 3 (interview with Ian Callum).
7. See Keith Naughton. Putting Detroit in
the Shop. Newsweek, November 6, 2006, pp.
4446.
8. B.C. Forbes and O.D. Foster. Automotive
Giants of America, pp. 165168 (New York: B.C.
Forbes Publishing Co., 1926).
Overview and Conclusion

1. Norman Bel Geddes. Horizons, p. 293
(London: John Lane, The Bodley Head, 1934).
2. Vance Packard. The Hidden Persuaders
(2nd ed.), p. 50 (London: Penguin, [1981] 1991).
3. Ibid., pp. 5051.
4. William Meyers. The Image Makers, p. 15
(London: Orbis, 1984).
5. William McWhirter. Chryslers Second
Amazing Comeback. Time, November 9, 1992.
6. This campaign certainly if perhaps inadvertently followed the spirit of the Jaguar
XKs conception. According to its designer, the
Scottish engineer Ian Callum, [A] Jaguar
Collectors Note
1. See Liz Turner. Snapper focuses on advertising art. Classic & Sports Car, October
2005, pp. 6061; Frederic A. Sharf. Future Retro:
Drawings from the Great Age of American Automobiles (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 2005);
and David L. Lewis and Bill Rauhauser. The Car
and the Camera: The Detroit School of Automotive Photography (Detroit: Detroit Institute of
Arts/Wayne State University Press, 1996).
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General Motors. London: Sidgwick & Jackson,
1979.
Magazines, Journals, and

Annuals
(The) Autocar
The Automobile
Automobile Quarterly
Automotive History Review
Auto-Universum
Car & Driver
Classic American
(Thoroughbred &) Classic Cars
Classic & Sports Car/Classic and Sportscar
Collectible Automobile
Country Life
The Field
Modern Publicity
(The) Motor
The Motor Industry of Great Britain
Motor Trend
National Geographic
Newsweek
SAH Journal
Scientic American
The [London] Sunday Times
Time
The [London] Times
U.S. News & World Report
Index
Numbers in bold italics refer to illustrations. References to the color section are identied by the letter C.
Abbott of Farnham, coachbuilder

203, 204
ABC-TV 128
AC Cobra 69
academic debate 10
academic research 249
acceleration 58, 78
acoustical consultants 179180
acoustics 179180
Acura (marque) 243
Adler (marque) 13
advertisements, role of 3, 242;
design of 328; modern 243
246, 249
advertisers originals (of advertisements) vii, 168, 248, 249
advertisers, role of 3, 40
advertising agencies, British 45,
163
advertising artists 249
Advertising Club of Minneapolis
251n.26
advertising enthusiasts 249
advertising, European 2, 5, 39
advertising, radio see radio
advertising
advertising, television see television advertising
advertising themes: achievement
101102; action 21; adventure 81;
affluent life, vignettes of 25; aircraft 34, 99, 136, 139, 203;
American values 244; antiobsolescence 52, 53, 57, 220,
220221; antiques-hunting 165;
arresting analogy 244; arresting
juxtaposition 244; baseball 203,
204; beauty 32, 41, 44, 44, 47,
243; build quality 228, 229, 230,
235, 242, 243; business life 101
102, 104; celebrity emulation
245; children, life with 136, 137,
156, 204, 207, 245; China 125;
Christmas 108, 109, 140, 140,
166167; coffee 245; comfort 19,
25, 142, 143, 172181; common
sense 167; comparisons with
rival products 119128; compression ratios 184185; computing 244; design philosophy
42, 43, 53; design (styling) 29
57; dream settings 25; durability

15, 57, 235, 239; dynamism 13;
economy C16, 227; effortless
cruising 19; engineering 1, 41, 81,
87, 104, 105106, 106, 116, 116,
118, 171, 173; escape/escapism 15,
23, 58, 68, 8189, 242, 243;
euphoria 58, 82, 174; Eurochic
37; family life 156, 204, 207,
220, 221; fashion 19, 149, 149,
245; feminine appeal 145160,
245; remen, cars use by 67;
shing 21; fortune-telling C7,
8182, 141, 142143, 143144;
fun 5, 18, 83; gas mileage 4, 181,
182188, 215, 216, 220, 228; gender-specic 19; gracious living
228; greeting-card humor 245;
handbags 245; handling 19, 20,
67, 67; happy anticipation 140;
happy couples 91, 94, 99; headroom 115, 174, 176, 211, 213; hiphop 244; historical gures C1;
honesty about product 223, 224;
horses 46, 93, 93, 99, 221, 230;
human interest 106; illustrious
clients 125, 125; individualism
102; Japan 125, 125; jazz 244;
leisure C5, C10, C11, C13; leisure
(upmarket) 99, 99; making up
for owners past cars 131, 132;
marque heritage 211, 211, 213;
modern lifestyle 18; music C9,
64, 125, 212, 213, 243, 244; natural history (car as specimen)
244; nostalgia 128, 129135, 189;
occupational groups, appeals to
115, 116; ofce 98, 101, 104;
ofce/employee humor 245;
pastoral idylls 58; patriotism
136; performance C15, 18, 20,
2526, 49, 5873, 194; personal
reputation of manufacturer 162;
police escort 67; power 4, 13, 48,
5873, 174;power features 19,
69; practicality 18, 207, 213;
prize draw competition 135;
quality control 27, 53, 53, 235;
quietness 179180; quiz 108, 108;
recreation 203; relationships
245; reliability 96, 216, 220, 229,
230, 230, 232; riding (horse) 99;

romance 19, 89; rural serenity
13; safety 32, 72, 189198, 229,
229, 242, 243; sailing 121, 123;
scratchcard 244; seasonal advertising 82; seat height 174, 176;
shopping 203, 245; silence 173,
179180; size 25; slice-of-life
106; snow 230; sophistication
C14, 114; styling 2957, 58, 188;
snobbery 81, 90104, 242, 243;
sociability C13, 18; space C9, 64;
spy thriller 56; streamlining 29
32, 30; studio poses 19; styling
18, 48; subway map 244; surng
245; technical features 25; therapy 244; tigers 71, 71; town hall
109; travel 81; two-car family
153, 203; unexpected juxtaposition 244; value for money 13, 15,
48, 101, 161171, 216, 216, 227,
235, 236; ventilation 172, 173;
VIPs, appeals to 115, 115116;
watch, analogy with 58; watercooler humor 245; weight distribution 172173, 173; Whos
Who 99; see also Christmas
advertising; occupations in
advertisements
aerodynamicists 29
aerodynamics 2930, 32, 47, 221
aeronautical analogy 119
aeronautical imagery 19, 35, 37,
64, 196
aeronautical motifs, use of 34, 37,
38
aesthetics as social signiers 94
agency archives 249
air conditioning see features
(specic): air conditioning
air cooling 68, 69
air bags 189
air suspension see suspensions: air
aircraft 18, 19, 37, 41, 136, 139, 240
alarmist advertising 124, 191
Allender, Reuben 1718
Allstate (marque) 214215
all-steel construction 32, 33, 240
AMC (marque) 115, 187
America see United States of
America
259
American advertising (British

cars) 132, 135
American advertising copy 58,
228
American advertising styles C3
American car imports see
imported cars
American car market 28, 239
American cars in Britain C3, 29,
30, 31, 60, 61, 6162, 70, 82, 89,
163, 165167, 214, 252n.32
American cultural consciousness
167
The American dream 2, 34, 129,
240
American Motors Corporation
(AMC) 177, 220, 221
American rocket research 64
American tradition 129
American values in advertising
244
The Americas 223
Anderson, Malcolm 121
The Andrews Sisters 127
Anglophiles 223, 224
announcement copy 16, 41
Annual Advertising Awards 94
annual model change 3, 31, 57, 92,
224, 247, 249
anti-functionalism 161; see also
functionalism, ethic of design
anti-obsolescence 52, 53, 57
Antwerp 60
Anzio 136
Arab oil embargo 185
Arcadia, California 106
architecture 240
Arizona 177, 177
Armour III, Mrs. Philip 128
arms manufacture 136, 139
Armstrong, Lance 243
Art & Colour section (GM) 3132
Art Deco motifs, use of 8, 32
art nouveau style 27
Arthur Kudner (agency) 174
artwork in advertising: airbrushed
10; artistic advertising 46, 8,
10, 167; as collectible C13, 249;
asymmetry in 8, 10, 60; atmospheric 10; Bauhaus 8, 10, 60,
251n.1; Bauhaus-pastiche 4, 8,
260
10, 15, 61, 251n.1; cartoons 107,
108, 142, 144, 192, 194, 220, 230,
235, 244245; color 58, 165, 227,
235; computer-created 243;
conventional 106; crystal ball
C7, 141, 142143, 200; Cubism 8;
diagrams 15, 18, 19, 76, 242; dramatic angles 8; drawings: see
drawings; dynamic impressionism 45, 6, 61; elongation C14,
46, 8, 10, 15, 17, 17, 19; exaggerated width 26; exhibitions 249;
graphics 2, 243, 244; impressionism 5; minimalism C8, 10,
13, 97; mock-erotic 149; monochrome 39, 40, 200, 202, 243;
motion in illustrations 6061,
61; multiple illustrations 7, 15,
75, 192, 234; neo-minimalism
15; original 249; paintings 16, 17;
picture stories 107, 108; realistic
3, 8; rescued and collected 249;
rockets C9, 64, 64, 85; side view
C8; signed 249; speedlines 8;
static tableaux 61, 61; stylization
10; surviving original art 249;
tonal contrasts 5, 8, 10; types of
5; versus photography 34, 6,
19, 20, 23, 2728; watercolors,
use of 16
aspiration, social see social aspiration
asymmetry in illustration 8, 10, 60
Atlantic Ocean 6, 167, 231
Austin (marque) 47, 203, 214,
222, 225, 227, 228
Australian Chryslers 187
Australian Fords 187
The Autocar 37, 44, 58, 62, 89,
214, 252Pt.2n.5
autojumbles 249
automobile, American 40, 222
automobile design, intellectual
property in 245
automobile industry 41; American
90, 246; British 222223
automobile makers, American 227
automobile magazines 28
Automobile Manufacturers Association 65
automobile, popularization of 8
automobile production (U.S.) 167,
169, 224
automatic transmissions see
transmissions: automatic
automotive clients (of agencies)
224
Automotive Council for War Production 136
automotive dream, the 241
Automotive History Review vii
Automotive News 230, 235
AutoWeek 241
Avis 83
Ayer, N.W. & Son see N.W. Ayer
& Son (agency)
backdrops (general) 10
backdrops (specic types):
abstract 10; admiring neighbors
19, 101, 102, 156; aerial view 13,
19, 77; aircraft 99; aireld C14;
airport 18, 19, 30, 76, 186;
antiques shop 156, 165, 204;
apartment (modern) 98, 208;
architectural 4, 17, 32, 33;
atmospheric 10; balloons 230;
beach C13, C15, 18, 36, 36, 134,
I NDEX
179, 199, 209, 236; black C8,
C14, 13, 15, 28, 56, 245; bluegrey 13; board meeting 16, 16;
boat deck 21; bordered C8, 15;
brick-red gravel 19, 65, 155;
bridge 32, 33, 43; business 101
102, 104; camping 7; caviar 224;
cherry blossom 13, 30; Christmas scene 109, 140, 166167;
church 53, 185; city 10, 18, 179;
city residential 244; cityscape
C16, 11; classical 17, 93; cliff
face 244; color-toned 23; country club 16, 42; country house
87; country park 19; country
road 19, 103, 130, 131, 156, 185,
193, 238, 243; countryside 87,
108, 117, 157, 157, 179, 199, 201,
212, 217; craftsmans hands 49,
200201, 202; dark C8, C14, 13,
28, 56, 132, 230, 237; day in a
life collage 245; deep blue C12,
17, 64; deep red 71; desert 46,
57, 71, 208, 232, 244; deserted
beach C15; dinner party 16; distanced 11, 13; dockside C4;
domestic scene 16, 206; driveway 16, 243; embroidered cloth
25, 25; English 224; English
church 135; European C13, 28;
evening dress C3, 9, 17, 19, 19,
25, 26, 36, 38, 65, 100, 101, 114,
179, 180, 195; exclusive club 17,
17, 26, 102; fair 216; family 206;
farm 167; fashion models 224;
fashionable resort 19; feminized
150; eld 55, 88, 116, 197, 234,
236; ghter pilots 19; Florida
coast 134; forest 23; formalized
setting 25; freeway 18, 19, 179,
186; gender-specic 245; globe
39; gold cloth 17; golf C10, C11,
83, 170; grass 245; handbag 150;
heating 174, 177, 177; helicopter
156, 233; highway 15, 67, 183,
216, 236, 243; hill 67, 67; historic monument 18; horses 46,
68, 68, 224; hotel 9, 17, 100, 101,
113, 114, 179, 180; house (grand)
14, 87, 93, 93, 96, 187; house
(suburban) 34, 150, 151, 169,
193, 244; house (ultra-modern)
97, 168; indoor C16, 82; industrial 244; instrument case 244;
island 28; Japanese coast 125;
jewelry C12, 16, 17, 23, 24; lake
15, 19, 89, 178, 242; landscape
13; leisure 110; loft spaces 245;
mansions 224; military searchlight 141, 141; mock-classical C3,
243; Monaco 69; mountains 70;
musical score C9; neo-classical
4, 9, 48, 87, 115; neutral 13, 16,
58, 242; night-time C3, 9, 15,
36, 38, 45, 72, 173, 184, 195,
208, 244; observatory 184; ocean
28; ofce 98, 101, 104; old car
meet 131, 133; opera house 87;
orange 18; painting (of nonautomotive subject) C1, 93; park
203; parking lot 79; party 186;
pastoral C11; photocopying
room 245; plain-colored C8, 15,
18; plants 19; polo club 201;
principals ofce 245; provincial
10; quasi-naturalistic 13; quayside 58; realistic 5, 15, 18, 27,
242; rear view mirror 231; resort
19; restaurant 81, 82, 243, 244;

