Nickel

Feedstocks
Ores
Nickel can be found in two types of ore bodies, laterites and magmatic sulfide deposits. The
laterites mainly contain nickeliferous limonite, [(Fe,Ni)O(OH)], and garnierite which is a hydrous
nickel silicate. The magmatic sulfide deposits are mainly made up of pentalandite, [(Ni,Fe)9S8]
[1]. Estimation show about 60% of the worlds nickel is in laterites while 40% is in the sulfide
deposits. It is an abundant mineral said to be found in water and soil throughout the earth. It
is noted to be emitted from volcanoes and found in many meteors. It occurs in nature often
combined with arsenic, antimony, and sulfur. [3]. The main location of nickel though is in our
planet's core. The nickel sulfide deposits are typically associated with ultramafics, found in
volcanic and plutonic locations. Ultramafics are rocks rich in iron and magnesium. Laterites are
created when ultramafic rocks are weathered down. This is why both types of deposits are
found at great depths [1]. Many metals are obtained during the extraction of nickel ores. The
nickel itself is bounded with iron, sulfur, and silicates and the ultramafic rocks are high in
magnesium. Nickel itself is considered a byproduct from copper and palladium-platinum mines
[1].
Reserves
As the most abundant source of nickel is the Earths core, there is a significant source for the
worlds need of nickel. The issue comes to reaching it at those depths. At this point in time, a
large amount of the near surface bodies have been located and completely used up. This is
leading to exploration in more complicated areas for mining. The U.S. as of 2010 had no active
nickel mines but was starting up a site in northern Michigan. Nickel mining is continuing in
areas of Canada, part of central Africa, Russia, and Australia. Subarctic areas are also targeted
for future mines. The worldwide totals in 2010 and 2011 were estimated to be 1.6 and 1.8
million tons of nickel respectively. Many countries have nickel reserves in excess of one million
tons. The United States is oddly not one of them. In 1999 the US government sold all its nickel
in the National Defense stockpile. Australia is recorded with one of the highest if not the
highest reserve at 24 million tons. The estimated worldwide reserve is at 80 million tons of
nickel. The figure below shows mine production and reserves of various countries [1].

Figure 1: The Estimated Mining and Reserves of Various Countries worldwide [1]
Applications
Established Uses
Nickel is a very valuable metal that has uses in many industries. There are about 30,000 nickel
alloys and almost half of all Nickel consumption is used in stainless and alloy steel
production[1,7]. Nickel based alloys are also produced, which have much higher nickel
content, for gas turbines and applications in chemical plants[7]. Nonferrous alloys and
superalloys constitute 14% of the nickel consumption and 14% is used for electroplating. The
remaining of the produced nickel is used in many other industries. The main ones being
transportation, fabricated metal products, and electrical equipment[1]. Nickel is often used to
coat other metals with processes known as nickel-plating. Rechargeable battery systems can
use nickel but lately manufacturers have been moving away from this. Mainly nickel-metal
hydride is used for this. Many catalysts often use nickel to increase the efficiency of chemical
reactions[7].
Nickel is a very long lasting product with most nickel products lasting at least 25-35 years.
Industrialized countries look to nickel products to modernize their infrastructure. Nickel
products provide a very efficient use of resources and energy. Globally, it is one of the most
recycled materials. The nickel content used in stainless steel product comes from about half
recycled materials[7].
Price
The price of Nickel has varied somewhat over the past 6 years. Between 1990 and 2006 the
price of Nickel was quite steady at around $8000 per tonne, with small fluctuations. The price
then jumped in 2006 through the early months of 2007[10]. Since 2007 there has been an

overall decrease in the price of Nickel with some increases over the years. The current price of
Nickel according to the London Metal Exchange is $16,535 per tonne. In May of 2007 the price
of Nickel was almost $55,000 per tonne but by the end of 2007 the price was down to less than
$26,000 per tonne. The year of 2008 showed a steep decline for the price of Nickel, taking it
down to about $10,000 per tonne by the end of the year. Since then there has been a slow and
steady increase with notable peaks in May of 2010 and February of 2011. The major price drop
in 2007 can likely be attributed to the economic recession that began at around the same time.
Figure 1 shows a graph of the price of nickel from January of 2007 until March 2013. In
comparison Nickel is fairly more expensive than other non-ferrous metals. Table 1 shows
current prices for some other fairly common metals[4].