riding stables 99; roadside C15;
rockets C9, 19, 64; rodeo 18, 185;
romantic 28; rural 10, 13, 18, 19,
67, 146, 156; sailing 131; San
Francisco 180; scenic vistas 4;
school gate 137; searchlight
beam 141; ships C4; shore 23,
63; shoreline 23, 110, 244; showroom 44, 236; skating C5, 82,
175; ski resort 16, 135; sky 196;
skyscraper 98; small-town 10,
15; snow C5, 82, 175, 242; social
scene 16, 25; sophisticated 10,
40; sports car meet 19, 48;
sportsmen 70; sports venue 72,
243; stadium 72; stars 79, 190;
static tableaux 61; station (rail)
199; steep hills 19, 185; steeple
chase 68, 68; stone columns 25;
striped 104; stylized 13; studio
(photographic) C1, 13, 45; studio (television) 127; studio-style
18; suburbia 19, 34, 54, 156, 203,
204, 243; sunset 28, 88, 135,
224, 242; supermarket 156, 203,
204; surf 224; surreal 10, 27;
swimming-pool 1617; tattoo
parlor 245; test track 23; tiger
in 71, 71; tropical 40; twilight
28, 243; upmarket resorts 179;
urban 43; urban concrete 244;
virtual-reality 144; winding
road 28; wrought-iron gates
25
badge-engineering C16
Balham High Road S.W.17
(England) 165
The Balkans 5
Baltic region 5
Bantam 214
Barbizan Plaza Hotel 121
baseball (in advertising) 203, 204
Batmobile 50
Batten, Burton, Durstine &
Osborn (agency) 228
Bauhaus movement 8, 251n.1
Bauhaus-pastiche (advertising
style) see artwork in advertising: Bauhaus-pastiche
Beach, Rex 124, 124
beds (seat conversion) 83
Bel Geddes, Norman 240
Belgian Congo 222
Belgium 60
belongers 241; see also VALS
Bentley (marque) 5, 228
Benyon, T. Yates 222
Berlin 136
Bernbach, William (Bill) 180, 224
Big Three automakers 1, 35, 41,
162, 169, 215, 220, 244, 251n.7
Blue Network 127
BMW (marque) 104, 224, 231,
237, 239, 241
bodies, closed versus open 172
body frames 30, 32, 33
body language, gender-specic
146, 147, 152, 156, 156, 157, 157,
160
Boeing Flying Fortress 136, 139
Bolt, Berenek, and Newman (consultants) 179180
bookstores 247, 249
Boston, Massachusetts 249
Boulevard Photographic 28, 249
Bourke, Robert 35, 37
Bowes, Major 125, 127
Bozell & Jacobs (agency) 132,

252Pt.2n.10
brakes: anti-skid 89; cable 165;
disc 221, 229, 235; nned aluminum 78; four-wheel 189;
hydraulic 85, 106, 121, 165, 189;
mechanical 106; self-adjusting
16, 34, 74
Brentford, Middlesex (England)
70
brides in advertising 149
bridge, analogous with car body
32, 33, 240
bridge, as advertising motif see
backdrops: bridge
bridge, as architectural backdrop
32, 33
Britain 15, 50, 63, 107, 167, 177,
187, 214, 222
Britain, American cars in 45,
6062, 8283, 214, 252n.32
British advertising (American
cars) vii, C3, 45, 8, 15, 29, 31,
58, 6061, 61, 62, 163, 165167,
203, 221, 245
British advertising agencies 227
British advertising (British cars)
39, 49, 107, 165166, 227
British cars 47, 49, 52, 58, 64, 125,
126, 199, 203, 204, 207, 222
British cars in America vii, 132,
135, 222223, 224225, 227,
227229, 229, 234
British imports of American cars
58, 60, 252n.32
British Leyland Motors Inc. 135
British Motor Corporation (BMC)
228
British motoring papers 223, 228
British motorists 58, 60, 163, 166
British road tests (American cars)
30, 37, 58, 82, 89, 214
Britishness, conceptions of 227
Broad Street 161
brochures (automotive) 2, 3
Brower, Charles 228
Brown, Mrs. Graham 121, 123
Browning, Bertie 222
Brunn (coachbuilder) 98
Bruno costume 150
Bryant, Lisa 245
Buck, Frank 121
Budd Company 129, 131
Buick (marque) 6, 13, 32, 237, 241
Buick (model names): Electra 225
C14, 27, 101102, 104, 131, 132,
195; Electra 225 Limited 121;
LaCrosse 245; LeSabre 78, 79,
242; Limited 9, 125, 126; Park
Avenue 242; Regal 242; Riviera
88, 131; Riviera Gran Sport 70,
70, 88; Roadmaster 63, 63, 132,
141, 141, 156, 157, 189, 190, 198;
Skylark C8, 13, 15, 41, 132, 195,
195; Skylark Custom 242; Skylark Sports Wagon 211; Special
215; Sportwagon 121, 123; Wildcat 70
Buick (model years): (1929) 32;
(1934) C1, 91, 91, 172, 173;
(1936) 85, 173174, 174; (1937)
125, 125; (1938) 9, 59, 60; (1939)
10, 146, 149, 149; (1940) 125, 126;
(1942 model shown) 140141,
141; (1945 advertisement) 140
141 141, 240; (1946) 6263, 63,
74, 141, 156, 157, 174; (1953) C8,
13, 15, 41, 63, 63, 127, 189, 190;
I NDEX
(1958) 34; (1961) 215; (1963)
101102, 104; (1964) 70, 78, 79;
(1965) 70, 70, 88, 131, 132;
(1966) 195; 1967 27; (1968) 121,
123, 195; (1969) C14; (1976) 132;
(1991 catalog date) 189; (1992
model year) 189; (1993) 198,
242; (200607) 245
Buick Circus Hour 127
Buick dealers 224, 225, 226
Buick Division of General Motors
31, 136, 139
built-in obsolescence 3940; see
also anti-obsolescence; dynamic
obsolescence; planned obsolescence
Burlington Zephyr 32, 33
Cadillac (marque) 4, 13, 16, 18, 19,
23, 27, 32, 44, 92, 98, 99101,
102, 104, 118, 132, 161, 179, 180,
182, 237, 241
Cadillac (model names): Coupe de
Ville 16, 24, 99, 100, 132; Eldorado 15, 17, 23, 24, 89, 102;
Eldorado Brougham 17; Escalade
244; Sedan de Ville 17; Series 62
Coupe 114; Sixty Special C12, 16,
16, 17, 23, 25, 100, 150151, 151;
SRX Crossover 244; V-12 Convertible Coupe C1; 355 Phaeton
132
Cadillac (model years): (1915) 118,
254n.35; (1930) 132; (1933) C1,
99, 132; (1941) 177; (1948) 17, 37,
49; (194852) 17; (1952) 16, 16,
99, 100, 100, 101, 150151, 151,
159; (1954) 44; (1955) 16, 16, 80,
99, 207; (1956) 99, 100, 207;
(1957) C12, 17, 91, 100, 101;
(1958) 17, 100; (1959) 17, 17, 100,
111, 114; (1960) 24; (1961) 23, 25,
25, 100, 103; (1962) 25, 100, 191;
(1963) 25, 25, 100, 103; (1964)
25, 100; (1965) 25, 49, 100;
(1966) 100, 115; (1967) 102;
(1971) 198; (1975) 132; (1976)
117, 118; (200607) 244
Cadillac Division of General
Motors 31, 80, 100
Calcutta 222
calendar and model years see
annual model change
California 83, 106, 119, 188, 217,
227, 241
Callum, Ian 253n.6
Campbell-Ewald Co. (agency) 99
Canada 62, 74, 132, 174, 221, 222,
230
Cape Town 222
Car and Driver 28
car buyers 1
car buyer, American 172
car design, American 80
car enthusiasts 2, 19, 249
car exports see exports, car
car hobbyists 223
car imports see imports, car
Car Life 28
car market, British 177
car rental companies 83
Car of the Year award 73
carbon-neutral crops 243
Cartier 23
cartoons see artwork in advertising: cartoons
catalog in miniature see layouts:
catalog in miniature
catalogs (automotive) 2, 18, 69,

78, 107, 146, 160, 193
CBS-TV 127
celebrity endorsements 90, 124
125, 127128, 151, 153, 243, 244,
252Pt.2n.9
Center for Creative Studies,
Detroit 28
Central Park, New York 229
Cerf, Bennett 127, 128
charity sales 247
Checker 57, 57, 74
Chevrolet (marque) 28, 32, 40,
4849, 57, 105, 107, 108, 115, 119,
121, 159, 161, 163, 165, 169, 170,
174, 179, 215, 222, 241
Chevrolet (model names):
Beauville 203, 204; Bel Air 18,
19, 19, 48, 48, 75, 78, 83, 150,
156, 170, 178, 185, 203, 204, 217;
Biscayne C13, 49, 217; Brookwood 156, 204, 206; Cadet 214;
Caprice C14, 57, 179, 180;
Caprice Classic 180, 181, 213;
Caprice Custom Coupe 158, 159;
Chevelle 186, 186, 208, 217;
Chevelle Malibu 131; Chevelle SS
396 C15; Chevy II 217, 217; Corvair (1954 show car) 217; Corvair (production car) 19, 68, 69,
133, 135, 179, 216, 217, 224, 230;
Corvair Monza 69, 135; Corvette
41, 201, 216, 217, 241; Delray
utility sedan 171; De Luxe sedan
170; De Luxe Sport Coupe 18,
170; Handyman 203; Impala 19,
25, 56, 115, 127, 131, 133, 179,
208, 209; Kingswood 156; Monte
Carlo 76, 79, 89; Nomad (1954
concept) 201, 203; Nomad (production car) 156, 201, 203; Styleline 179; Styleline DeLuxe 207;
Two-Ten 18, 48, 67, 78, 203;
Vega 28, 57, 79, 133, 220, 220
221, 235; Vega Kammback 220,
221
Chevrolet (model years): (1935)
61; (1936) 146, 147, 189, 191;
(1949) 207; (1952) 18, 48, 67, 74,
75, 170; (1953) 18, 41, 48, 48, 67,
74, 184, 185; (1954) 18, 48, 67,
74, 75, 78, 83, 184, 185, 201;
(1955) 18, 19, 48, 48, 49, 67, 78,
201; (1956) 19, 48, 49, 67, 85,
101, 102, 111, 150, 193, 194, 201,
203, 204; (1957) 17, 19, 49, 67,
67, 83, 101, 201, 241; (1958) C13,
17, 19, 49, 127, 128, 156, 156, 177,
195, 203; (1959) 17, 19, 19, 49,
177, 178, 203, 204, 206; (1960)
19, 68, 179, 217; (1961) 19, 179,
217; (1962) 68, 216, 217; (1963)
27, 179, 180, 217; (1964) 217;
(1965) 208, 209; (1966) 27, 56,
158, 159, 224; (1967) C14, 27,
179, 180; (1968) 241; (1970) C15,
79; (1971) 57, 220, 221; (1972)
131, 134; (1976) 28, 186, 186;
(1977) 180, 181, 213
Chicago 241
Chicago Tribune 240
children in advertising 23, 6970,
107, 108, 143, 146, 147, 153, 154,
156, 203, 204, 205, 206, 213,
229230
China 125
Chinese cars 245
Chippendale furniture 93
chorus girls 149

Christmas advertising 107108,
109, 140, 140, 166167
chroming, process of 17
Chrysler (marque) vii, 3, 4, 5, 8,
10, 13, 17, 49, 65, 241
Chrysler (model and design
names): Airflow 29, 30, 31, 32,
41, 90, 173, 189, 249; Airflow
Custom Imperial 53, 125, 127;
Aspen 244; C-200 41, 43; C-300
65; Concorde 241; Forward
Look 1, 44, 47, 83, 179; idea
cars 41, 43; Imperial 4, 8, 13, 41,
162; K-310 41, 43, 53; LHS 241;
New Yorker 19, 35, 44, 44, 45,
132, 177, 179, 241; New Yorker
Brougham 128; Phaeton 41, 43;
Sebring 243; Silver Anniversary
Model (1949) 41, 44; Town &
Country (steel-bodied) 204,
208, 208; Town & Country
(wood-bodied) 199, 200, 201;
Windsor 65, 85, 86, 177
Chrysler (model years): (1926) 4;
(1928) 61; (1931) 6; (1934) 29 30;
(1935) 29, 31; (1936) 90; (1937)
173; (193941) 65; (1941) 199;
(1949) 41, 44, 65, 193; (1950) 41,
44, 44; (1951) 41, 65; (1952) 41,
42, 43, 47; (1953) 44, 65; (1954)
19, 44, 65, 65; (1955) 19, 44, 45,
48, 65, 78; (1956) 44, 78, 78,
177; (1957) 44, 207; (1959) 65,
85, 86, 179, 179; (1960) 204, 207;
(1961) 207; (1968) 208, 208;
(1974) 132; (1976) 128; (1993)
241242; (200607) 243, 244,
245
Chrysler, Walter 105, 106
Chrysler Corporation 15, 31, 37,
40, 41, 42, 43, 46, 47, 52, 58, 65,
78, 90, 105, 115, 118, 121, 153,
157, 163, 171, 172173, 174, 176,
198, 198, 204, 207, 215, 217, 241,
242, 251n.7
Chrysler dealers 106
Chrysler in Britain 45, 6061
Circasian walnut 90
Citron (marque) 57, 131, 232
civilian car production 136
classicism, forms and expressions
of 228229
closed versus open bodies 172
Coates, George 222
Coca-Cola 223
colonial conditions 222
colonial markets 222
color drawings see drawings:
color
color photography see photographs, color
coke-bottle look 79
Columbia Network 125
Comet (196061 model years) 215;
see also Mercury (model
names): Comet (from 1962)
comfort (advertising theme) 172
181
commerciales 202
commercials, radio see radio
advertising
commercials, television see television advertising
compact cars 25, 28, 171, 214221
comparative advertising 105118
Compare All Three campaign
105110
261
comparison testing 115118; see
also comparative advertising
compression ratios 184185, 185
Comstock, Robert 189
Confessions of an Advertising Man
(Ogilvy) 228
Connecticut 5, 119
Continental (marque): Mark II
(195657) 15, 55, 98, 201; Mark
III (1958) 57, 195, 195
conspicuous reserve 241
consumer, identication with 3
consumer culture, American 79
consumer protection groups 217
consumer survey 242
continental kit 155
convenience features 2, 7480
convertible sedan C1
convertibles C1, C8
Cooper, Gary 124
copy: aspirational 15; factual 218
219; impressionistic 3; informal
185, 242; list-based 243; long
218219, 220, 243; minimal C8,
C9, C14, 97; styles of 47
copywriters 3, 19, 32, 44, 49, 67,
85, 89, 160, 181, 227
Cord (marque) 4
Corey, David A. 122
corporate advertising 41, 42, 43,
161, 162, 164, 171
corporate identity 4041
corporate images 41
Costain, Harold 6
country clubs 100
Country Life 252Pt.2n.2
Crawfords see W.S. Crawford Ltd.
(agency)
credit terms 182
Crocker, Dr. 228
Crosby, Bing 124125, 128
Crosley 214, 223
crossover vehicles 243
cruise control 179
Cubism 8
cultural homogeneity 79
cup holder, heated/cooled 243
custom bodies 31, 90, 98
Dagenham, England 165, 166
DaimlerChrysler 244, 245
Darrin, Howard (Dutch) 35
Datsun (marque) 220, 221, 225,
227, 235, 236, 237
Davison, Nurse Margaret W. 146
Daytona Beach 65
Daytona Speed Week 67
Dearborn, Michigan 166, 216
deception in advertising 3, 56
Dempsey, Jack 124
The Depression C1, 6, 8, 10, 15,
33, 40, 91, 97, 99, 167, 169, 220
design costs, reduction of 40
design ideals, futuristic 31
De Soto (marque) 13, 15, 27, 44,
65, 105, 124, 241
De Soto (model names): Airflow
90, 249; Coronado 151, 153, 153,
159; Custom 90; Explorer 203,
205; Firedome 153; Fireflite 46,
151, 152, 153, 159, 203, 205;
Firesweep 203; Sportsman 151,
153, 153
De Soto (model years): (193437)
29; (1936) 90; (1938) 125;
(193941) 65; (1942 model
shown) 127, 136, 137; (1945
advertisement) 127, 136, 137;
(1952) 42; (1953) 65, 74, 75;
262
(1955) 151, 152153, 153, 159;
(1957) 44, 46, 47, 65, 203; (1958)
65, 66, 67, 203, 205
De Soto dealers 106
De Soto-Plymouth dealers 127
detergents (advertising for) 191
Detroit, Michigan 17, 28, 31, 36,
39, 40, 193, 194, 223, 224, 225,
235, 239, 241, 245
Detroit Institute of Arts 249
Detroit Library 249
Detroit photographers 28
Detroit Three 244; see also Big
Three automakers
diagrams see artwork in advertising: diagrams
Diamond Chemicals 17
diesel engines see engines: diesel
Di-Noc (mock-wood trim) 207,
208
display les 249
DKW (marque) 224
Dodge (marque) 13, 15, 28, 44, 59,
65, 121, 131, 241
Dodge (model names): Aspen 186,
186, 213; Caliber 245; Charger
241; Coronet 115; Coronet 500
208; Dart 157, 207; Intrepid 242;
Lancer 215; Monaco 208; Ram
Mega Cab 244; Senior 61; Sierra
203
Dodge (model years): (1927) vii,
61; (1936) 121, 121, 124; (1939
41) 65; (1952) 42, 90; (1958)
203, 208; (1960) 204, 207; (1961)
215; (1962) 90; (1968) 208;
(1970) 241; (1977) 213; (1976)
186, 186, 188; (1993) 242; (2006
07) 244, 245
Dodge Brothers see Dodge
Dodge dealers 106
dogs in advertising 107, 108, 128,
143, 213, 245
Dohanos, Steven 5
door latch design 193
Dorland Advertising Ltd. 228
double-page spreads C14, 39, 68,
68, 243, 244
downsizing 7980, 181, 220221
Doyle Dane Bernbach (agency) 1,
185, 223, 223224
drawings: auxiliary 15, 16, 18, 33;
cartoon 107, 108, 142, 144, 220,
230, 235, 244245; color 16, 28,
216; cutaway 216; humorous 28,
57, 167, 220, 244245; line 33,
40, 167, 218219; miniature 7,
33, 75; pseudo-technical 18, 75;
semi-technical 242
dream-car look 44
dream cars 43, 50, 52, 76, 77; see
also Chrysler (model and design
names): idea cars
dressmaking, analogy with car
styling 41, 53, 54, 246
driving distances 172
driving postures, gendered 156,
157, 160
Dual 10 tires 191
Dubonnet suspension see suspensions: Knee Action
Duesenberg (marque) 4
Durbin, Deanna 124
Dynaflow see transmissions:
Dynaflow
dynamic impressionism, school of
illustration 45, 6, 61
I NDEX
dynamic obsolescence, philosophy
of design 3940, 92, 93; see also
anti-obsolescence; built-in
obsolescence; planned obsolescence
Earl, Harley 31, 37, 39, 40, 47, 48,
81
Earl Automobile Works 31
economic independence (female)
145, 157, 159160
economy see gas mileage
economy, American 40
economy cars 222
Edsel (marque) 34, 3435, 94,
177, 252Pt.2n.9
Edsel Division of Ford Motor
Company 34
education, level of 160
Edward VIII, King of England 125
effortless driving 79
El Morocco 1718
electric lamps 189
electric windows see power features (specic): windows
electrical devices 78; see also features (specic)
electronics-based features 243,
245
elitism, critique of advertising 8
elongator see artwork in advertising: elongation
emissions legislation 73, 188, 232
emotional appeals 150, 228
emulator-achievers 241; see also
VALS
emulators 241; see also VALS
endorsements see celebrity
endorsements
energy independence of U.S. 243
Engel, Elwood 52
engineering (as advertising theme)
1, 41, 81, 87, 104, 105106, 106,
116, 116, 118, 171, 237
engineers 31
engines: Blue Flame 67; diesel 41;
Dual-Jetre C10, 129; Dynaflash
10, 59; Econo-Master 59; Fire
Dome V-8 65; FirePower V-8
65; Golden Lion 65, 85; hemi
V-8 65; Hi-Fire V8 67; I-block
Six 76; Miracle H-Power 64;
overhead-cam 221; PowerFlow
67; Powerflyte 65, 74; Ram Air
73; Ramjet (fuel injection) 67;
rear engines 68, 230; Rocket 64,
85; six-cylinder 69; Starre V-8
70; Spitre 65; Super TurboFire V8 67; Supersonic Engine
200; Thunderbird Special V-8
194; Trophy V-8 71; Turbo-Fire
V8 67, 203; Turboflash V8 67;
valve-in-head 189; V-8 19, 20,
69, 73, 188, 200; V-12 13, 110;
Wildcat V-8 70; Y-block V-8 76
England 5, 30, 58, 60, 70, 228
Enos, Pat 119, 120
environmentalism 235, 243, 246
envy, incitement of 90
EPA ratings 186, 188
ergonomics 156, 157, 172
Erwin, Wasey and Company 174
escapism: 2, C10, 15, 79, 242, 243
Essex (marque) 60
ethanol, as fuel 243
ethics, sexual 83
euphoria (in advertising) 15, 82,
174, 227
Eurochic as design theme 37