Figure 2: Historical price graph for nickel[4]

Table1: Prices for Common Metals (March 28th 2013) [4]

Metal
Aluminium Alloy
Aluminium
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Tin
Zinc
NASAAC*

Price per
Tonne(USD)
1802.5
1881.0
7582.0
2093.5
16535.0
23125.0
1870.0
1789.5

* North American Special Aluminum Alloy Contract

Processing
Primary Extraction
Much of the nickel that is extracted comes from sulfide ores. This ore is crushed to liberate the
ores specific characteristics. It then undergoes froth flotation in order to concentrate the
desired material while rejecting the gangue. While producing nickel there are often large
amounts of cooper and pyrrhotite that come with it, which would be profitable to separate as
well for its own further processing[2].
The nickel concentrate then undergoes pyrometallurgical processes. The feedstock undergoes
partial roasting to remove some of the sulfur and to oxidize the iron that is with the nickel. This
is then smelted in a natural gas furnace at around 1200C. This produces a nickel enriched
product with a slag that is removed. This matte is then blown with air and additional flux to
oxidize any remaining sulfur or iron. This is then crushed so that the metallic product can be
removed magnetically for further refining. The sulfides are separated by froth flotation into
copper and nickel sulfides. Fluidized-bed reactors convert the nickel sulfide into granular nickel
oxide. This granular nickel oxide is chlorinated at 1200C to reduce its copper content. It is then
reduced at 500C with hydrogen to produce a 95% metallic nickel product that can be
marketed. Figure 3 gives a basic outline of this process[2].
Ore
Communition
Sulfur Dioxide
Froth Flotation
Copper Concentrate

Iron ore
recovery
plant

Tailings

Iron-Nickel Concentrate

Air

Pyrrhotite
Concentrate
(iron)

Magnetic Separation

Roasting

Granular Nickel Oxide

Nickel

Air

Roasting

Sulfur Dioxide

Flux
Smelting

Chlorine Chlorination

Inpurities

Slag

Slag
Hydrogen
Converting

Reduction

Water

Communition
Froth Flotation
Copper Sulfide
Metalized nickel granules
(95% Ni)

Magnetic Separation

Figure 3: Basic outline of primary nickel extraction from sulfide ores.[2]

Other processes do exist for the extraction of nickel. The remaining oxide can be converted by
reduction smelting or the atmospheric-pressure carbonyl process. Recovery of nickel from
laterite ores undergoes a different process because most of that product is sold as ferronickel.
The process involves drying and heating the ore under reduction conditions [2].
Refining
Once Nickel has been extracted there are a number of ways to handle it. The most common
practice for nickel refining is electrowinning. Electrical cells with inert cathodes are used with
solutions such as sulfuric acid or chloride electrolytes and the nickel is removed from solution
[9]. When the nickel reaches this step it has already gone through other purification steps. An
example of this is the BIOX Process, this involves pH adjustment for iron removal, separations
of solid and liquids, and the production of the sulphide concentration to prepare for the
electrowinning. The electrowinning produces a nickel powder [5].

Figure 3: Example Electrowinning system for plating nickel [8]

Another common practice for nickel refining is the carbonyl process or otherwise called the
Mond process. It is a vapor process used to produce high quality nickel pellets [9]. The matte is
decomposed through a series of steps to remove the other precious minerals that can be sold
elsewhere. Common examples would be copper, cobalt, iron, and silicon. In the original
process developed by Ludwig Mond in 1889 the nickel oxides from extraction were reduced
then formed into nickel tetracarbonyl. This compound was separate from the other precious

minerals then decomposed separating the bonded CO from the nickel, producing nickel
pellets. A big difference in how it is done today is that the process can be done at higher than
atmospheric pressure. In these processes the nickel is charged with coke, the silicates and
some iron are slagged off, then the metal is made into granules. These are fed into a reactor at
pressures up to 7 MPa and temperatures around 180 degrees Celsius. The nickel is removed as
a carbonyl sublimate and the other precious metals such as copper and cobalt remain in a
residue [6]

Figure 4: The basic Mond (Carbonyl) Process [6]

References

[1]

Callaghan, R (2013), U.S. Geological Survey,

http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/fpubs/commodity/nickel/

[2]

Davis, J.R., (2000) Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys, ASM International, Accessed 2013,
http://books.google.com/books?id=IePhmnbmRWkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&
q&f=false

[3]

Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (2013),

National Pollutant Inventory, Australia Government,
http://www.npi.gov.au/substances/nickel/index.html

[4]

London Metal Exchange (2013), http://www.lme.com/en-gb/metals/non-ferrous/nickel/

[5]

Moskalyk, R.R. and Alfantazi, A.M., (2002) Nickel Laterite Processing and
Electrowinning Practice, Minerals Engineering, Volume 15, Issue 8, pp. 593-605,
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0892687502000833

[6]

Neikov, O.D., Naboychenko S, and others, (2009) Handbook of Non-Ferrous Metal

Powders, Elsevier Ltd., Accessed 2013,
http://books.google.com/books?id=6aP3te2hGuQC&pg=PA371#v=onepage&q&f=false

[7]

Nickel Institute (2013), Where & Why Nickel is Used,

http://www.nickelinstitute.org/en/NickelUseInSociety/AboutNickel/WhereWhyNickelIs
Used.aspx

[8]

NMFRC (2013), Pollution Prevention and Control Technologies for Plating Operations,
http://www.nmfrc.org/bluebook/sec354.htm

[9]

Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook, (1998) World Bank Group, Accessed
2013,
http://www1.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/469da18048855b7f891cdb6a6515bb18/nickel_
PPAH.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=469da18048855b7f891cdb6a6515bb18

[10]

Historical Nickel Prices and Price Chart, (2013) InvestmentMine, Accessed 2013,
http://www.infomine.com/investment/metal-prices/nickel/all/