Europe 3, 4, 29, 37, 61, 6263, 136,
140, 163, 172, 214, 215
European cars 39, 40, 57, 67, 71,
80, 89, 163, 172, 186, 198, 220,
221, 224, 241; see also imported
cars
European design 32, 35, 37, 40, 41,
130
European functionalism 35, 37,
39, 40
Evans, Gary 106, 106
evening dress see backdrops: evening dress
excitement factor 81
Exner, Virgil 35, 37, 41
Experience Run 216
exports, car: American 45, 29
30, 30, 39, 39, 222, 245, 252n.32;
British 222; Canadian 62
The Fader 244
fading, how to prevent 249
family cars 98; British 223, 224
225, 227, 228
Family Man (advertising archetype) 107, 146, 147, 157, 157
fantasy, automotive 2, 6, 34, 40,
58, 79, 80, 161
Farina, Pinin see Pinin Farina; see
also Pininfarina
farmers (American) 162
Farnham, conversion of Ford
Zephyr 204
Farynk, Walter 249
fashion models 19, 31, 45, 149,
149, 150, 150, 151, 153, 154, 155,
159, 159, 160, 175, 234, 245
features (general) 7480, 119; see
also electronics-based features;
power features (general); power
features (specic)
features (specic): adjustable
thermostat 174; air conditioning
94, 115, 174, 177, 177, 188, 229;
Air Cushion Tires 172; Airfoam
Seat Cushions 107, 174, 176; Airliner Reclining Seats C10, 177;
All-Weather Eye 17, 177; AutoPilot 179; Automatic Beam
Changer 78; Automatic Electric
Choke 74; Autronic Eye 78;
bucket seats 221; cab-forward
design 241; cassette deck 157;
Center-Point Steering 74; crash
padding 191, 193195; ColorMatched Two-Tone Interiors
74; compound windshield 78;
Cyclebonded Brake Linings 74;
Dash-Locking Safety Hood 189;
electric lamps 189; electric locks
157; electric windows 94; Fisher
Ventipanes 172, 173; Floating
Power 119; foam cushioned seats
177; Forward Look 1, 44, 47,
83, 179; 4-Way Power Seat 76;
4-wheel drive 211, 213; frontwheel drive 159, 159; Full Power
Steering 74; Girder-Guard frame
208; hazard warning flashers
157; headlight delay switch 116;
heavy-duty springs 70; Hoodmounted tach 73; Hypoid rear
axle 106; Ignition Key Starting
74, 108; Jumbo-Drum Brakes
74; Lifeguard Design (Ford)
192195; limited-slip differential
70; Magic Doorgate 211; Mirror-
Matic Electronic Mirror 78;

Morrokide 71; Multimedia Infotainment System 243; No Draft
Ventilation 172, 173; padded cell
191; padded dashboard 193, 195;
padded sun visors 193, 195;
padded windshield corner posts
198; Panoramic Roof 245;
Permi-Firm steering 74; plastic
window screens 177; pollen
lter 174; pop-out windshield
191, 193; Power Brakes 68, 74;
Power-Lift Windows 76; Power
Steering 68; PowerStyle 65;
Rally Pac 69; retracted steering
column 194; Royal-Tone Styling
74; Safety Convenience Panel
195, 196; Safety-Cushion
(Chrysler) 193; Safety-Cushion
Padded Instrument Panel
(Kaiser) 193; safety door locks
194; Safety-Girder frame 195;
safety glass 177; Safety Plate
Glass 189; Safety Power Steering
195; Safety-Steel body 106; seat
back latches 198; seat belt warning light 195; seat belts 193194,
195, 198; sequential turn signals
88; shatter-resistant rearview
mirror 193; silver key ring 180;
sliding roof 79; splash guards
78; stabilizer bar 70; steel-cage
construction 229; steel-truss
body frame 33, 189; StepOn
parking brake 74; stereo system
118; stereo tape 73; Super-Cushion Tires 174; Super-Scenic
Windshield 78; Supplemental
Inflatable Restraint System 189;
Swing-Away steering wheel 68;
Swivel Seats 78, 177, 179; Tiffany
clock 180181; Total-Contact
Brakes 78; Turret Top 32, 33,
106, 146, 147, 172, 189; Twin
Beds 83, 83, 177; Twin-Tower
tail lights 78; Waterproof Ignition System 74; Weather Eye C5,
15, 82, 174, 175; under-floor
stowage compartment 208; Unibody Construction 207; zippered storage pouches 181
female-oriented publications 19,
245
feminized copy 150151, 153
Ferrari 48
Fiat advertising 4
The Field 165
The Film Society, London 61
lm stars 90
ne cars 13
ns, danger to pedestrians 189, 191
remen (in advertising) 67
Fisher, Lawrence P. 31
Fisher Body (Division of General
Motors) 32, 106, 136, 139, 146,
147, 149, 149, 161, 172, 173, 189,
225
Fisher Body Craftsmans Guild
138
Fitzpatrick, Arthur C8, C13, 13,
26, 28, 72, 249
flea markets 247, 249
Florida 131, 133
Fluid Drive see transmissions:
Fluid Drive
foam/sponge rubber, use of 191,
193195
Fogarty, Anne 151, 153
I NDEX
Foote, Cone & Belding 34
Forbes magazine 246
Ford (Australia) 187
Ford, Edsel 163
Ford, Henry 161, 162, 167
Ford, Henry II 225226
Ford (England) (model names):
Consul Mk 1 76, 214; Consul
Cortina Super 207; Eight 163,
165, 166; Model C 166; Model Y
165, 166; Model 62 165166, 166,
167, 200201; Ten 163; Squire
207; Utility Car 165; V-8 30
163, 165, 166, 166, 167, 199; V-8
22 49, 163, 165166, 166, 167,
200201; V-8 Pilot 167; Zephyr
Mk 1 76, 214; Zephyr Mk II 204;
Zodiac Mk II 52
Ford (France) Vedette 214
Ford (U.S.) (marque) vii, 56, 28,
67, 68, 107, 108, 111, 115, 119, 161,
169, 172, 174, 199, 207, 215, 217
Ford (U.S.) (model names):
Country Squire 211; Crestline
76, 157, 157; Custom Ranch
Wagon 203; DeLuxe 15; Escape
244; Expedition 244; Fairlane
49, 69, 69, 71, 83, 84, 153, 194,
203; Fairlane Victoria hardtop
193; Fairlane Fordor Victoria 192
194; Fairlane GTA 71; Falcon 68,
69, 69, 215, 216, 217, 227; Falcon
Futura 68; Fordor 142; Galaxie
25, 69, 69, 83, 115; Galaxie 500
70, 179, 228; Granada ESS 238,
239; Granada Sports Coupe 239;
LTD 179180, 228; Model A 3, 8,
57, 132, 163, 221; Model B 8, 163;
Model T 105, 129, 131, 163, 165,
221; Model 48 vii, C3; Model 68
145, 151, 165, 166, 167; Model 78
8, 165, 166, 167; Model 81A 15,
167 168, 182; Model 91A 165,
167, 167; Mustang 69, 69, 70, 73,
88, 159, 241; Parklane 203, 204;
Pinto 132, 221; Sunliner 49, 76,
83, 84, 153, 203; Sports Hardtop
69, 69; Sportsman 199; Station
Wagon 211; Taurus 242; Thunderbird 3, 23, 23, 26, 27, 28, 41,
49, 68, 68, 79, 85, 87, 87, 88, 88,
89, 132, 159, 195, 196, 242;
Tudor 6, 78, 142, 143; V-8 vii,
C3, 6, 8, 8, 15, 67, 143, 145, 151,
163, 165167, 168, 169, 182, 199
Ford (U.S.) (model years): (1931)
3; (1932) 163; (1935) vii, C3;
(1936) 145146, 151, 189; (1937)
8; (1938) 15, 182; (1941) 167;
(1942) 143; (194548) C7, 1, 141,
142143, 143144; (1946) 142
143, 143144, 174; (1947) 78;
(1948) 199, 239, 247; (1949) 35,
144, 174, 247; (1950) 144; (1952)
48, 76; (1954) 67, 76, 157, 157;
(1955) 41, 4849; (1956) 67, 84,
192, 193, 193195, 198, 203, 204;
(1957) 78, 83, 84, 204; (1958)
68; (1959) 23, 68, 242; (1960)
68, 68, 85, 207, 215, 216; (1961)
68, 85, 207; (1962) 85, 87;
(196264) 27, 27, 69, 69; (1963)
28, 87, 87, 88, 227; (1964) 23,
69, 69, 8788; (1965) 88, 179
180, 228, 241; (1966) 115, 179
180, 195, 196, 211; (1967) 78, 88,
210, 211; (1969) 3, 79; (196971)
89; (1972) 88, 89, 221; (1974)
132; (1976) 89; (1978) 238, 239;

(1993) 242; (200607) 244
Ford dealers 83, 84, 167, 194, 195,
216
Ford Division of Ford Motor
Company 194, 214
Ford Motor Company (England)
203, 214, 227
Ford Motor Company (U.S.) 5, 15,
16, 27, 31, 40, 41, 59, 63, 105,
106, 121, 172, 182, 194, 195, 203,
251n.7
Ford in Your Future campaign
C7, 1, 141, 142143, 143144,
200, 240
Ford maps 167
Ford musical program 127
Ford precision gauges 165, 167
Ford promotional lm 195
Ford salesmen 195
The Ford Show 127
Ford showrooms 193
Ford Theater 127
Ford trucks 141, 143
form versus function (debate) 29
31, 41
Fortune magazine C2
Forward Look see features
(specic): Forward Look
four-wheel drive 211, 211, 213
framing advertisements 247
France 57, 129
Frazer, Joseph W. 215
Frazer (marque) 16, 35, 49, 49, 63,
200, 201, 202, 213
French pleating 90
Frensham, conversion of Ford
Zephyr 204
Freudians C9
Frigidaire 41
fuel availability 79
fuel-cell cars 243
fuel consumption see gas mileage
fuel crisis 1, 36, 118, 237
fuel economy see gas mileage
fuel injection 67
fuel prices see gas prices
fuel sales restrictions 185
fuel shortages 36
functionalism, ethic of design 1,
37, 40, 41, 44, 57, 80, 118, 201
functionalism in advertising 92,
104, 110, 118, 242243
gadget demonstrator, woman as
156157, 157, 159
gadgets 7480, 156157, 241
gas mileage 4, 181, 182188, 215,
216, 220, 235, 237, 237
gas prices 185, 221, 244
gearshifts 15, 59, 62, 6364, 65;
see also transmissions
General Motors (cars) vii, 13, 23,
49, 71, 174, 177, 242
General Motors Corporation
(GM) 18, 31, 32, 40, 41, 47, 63,
64, 69, 70, 78, 96, 106, 118, 125,
127, 136, 145, 161, 162, 172, 179,
189, 194, 195, 203, 204, 215, 216,
217, 223, 224, 243
General Motors in Britain 64
General Motors Overseas Operations 223
General Motors proving ground
161
General Motors subsidiaries see
Opel; Vauxhall
General Tire and Rubber Co. 223
General tires C6, 107, 149, 150,

191, 199, 200
Geo Prism 242
Germany 13, 64, 136, 225, 251n.1;
see also West Germany
Getchell, J. Stirling 1, 105, 106,
169, 243
Ghia, coachbuilder 41
GI brides 151
Gilbert Advertising Agency 230
Gilmore-Yosemite Sweepstakes
182
Global Insight 245
global warming 243
good taste, conceptions of 93,
96; see also taste as social
signier
Goodrich Tires 124, 124
Goodyear Tires 191, 193, 195, 195
graphic arts 1
graphics see artwork in advertising
green advertising 243
Gregorie, Eugene 29
Grey Advertising (agency) 221
Grizzly, cartoon bear 192, 194
Groton school 228
ground clearance 222
guard books (agency) 249
Haefner, Rolf 220
Hahn, Dr. Carl Horst 224
Hambro Automotive Corporation
223
handling 20
hardtop sedan styling 222
HAT Archive vii
Havinden, Ashley 5, 6061
heaters, car C5, 81, 82, 156, 157
Henry I, King of England 165
Henry J 214, 215
Hertz 83, 127, 128
Hess, Alan 222
Hess & Eisenhardt 207
High Holborn, London 60
high schools 198
Hillman (marque) 39, 222, 227
Hindustan Ambassador 222
Hinkley, Miss C. Eleanor 146, 148,
242
historians, future 249
historic car ads 247
History of Advertising Trust vii
Honda (marque) 181, 235, 237,
237, 243, 244
Hope, Bob 124
Hopkins, Claude 228
Horn, Huston 224
horsepower race 63, 66, 177
horsepower tax (British) 165, 166,
167
Hot Rod 28
House and Garden 8
House of Representatives 194
Hoving, Walter 181
Hower, Miss Beth 119
Howser, Dorsey-Gay 242
Hudson (marque) 4, 13, 53, 60,
74, 177, 241
Hudson (model and design
names): Eight 169; Hornet 47,
47, 48, 64; Jet 214, 215; Six
Touring Sedan 15, 58, 60; Stepdown styling 47; Terraplane
vii, 60, 61; Wasp 47, 47
Hudson (model years): (1934)
169; (1938) vii, 61; (1939) 15, 58,
60, 189; (1948) 47; (1951) 63;
263
(1952) 47, 47, 48, 64; (1953) 214;
(1954) 214
Humber (marque) 39, 204, 223
224
Hummer (marque) 244
humor in advertising 28, 56, 82,
220, 220, 245
Hundred-Million-Dollar Look
(Chrysler) 41, 45
Hupmobile (marque) 4, 31
hybrid cars 243, 244
Hydra-Matic see transmissions:
Hydra-Matic
hydrogen bomb 64
Hyundai (marque) 243
Iacocca, Lee 195
The Ice Follies 224
idea cars (Chrysler) 41, 43
The Illustrated London News 165
illustration, styles of 328
illustrious clients in advertising
125, 125
impartiality in advertising 3
Imperial (marque) 179, 239; see
also Chrysler (model names):
Imperial
Imperial (model names): Crown
115; Custom 54; Le Baron 115,
116, 116
Imperial (model years): (1955) 65;
(1960) 53, 54; (1961) 54; (1962)
115, 115; (1963) 115, 116; (1964)
52; (1969) 116, 116, 118; (1975)
118; (1981) 118; (1983) 118
import boom 223
import buyers, characteristics of
224, 227
import sales, annual 223
import values 80, 102, 104, 235,
237, 245
imported cars 2, 57, 80, 89, 102,
104, 213, 216, 218219, 221, 222
239, 245
imports, car: British 132, 135
impressionism 3, 5; dynamic 45
In Style 245
independent automakers 47,
169, 214, 251n.7
India 222
Indian cars 222, 245
Indianapolis 65
individualism see advertising
themes: individualism
indoor color photography C2, 82
industrial design 33, 34, 39
industrial relations 16, 221
Inniti (marque) 244
Institution of Automobile Engineers 252Pt.3n.6
insurance companies 70
intellectual property (in automotive design) 245
Intercontinental Ballistic Missile
35
interior space 30
international advertising 5
International Harvester Company
211, 213
International Travelall 211, 213
internationalism in advertising
245
Internet 247, 249
intrinsic excellence, invocation of
92
investment, advertisements as 249
Issigonis, (Sir) Alec 227
Italian advertising 4, 39, 215
264
Italian Alps 37
Italy 37, 39, 41
J. Stirling Getchell (agency) 1, 105,
106, 169, 243
J. Walter Thompson (agency) C7,
1, 105, 141, 179, 193, 194
Jaguar 223, 241, 243, 245, 253n.6
Japan 125
Japanese cars C15, 1, 221, 222, 225,
235237, 239, 241, 242, 243,
244, 245
Japanese roads 225
Jeavons, Ronald 222
Jeep (army) 211
Jeep (marque) 244, 251n.26
Jeep Wagoneer 211, 211, 213,
251n.26
Jeepster 211
jet propulsion 34
jewelry, use of C12
Jones, Jack 128
Joneses, keeping up with 101, 102,
157
Jordan, Edward (Ned) 71, 81, 228,
246
Jordan automobiles 1, 82,
252Pt.2n.1
Juba 222
judgment as social signier 92
Judkins (coachbuilder) 98
junk stalls 247
Kaiser, Henry J. 214
Kaiser (marque) 35, 49, 74, 193,
200, 214
Kaiser-Darrin 161 41
Kaiser-Frazer Corporation 49,
200, 215
Kaiser Jeep Corporation 211, 211
Kaufman, Van C13, 26, 28, 72,
249
Keller, K.T. 41
Kensington, Maryland 191
Kew, west of London 60
Kia (marque) 245
Klocker, Carl L. 122, 221
Knee Action suspension see
suspensions: Knee Action
knocking copy 105, 115
Kona Kai Club 83
Korean cars 243, 245
Kowalski, Edward and Roman 140
Kudner, Arthur 174
The Ladies Home Journal 145, 150
language, informal 185, 242
LaSalle (marque) 5, 32, 131, 161
layouts (general) 2, 3, 19, 27, 242
layouts (specic types): angled
block C5, 7, 8, 15, 19; asymmetrical 8, 10, 60; catalog in miniature 12, 15; convergence of in
1960s; diagonal C5, 7, 8; double-page spread C14, 39, 68, 68,
243, 244; multiple diagrams 15,
18, 19; multiple paintings C5, 7,
192, 203, 204; multiple photographs 12, 20, 38, 163, 177, 211,
234, 238; neo-minimalistic 15,
28; newsprint 106, 107, 107; picture story 94, 107, 108, 199; segregated photograph/headline/
copy 21
learner drivers 121
leasing of new cars 242
Le Baron (coachbuilder) 98, 127
Lecat, Walt 127, 128
I NDEX
legislation: anti-emissions 73,
232; lemon laws 189; recall
189; gas mileage 185; safety 195,
232; side-impact protection 198;
see also p. 217 (Chevrolet Corvair)
Le Mans 129
lemon laws 189
Lendrum & Hartman (GM
importer in Britain) 252n.32
leisure goods (non-automotive)
108
Lever House, New York 98
Lexus (marque) 241
Liberator bomber 136, 139
life assurance (advertising for) 191
Lifeguard campaign (Ford) 192,
193, 193195
Lifeguard tires (Goodyear) 191
light cars 14
Lilliput 216
Lincoln (marque) vii, 3, 4, 13, 25,
44, 49, 92, 94, 9697, 9697,
9899, 99, 110, 118, 179, 237; see
also Continental (marque)
Lincoln (model names):
Brougham 98; Capri 21, 49, 97,
127; Continental (194048) C8,
15, 97, 98; Continental (1958):
see Continental (marque); Continental Mark IV (1959) 57;
Continental Mark V (1960) 57;
Continental (196167) 52, 52,
53, 57, 88, 230, 237; Continental
Mark III (1968) 55, 57, 195;
Continental (1978) 239; Cosmopolitan 98; Futura 50, 52;
Mk X and Mk Z 244; Model K
(V-12) 98; Navigator 244; Premiere 49, 50, 51, 113; Two-Window Town Sedan 96, 97; Versailles C16; Zephyr C4, C16, 6,
11, 13, 15, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 58,
59, 59, 98, 110, 149, 163, 182,
189, 247, 248
Lincoln (model years): (1926) 96,
96; (1927) 96; (1930) 96; (1931)
96; (1934) 96; (1935) 97, 98;
(1936) 247; (1937) C4, 11, 13, 32,
33, 110, 182; (1938) 13, 58, 59,
9798, 182, 248; (1939) 29, 30,
32, 33; (1940) 98; (194648) C8,
15, 97, 98, 247; (1949) 98; (1952)
49, 63, 97, 98; (1954) 44; (1955)
17, 19, 21, 49, 67, 127; (1956) 49,
50; (1957) 50, 51, 52, 111, 113;
(1958) 128; (1959) 57; (1960) 57;
(1961) 52, 52, 99, 230; (1962) 52;
(1965) 52, 53, 57; (1967) 99, 99;
(1968) 55, 57; (1972) 89; (1977)
C16; (1978) 239; (200607) 244
Lincoln Cars Ltd. (England) 70
Lockheed P-38 Lightning 49
locomotives 240
Loewy, Raymond 31, 3536, 37,
40, 47, 52; see also Raymond
Loewy Associates (U.S.)
Loewy Studebakers see Studebaker: Loewy models
London 60, 61, 62, 126, 165, 222,
252Pt.3n.6
London-to-Lands End Trial 135
Long Island 199
Los Angeles 225
low-priced marques 10, 12
luxury cars C14, 25, 80, 118, 222,
239; European 104, 125, 126, 165,
227, 239
M-18 Hellcat tank 136, 139

macho-metallic colors 244
MacPherson, Earle S. 214
magazine advertising 15, 179
magazine originals of advertisements 247, 249
magazines: American 145; British
165167
mail order (ad purchase) 247
male benefactor (advertising
archetype) 146, 147, 152, 156,
158
manufacturers, European 39, 131
manufacturing process 105106,
106, 162, 162
market sectors, cross-fertilization
between 227
Marie Claire 245
Marmon (marque) 4, 10
marque advertising 41
marque boundaries 28
marque heritage 129, 211, 211, 213
marque identity 15, 16, 4041
marque images 167
marque loyalty 117, 161
Martineau, Pierre 240
mass production 162
Marco Polo C1
Maryland 121, 191
Maryville, Montana 146
Marx, Groucho 127
mass-production technology 125
Mayhew, Marce 132
Max, Peter 235
McGuire, Mickey 249
McKnight Kauffer, Edward 61
McManus, Theodore F. 228
McNamara, Robert 194
Meade, Julia 127
Meadow Brook Polo Club 199, 201
mechanical features C1
mechanical improvements 2
Medallion Theatre 127
Mercedes-Benz (marque) 37, 224,
225, 229, 238, 239, 241, 243
Mercury (marque) vii, 5, 13, 59,
110, 169, 172, 207
Mercury (model names): Capri
160; Colony Park 207, 208;
Comet (from 1962) 215; Cougar
88, 88, 159; Cougar XR-7 88; 8
(Eight) 6, 8, 15, 60; Mariner
245; Milan 245; Monterey 20,
76, 110, 112; Park Lane 208; Sable
242; Sportsman 199; Station
Wagon 199; Sun Valley 76, 77,
78, 110, 112; see also Comet
(196061 model years)
Mercury (model years): (1939)
56, 8, 15, 5960; (1946) 146,
159; (1947) 199; (1949) 241;
(1952) 151; (1954) 19, 20, 76, 77,
110111; (1955) 78, 111; (1956)
194; (1957) 78; (1958) 177;
(1960) see Comet (196061
model years); (1962) 215; (1964)
207, 208; (1965) 208; (1967) 211;
(1968) 208; (1991) 160; (1993)
242; (200607) 243, 245
Mercury dealers 110, 112
metallic paint 17, 19
Mexico 67
Meyers, William 241
MG (marque) vii, 132, 135, 222
223, 225, 227, 227, 234,
252Pt.2n.10
Miami, Florida 131, 133
middle-class automobiles 10, 11, 13
Middle East 243

middle-priced marques 4, 12, 13
Middlesex, England 70
Milan, Italy 39
military production 136, 138139
military vehicles 62
Mills, G.H. Saxon (Bingy) 45
minimalism see artwork in advertising: minimalism
minivans 243
Minneapolis 251n.26
Mobilgas Grand Canyon Run 184
mock-wood trim 207208, 208,
210, 212, 235
model and calendar years see
annual model change
modern period in automobile
advertising 12
Modernism C4
Moholy-Nagy, Lszl 60
Monaco 69
monochrome advertisements 6
Montana 146
Monte Carlo (location) 87
Morris (marque) 131, 208, 222,
223, 227
MoToR 30
Motor Life 252n.14
motor shows 3
Motor Trend 28, 73, 237, 239
muscle cars C15, 28, 57, 251n.13
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 249
museums 249
Music for Modern Americans 198,
198
My Life and Work (Ford) 161
Nader, Ralph 135, 189, 191, 194
195, 217, 229
Nairobi 222
Napoleonic coach 138
NASCAR 67, 245
Nash (marque) 13, 63, 65, 177, 241
Nash (model names): Airflyte 15,
65, 74, 83, 174; Ambassador 82
83, 99, 15, 177; Ambassador
Country Club C10, 39, 83, 129,
130; Ambassador Six 140; Rambler 108, 128, 177, 199; Statesman 129, 131, 177; Suburban 199;
600 140
Nash (model years): (1934) 4, 91,
91; (1938) 174; (1939) 5, 7, 15,
8182, 83; (1940) C5, 5, 82, 174,
175; (1942) 140; (1945) 138, 140;
(1950) 199, 214; (1951) 214;
(1952) 37, 99, 151, 214; (1953)
C10, 19, 37, 83, 83, 128, 129, 130,
131, 214, 242; (1954) 19, 37, 174,
177, 177, 214; (1956) 19, 214
Nash-Healey 130
National Automobile Dealers
Association 227
National Geographic C15, 2, 247,
251n.9
National Highway Trafc Safety
Administration 217
National Motor Museum
(England) vii
NBC Network 127
NBC-TV 127
need-directed (VALS group) 241;
see also VALS
negative appeals 92
Nelson, Barry and Cynthia 242
Nelsons column, London 126
new car market, fragmentation of
2, 28, 41, 7980, 217, 241, 243
I NDEX
new cars, postwar shortage of 110
New England 83, 84
New Jersey 220
New Mexico 132
New York (City) C16, 11, 13, 33,
41, 57, 98, 121, 156, 223, 228, 229
New York dockers 41
New York Worlds Fair 33
The New Yorker 243
Newark, New Jersey 220
newspaper advertising 2, 5, 10, 15,
32, 33, 179, 248, 249
newsprint, limitations of 5, 10
Newsweek 234
Niangara 222
niche boundaries 28
niche marketing 71
Nissan (marque) 225, 244; see also
Datsun
Normandy 136
North America 243
North Carolina 83
Northern California 241
Northmore, Jimmy 249
nostalgia 128, 129135, 189
nostalgia dealers 249
nostalgists 3
Nufeld Organization 223
Nrburgring 237
N.W. Ayer & Son (agency) C3, 15,
41, 42, 43, 140, 145, 163, 165
Oakland, California 119
objectivity factor 119128
obsolescence see anti-obsolescence; built-in obsolescence;
dynamic obsolescence; planned
obsolescence
occupations in advertisements:
aerospace technician 242; aircraft engineer 119; architect 115;
author 128; banker 116; baseball
team 203, 204; buffalo rancher
121; businessman 116; canoeist
242; celebrity 124125, 127128;
chorus girl C6, 149, 150; civil
dignitary 125; columnist 128;
commuter 200; director, public
school bands 119; doctor 115,
116; engineer 119; estate owner
200; executive 239; explorer 121;
farmer 167, 200, 252Pt.3n.5;
fashion designer 151, 153; lm
star 124; nancier 239; reghter 119; homemaker 242;
hotel engineer 121; interior decorator (as hobby) 119; jazz
musician 244; lawyer 116, 239;
manufacturer 121; marksman
121; mechanic 121; military dignitary 125; naval reghter 121;
nurse 146; painter 128; pilot 230;
police ofcer 119, 120; professional man 200; property tax
analyst 242; publisher 128; real
estate investment counselor 121;
retired military 242; Service
personnel 149; small businessman 119, 213; sportscaster 121;
sportsman 243; store manager
242; technician 200; U.S. Coast
Guard 121, 122; writer 124, 124
off-road vehicles see SUVs
Ogilvy, David 1, 82, 228229
Ogilvy, Benson & Mather (agency)
228, 229
oil crisis 185
oil supply 185, 243
old cars, use of in advertising 132,

133, 135
Oldsmobile (marque) 5, 13, 32,
40, 59, 149
Oldsmobile (model names):
Achieva 242; Cutlass Supreme
81, 82, 242; F-85 215; Regency
180181; Starre 70, 70; Toronado 159, 159, 160; Vista-Cruiser
211, 213; 60 6, 59, 169, 169,
182, 183; 70/80 5, 169; 88
C9, 64, 64, 242; 98 64, 85,
127, 128, 180181
Oldsmobile (model years): (1936)
172; (1937) 62; (1938) 62; (1939)
4, 5, 6, 59, 125, 169, 169, 182,
183; (1940) 62, 63; (1941) 6364;
(1950) C9, 64, 64, 85; (1951) C9,
64; (1958) 195; (1961) 215;
(1964) 70, 70, 211; (1965) 70,
211; (1967) 159, 159, 160; (1970)
81, 82; (1972) 180181; (1973)
181; (1976) 127, 128; (1993) 242
Olley, Maurice 252Pt.3n.6
one-upmanship 101, 102
OPEC 185
Opel (GM marque) 214, 224225,
226
open cars 172
optional extras 78
ordinary-user testimonials 15, 58,
106, 106, 119123, 146, 148, 167,
220, 242, 243, 252Pt.3n.5
originality, as advertising claim
102, 104
ostentation, rejection of 104
Packard 4, 13, 9293, 93, 94, 97,
149, 182, 241, 252Pt.2n.6
Packard (model names):
Caribbean 41; Clipper 216; Convertible Victoria 94; Eight 92
93, 93; One-Twenty 94; Six 94;
Station Sedan 199
Packard (model years): (1925) 92
93, 93, 94; (1926) 93, 93; (1938)
94, 99; (1940) 177; (1941) 94;
(1953) 41; (1955) 177; (1956) 40,
177; (1957) 216; (1958) 94, 95,
224
Packard, Vance 57, 100, 221, 240
241
Packardbakers 95, 224
Paige (marque) 145, 146
Paige-Jewett (marque) 145
paint colors: macho-metallic 244;
norm in 149
paintings, use of 16, 26, 27, 2728
Pan-American road race 67
Panhard Dynamic 4
panoramic windshields 222
parents (in advertising) 83
Paris 41
parking, ease of 159
patent medicines (advertising for)
191
patina of age 247
Peacock, F.H., Ltd. 165
Pearl Harbor 125
pencil sharpeners 29
Pentastar (Chrysler) 198
performance (advertising theme)
5873
personal cars 23, 23, 68, 68, 79,
79, 85, 88
personal experience, appeals to
32, 33
personal-luxury cars 28, 157
personal reputation in advertising

162
Philadelphia 129, 195
photocopies, color 247, 249
photographers 19, 28, 106, 107
photographic realism 4, 6, 10, 27,
106, 106107, 107
photographic techniques: cove
construction 28; liquid light 28;
lenses, anamorphic 28; lenses,
uses of 28; lenses, wide-angle
28; mesh screens 28; motion
mechanisms 28; sandbags, use
of 35; stretch effect C14, 28; tent
lighting 28
photographs: airbrushed 10, 34,
183; angles chosen 4, 10; antirealistic 10; atmospheric 23, 228;
black and white 4, 6, 41, 42, 43,
107, 107, 243, 248; captioned 15,
161, 163; close-up 27, 173, 244;
color, use of 3, 5, 14, 19, 28, 27,
32, 35, 36, 149, 150, 169, 235;
composition of 6; dark colors,
use of 15, 237; elongated: see
stretched, below; and artwork in
advertising: elongation; engine
parts, photographs of 230;
female-oriented advertising,
for 19; freeze-frame 198;
ground-level 5, 6, 10; half-tone
5; indoor C2; low light 28;
miniature 16; monochrome:
see black and white above;
motion mechanisms 28; motion
shots 243; multiple 12, 20, 38,
163, 177, 211, 234, 238; naturalistic 15, 27; night-time 173;
realistic 9, 14, 27, 27, 169, 183;
retouched/touched up 16;
rotogravure 248; sepia-tinted
132; static 61; stretched C14, 28;
studio C1, 19, 205, 211; threequarter view 5; wide-angle 6, 10,
10, 28
photography, automotive C1, C2,
C14, C15, C16, 1, 3, 5, 2728,
242
photography versus artwork see
artwork in advertising: versus
photography
picture stories see artwork in
advertising: picture stories
Pierce-Arrow (marque) C2, vii,
228
Pierce-Arrow Society vii
Pierini, Mrs. Rose 217
Pikes Peak 67
Pinin Farina 37, 39, 129, 130
Pininfarina 227
Pitt, Mrs. William 119
planned obsolescence 3940, 221,
251n.26; see also anti-obsolescence; built-in obsolescence;
dynamic obsolescence
Plexiglas 76, 77
Plymouth (marque) 1, 15, 28, 41,
44, 105110, 115, 116, 118, 119
121, 125, 144, 163, 165, 169, 174,
182, 222, 241
Plymouth (model names):
Belvedere C11, 101, 102, 111, 170;
DeLuxe 199; Savoy 199200, 201
201; Special DeLuxe 199200,
201; Sport Suburban 213; Station
Wagon 110, 199200, 201; Suburban 157; Valiant (from 1961)
102, 104, 104, 115, 215, 217, 218
265
219, 220; Volar 211, 213; see also
Valiant (1960 model year)
Plymouth (model years): (1928)
105; (1929) 105; (1932) 105;
(1933) 105; (1934) 105106, 106;
(1935) 119, 172173, 173; (1936)
106, 106, 119, 120, 162, 189;
(1937) 106, 107, 119, 146, 148,
242; (1938) 12, 15, 106, 161, 163;
(1939) 4, 5, 59, 106107, 125;
(1940) 107; (1942) 102; (1945)
140; (1948) 174, 176, 245; (1949
[48 carryover]) 107, 109; (1949
new style) 41, 108, 110, 176,
199200, 201; (1950) 107108,
169, 170; (1952) 42, 48; (1953)
101, 102, 199200, 201; (1954)
C11, 127, 170, 170171; (1956) 44,
67, 110, 111, 153, 154; (1957) 47,
67, 83; (1960) 204, 207, 213;
(1967) 102, 104, 104, 217,
218219, 220; (1978) 212, 213
Plymouth Binder Twine 162
Plymouth Quality Chart 107
plywood paneling 199, 201
Poiret gowns 93
pollution 79
Pontiac (marque) 27, 28, 32, 59,
241
Pontiac (model and design
names): Bonneville 26, 27, 131,
133; Catalina 22, 201; Eight 32,
33; Executive 208; Firebird 27,
72, 73; Formula Firebird 73,
186, 188; Grand Prix C13; GTO
27, 71, 71, 73, 159; G5 244; G6
245; Safari 201; Solstice 245;
Sprint 71; Star Chief 153, 155;
Tempest 27, 71, 215; Tempest Le
Mans 71; Torrent 245; Wide
Track 26, 27, 28, 47, 73; 860
Series 47; 870 Series 22, 23
Pontiac (model years): (1936) 47;
(1937) 32, 33; (1950) 47; (1955)
19, 22, 23, 201; (1956) 23, 47,
153, 155; (1957) 27; (1959) 27,
47; (1960) 26; (1961) 215; (1964)
C13, 71; (1965) 71, 71; (1966) 71;
(1967) 71, 208; (1968) 72, 131,
133, 195; (1976) 73, 186, 188;
(200607) 245
Pontiac dealers 224, 225, 226
Pontiac Division of GM vii
popular taste 31
Porsche (marque) 230, 233, 245
post-gasoline era 245
poster in miniature C14
power features (general) 17, 19,
74, 76, 78, 159, 174
power features (specic): brakes
68, 74, 76, 78, 156157, 157, 159,
189; gear shifting: see transmissions; seats 74, 76, 78, 156157,
157; steering C10, 68, 74, 76, 78,
156, 159, 195; windows 74, 76,
78, 94, 156157, 157
practical aspects of car ownership
2, 161239
practicality see advertising
themes: practicality
press advertisements 2
prestige cars 104
printing, newspaper 5, 10
printing techniques 28
production engineers 32
professional classes 101, 237, 239
professional publications 249
progress, belief in 29, 240
266
progressivist myth 8
promotional lm 195
psychographics 221, 241
Punch 165
quality control 16, 27, 27, 40, 162,
212, 230, 235, 242
radio advertising 90, 125, 127, 179
radio, domestic 125, 127
Railton (marque) 60
Rambler (marque) 74, 111 121,
122, 220, 221, 242; see also Nash
(model names): Rambler;
American Motors Corporation
(AMC)
Rambler (model names): American 214; American 220 sedan 220;
Classic 122; Classic 770 122, 221
Rambler (model years): (1958)
220; (195860) 214; (196163)
214; (196365) 121, 122, 220;
(1965) 111, 115
Rambler Motors (AMC) Ltd.,
London 221
range advertising 19
rationality, appeals to 13, 58, 59,
111, 182, 183, 251n.6
rationality as social signier 92
Rauhauser, Bill 28
Raymond Loewy Associates (U.S.)
35
Raymond Loewy Associates (London studios) 39
Reach, McClinton & Co. (agency)
252Pt.2n.10
Read, Herbert 29
realism in advertising 2, 6, 10, 18,
19, 27
rear engines 68
recall procedures 189
recession (1990s) 2, 243
reclining seats C10
refrigeration see features
(specic): air conditioning
refrigerators 29, 41
reliability (as advertising theme)
96, 162, 220, 229
Renault (marque) 229230, 230
repeat purchase 92
research organizations 249
rigidity 30
Rittenhouse Square 98
road testers 58, 8384, 89, 214,
228
Roche, James 179
rocket imagery 34, 64, 64, 68; see
also artwork in advertising:
rockets
Rockwell, Norman 107, 128
Rogers, Ginger 124
Rolls-Royce (marque) 1, 5, 115,
125, 126, 179180, 199, 228229
Roman columns (in backdrops)
17
romance (as advertising theme)
23, 89
romantic ction, style of copy 89
The Rootes Group 39, 204
Round Australia Rally 225
Rover (marque) 39, 229
The Roverbaker 39
Rue de la Paix 145
rural communities 160
rural motoring 146
Russia 34, 35
Russian advertising 245
Russian experimental graphics 61
I NDEX
Saab (marque) 244
Sabrina MG bumper guards 132
Sacco, Bruno 3637
safety (as advertising theme) 32,
67, 72, 145, 146, 189198, 229,
242, 243
safety (general) 79, 145, 189198,
229; see also p. 217 (Chevrolet
Corvair)
safety belts see seat belts
safety features 72, 73, 229, 242
Sahara desert 222
sales/leisure complex 215
San Diego 83
San Francisco 180
sandbags, lowering device 35
Saturday Evening Post 31, 49, 81,
90, 125, 253n.33
Saturn (marque) 242, 243
Sauerbrey, P.C. 162
scale models 6970, 200
SCCA 135
Scientic American 42, 64, 234
scientic developments 33
Sears department stores 214215
seasonal advertising 82, 149, 149;
see also Christmas advertising
seat belts 189, 193194, 195, 198
seat cushions 16, 174, 176
seat height, as advertising theme
41, 174, 176
second-hand cars see used cars
Secreto, Jim 249
sedan (body type) 172
sedan delivery (body type) 108
seductive passenger, woman as
157, 159, 159
Selje, Fred A. 127
sellers market 37
service manual, copy in style of
89
service personnel C4
Shelter Island, California 83
shooting brakes, British 199
Shore, Dinah 131
show business celebrities see
celebrity endorsements; occupations in advertisements
silence (as desirable in a car) 172,
173
Silver Spring, Maryland 121
Silver Streak styling (Pontiac)
47
Simca (marque) 198
Simeon, John E. 121
size categories 28
Sleigh, Ralph 222
Sloan, Alfred 31, 41, 53
small-town values 109, 162
Smith, Kate 125
snobbery (in advertising) C1, C2,
8, 34, 182, 242, 243
social advancement 29
social aspiration 1617, 23, 25, 34,
90104
social class 90104, 160
social idealism 34
social paranoia 81
societally conscious achievers 241;
see also VALS
Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) 36
Society of Automotive Historians
vii
solid citizens in advertising 119,
120, 121, 121, 122, 242
space rockets 34, 64
space travel 34
specialist magazines, automotive

28
specialty advertising 41
speed limits 185
sport utility vehicles see SUVs
sports car enthusiasts 89
sports cars 222, 233, 234, 237,
243; European 71, 89, 227
Sports Illustrated 224
sporty-car advertising 28
The Spurrlows 198, 198
Sputnik 34
Squeegee tires (General) 199,
200
SRI International 241
Stamford, Connecticut 119
Standard Vanguard 107
Stanford Research Institute 241
The Star Maker 125
Star Starter Company 156
static tableaux 61
station wagons 19, 98, 108, 110,
115, 153, 157, 160, 165, 199213,
214, 220, 221, 235, 241, 243
The Status Seekers 100
steel bodies 32, 106, 121, 129, 131;
see also features (specic): Turret Top
Stehlik, Suzanne 242
Stevens, Brooks 52, 193, 251n.26
storage les 249
streamlining (as advertising
theme) 4, 2932, 30
streamlining, empirical C4, 29,
41, 240
streamlining, symbolic 29, 199
Studebaker (marque) 1, 4, 16, 34
39, 47, 136, 215, 241
Studebaker (model names and
designations): Avanti 52;
Champion 35, 150, 184; Commander 14, 35, 39, 173, 182, 184;
Cruiser 5253, 53; Eight 62;
Gran Turismo Hawk 52; Hawk
39, 40, 215, 216; Land Cruiser
14, 35, 36, 37 38, 182183; Lark
215; Loewy models 16, 35, 36,
36, 37, 38, 39, 39, 47, 52; President 4; Regal De Luxe 35, 36,
37, 184; Scotsman 171, 215; Starlight 36, 37, 39, 40, 47, 184; Starliner 37, 39, 39; Wagonaire 211
Studebaker (model years): (1935)
6162; (1936) 62; (1937) 124,
125; (1940) 173, 182, 184; (1945)
136, 140, 140; (1947) 35, 36, 36,
150, 182; (1948) 14, 36, 36, 37,
52, 182, 184; (1949) 36, 74, 182,
184, 184; (1950) 37, 38, 182, 184;
(1953) 37, 39, 40, 52; (1955) 4;
(1957) 39; (1958) 39, 40, 47, 94,
224; (1959) 215, 216; (1963)
5253, 53, 211; (1964) 211;
(1965) 53, 211; (1966) 211
Studebaker-Packard Corporation
39, 224, 225, 229
Stuttgart 229
Stutz Bearcat 129, 131, 242
styling, automotive 2, 2957, 81,
163
Styling Section (GM) 32, 39
stylistic details in advertising 17
Subaru (marque) 243
subcompact cars 25, 220221, 228
suburban expansion 149
success and failure, car as indicating 81, 92
Sullivan, Ed 127
Sunbeam (marque) 39, 198

Sunday newspapers 15
sunlight 249
sunroofs 79, 79
surrealism 27
suspension assemblies 15
suspensions: air 34, 177; Balanced
Weight and Springing 172; ball
joints in 76; BuiCoil 59, 146,
174; coil spring 174; Dubonnet:
see Knee Action; Floating Ride
173; Full Coil 177; independent
front 125, 172, 173, 174; kingpins
in 76; Knee-Action 161, 172, 174;
Level Air 177; MacPherson strut
76; Panthergait springs 74; planar 173, 184; Rest-ride springs
174; Rhythmic Ride 169; Ride
Stabilizer 172; swing-axle 135,
217, 230; Torsion-Aire 7, 85,
207; torsion bar 118, 177, 207;
Torsion-Level 177; transverse
leaf 151, 165, 172, 174; Jetsmooth ride 179; Wide-Track
wheels 26, 27, 28, 47
SUV advertisers 244
SUVs 211, 243, 244, 245
Swallow, Bill 223
Swan, Peggy 191
Symons, Humphrey 222
tanks, military 136, 139
tail ns 17, 25, 27, 34, 37, 47, 49,
52, 54, 65, 66, 67; see also ns,
danger to pedestrians
Taos Pueblo 132
Tarawa 136
Tarleton, Jack 105
Tarvisio 37
taste as social signier 93, 9394,
96; see also good taste
Teague, Walter Dorwin 39
technical features (in advertising
copy) 25
technological consciousness 79, 85
teenagers 28, 83
Teletouch see transmissions:
Teletouch 34
television advertising 121, 127, 179,
203, 221, 252Pt.2n.9
Temple, Shirley 124
Terraplane see Hudson (model
and design names): Terraplane
test drives 111, 113, 115, 115116
testimonials, implied 152, 153
testimonials in advertising 15; see
also ordinary-user testimonials
Teutonic styles C4
themes see advertising themes
Thompson, J. Walter see J. Walter
Thompson (agency)
three-tone color schemes 19, 153
thumbnail pictures 247
Tiffanys 180181
Tiger tank 136
Time magazine 135, 228, 234, 241
The Times (of London) 30, 31
tire advertising C6, 191, 195, 195
Tjaarda, John 29
Toast of the Town 127
top speeds 78
Toyota (marque) C15, 221, 225,
227, 235, 236, 237, 242, 244, 245
traders, professional 247
Trafalgar Square, London 126
trafcators (electro-mechanical
turn signals) 166
transmissions: All-Silent Auto-
I NDEX
Mesh 59; automatic 62, 71, 78,
85, 188, 229, 237, 252n.34;
Automatic Overdrive 62; Automatic Safety-Transmission 62;
column-shift 59; Cruise-OMatic 68, 180; Drive-Master 63;
Dynaflow 63; fluid coupling 65;
Fluid Drive 65; Electromatic
Drive 94; Fordomatic Drive 76,
157, 157; Handi-Shift 59, 74;
Handy Shift 59, 74; Hondamatic
237; Hydra-Matic Drive 62, 63
64, 65, 85; overdrive 81; Perfected Remote Control Shifting
59; PowerFlite 65, 74; Powerglide 67; Prestomatic 65; pushbutton 34, 65, 86, 177;
semi-automatic 62, 62, 237,
252n.34; stick-shift 121, 151;
Super-Matic 63; three-speed 71;
Teletouch 34; TorqueFlite 85,
86; Turbo-Drive 63; Turbo
Hydra-Matic 70; Twin Turbine
Dynaflow 63
transparent tops 74, 76, 77
transportation-value 30
Triumph (marque) 135, 217, 223
trucks, commercial 108
trunk space 6
Trull, Major M.E. 121, 121
Tucker (automobile) 191, 193
Turin, Italy 41
Turret Top (body) see features
(specic): Turret Top
two-way tailgates 210, 211
21st century advertising 1,
243246
Two-Ford family 153, 203

typefaces 6, 7, 15, 245
UFOs C9
ultraviolet light 249
unitary construction 207
United States of America 2, 6,
8, 37, 62, 161, 193, 224, 234,
240; social diversity within
160
U.S. Army 136
U.S. News & World Report 227
Universal Credit Company 182
Unsafe at Any Speed (Nader) 135,
189, 191, 195, 217, 229
urban communities 160
utility cars 165, 239
used cars (entry to marque ownership) 101, 103, 161
V-8 Day (Ford) 143
V-8 engines see engines: V-8
Valiant (1960 model year) 207,
215, 217; see also Plymouth
(model names): Valiant (from
1961)
VALS (lifestyle categories) 241
value, aesthetic component of
170171
value for money C11, 13, 101, 161
171, 216, 216, 235, 236
value, meanings of 170171
Vance, Philo 124
Van Dine. S.S. 124
Vanity Fair 243
Vauxhall (GM marque) vii, 64,
177, 224225, 226
ventilation see advertising

themes: ventilation
Ventura sea lion 32
vintage car ads 247
visual techniques 242; see also artwork in advertising; backdrops
Volkswagen (marque) 1, 56, 57,
63, 185, 215, 216, 220, 221, 223,
223224, 225, 227, 229, 230,
235, 243, 244, 251252Pt.2n.26
Volvo (marque) 239
von Braun, Wernher 64
Wal-Mart 245
wall decoration, copies of advertisements as 247
Wall Street 161
warranties 230
wartime advertising C6, 1,
136141, 149
The Waste Makers 57
Weather Eye (Nash ventilation)
C5 15
weight distribution 30, 172
weight (versus frugality) 36
Weis, Bernie vii
West Germany 214
West Virginia 64
Whats My Line? 128
wheels, depiction of C14
wheels, pressed steel 119
Wheels Round the World (Hess)
222
Whistler etchings 93
Wide Track styling 26, 27, 28, 47,
73, 131, 133
Willoughby (coachbuilder) 98
267
Willys (marque) 214, 241
wind resistance 29
wind tunnel 235, 236
Winslet, Kate 253n.6
Winstanley, Warren O. 28, 249
Winston, Harry 17
Wolfsburg 63, 224
Wolkononowicz, John 245
women, economic independence
of 145, 157
women in advertising vii, 19, 63
64, 71, 119, 129, 136, 137, 145
160, 237, 242, 245
womens magazines see femaleoriented publications
wooden bodies 199, 200, 200, 201,
203, 207; see also mock-wood
trim; station wagons
World Trade Center, New York
City C16
World War I 105, 129
World War II 2, 33, 36, 61, 62, 64,
107, 127, 138139, 151, 182, 214,
222, 240; see also wartime
advertising
Wolseley 107, 222
working environment (industry)
16
W.S. Crawford Ltd. (agency) 45,
60
yard, origin of 165
Yellow Cab 57
Young & Rubicam (agency) 94
young car buyers 28, 57, 80
Zepke, Walter 119

American Automobile Advertising, 1930-1980 - An Illustrated History (Posters Graphic Design) PDF

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American Automobile Advertising, 1930-1980 - An Illustrated History (Posters Graphic Design) PDF

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American Automobile Advertising,

ALSO BY HEON STEVENSON

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

Dates of advertisement illustrations

American Automobile Advertising, 19301980: An Illustrated History is an extensively revised

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGUING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Stevenson, Heon, 966

Manufactured in the United States of America

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers

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Part One: Fueling a Fantasy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Part Two: Beyond Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

The Objectivity Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Part Three: Reality Supervenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Justifying the Indulgence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

(beginning in 1959) have become famous, and are well documented.

print showed them at their best, and whose high-quality paper

The beginning of a new model year was always exciting

adequately attractive without exaggerating its length. In the

adequate emotional and sensual content be combined with

[The Americans] appreciate the fact that the great buying

Except, of course, when unsightly aspects of the product

This was true of a great many British

In fairness to advocates of the freakish, such copy had

The artistic debate was never resolved, and in any event

Throughout the 193641 period, a time of sometimes

designed to accommodate them. In Britain, N.W. Ayers color

developing steadily from year to year, nevertheless retained

ming-pool or exclusive club. Roman columns and elaborate

a now-familiar advertising style and unmistakably Cadillac

in minuscule numbers, and hoped-for support from General

ety of settings, or which demonstrated the wide variety of body

in the early 1950s (lending instant novelty), Pontiac continued

even showed a hardtop on a test track, but, taken as a whole,

terial possessions for which there is no completely acceptable

This new, more relaxed, and less overtly snobbish style

ings. Whereas earlier artists had conned their license to a

Fords quality control promotions of 196264, spanning all of

ance. When Chevrolet deliberately imitated Cadillacs layouts

The highly innovative work of Detroit photographers during

in its depiction of a personal-luxury coupe. Paintings could

Other techniques were developed during the late 1960s

to the consumers visual expectations, which may have been

them. This was realized at the outset by those who promoted

experts describe as the most highly rened expression of

It became clear that motorists would accept progressive

Cadillacs general manager, Lawrence P. Fisher, visited a

Colour section (which he rechristened the Styling Section in

Following the failure of the pregnant Buick, Earl was

The accompanying artwork was tastefully stylized, exhibiting

The copy appealed to the readers personal experience and

Above and right: Three interpretations of the popular bridge

derived from areas not directly connected to the automobile,

novelty of the Edsel concept a glamorous car that would

yet elegant proportions were accurately depicted. In October,

By September, 1947, the Big Three had still not caught up

Studebaker did not need to lend glamour to the product by

The copywriters claims were hardly modest, but they were

nally announced in 1946 was prepared independently of

The copy, and the design, were unusual for achieving an

In 1979, Loewy recalled: