Build Your Working

Knowledge of
Process Compressors
How good are
you at selecting
medium-power
reciprocating
compressors?

Edward H. Livingston,
Howden Compressors
Incorporated

he role of compressors in the chemical process industries (CPI) is critical since they are used to circulate
gas through a process, enhance
conditions for chemical reactions, provide
inert gas for safety or control systems,
recover and recompress process gas, and
maintain correct pressure levels by either
adding and removing gas or vapors from a
process system.
The chemical engineer involved with
process design and equipment selection
must have a working knowledge of compressors, since they are the most mechanically complex machinery used in the CPI.
This working knowledge must not only be
related to the thermodynamics of the gas
being compressed, but also to the type of
compressor to be used for a particular
process. The latter has become more important as the result of the passage of the Clean
Air Act Amendments of 1990, legislation
which places limitations on emissions from
process equipment. Fugitive emissions from
such sources as compressors, pumps,
valves, and piping systems and connections
must be reduced over the coming years in
order to comply with EPA Equipment Leak
Regulations.

work done enhances the pressure and density. Flow through the cylinder is controlled
by valve actions. Examples of reciprocating
machines include piston compressors, lubricated and nonlubricated, and metal
diaphragm compressors.
2. Turbomachinery, or dynamic compressors, are those in which a dynamic head
is imparted to the gas by means of high
speed impellers rotating in a confining case.
This category includes axial-flow, radial,
centrifugal and fan-blower compressors.
3. Rotary machines are those in which
gas is moved by the positive displacement
of two rotating lobes or by oscillating vanes
confined in an eccentric cylinder.
4. Ejector machines are those in which
gas is moved by kinetic energy induced
through high-velocity nozzles.
This article will primarily deal with reciprocating, positive displacement compressors
with emphasis placed on applications and
machines having installed power of 200 kW or
less. However, some comments with respect to
larger compressors will be made due to their
importance in process applications.
Before we discuss specific compressor
types in detail, lets look at typical applications of the units.

Brief background

Oil refinery processes

The principal types of compressors

found in the CPI are reciprocating, turbo
(centrifugal and axial), and rotary flow
designs. Within some of the types are variations. Nevertheless, in all cases, compressors are used to convert energy from one
form to another.
1. Reciprocating machines are those in
which gas is moved by the linear motion of
a piston within a confining cylinder. The

Both positive displacement and dynamic compressors are used in the refining of
crude oil. Crude oil feed-stock contains
polluting compounds such as sulfur, chlorides and salts. Refining processes extract
these pollutants and convert them into
needed byproducts, thus reducing emissions into the atmosphere. Hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide are being treated by
chemical absorption systems such as

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS . FEBRUARY 1993 .

27

AIR AND GAS FLOW

methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) with

a high absorption efficiency.
Hydrogenation processes occur in
the initial distillation column, as well
as hydrotreating, hydrocracking, and
catalytic reforming units.

Hydrotreating
Hydrotreating removes objectionable elements such as sulfur, nitrogen,
oxygen, and halides from feedstock
by reacting them catalytically with
hydrogen. In this application, three
compressors are frequently used: the
recycle compressor which takes
hydrogen-rich gas from the hydrogen
separator and recycles it to the
process front end, the make-up compressor that adds hydrogen to the
process at the front end, and the vent
gas compressor which handles hydrocarbon gas mixtures of molecular
weights from 20 to 40.
The size of the recycle and makeup compressors depends on the
hydrotreater capacity. In general,
recycle compressor flow rates vary
from 25,500 to 127,500 m/h and reciprocating or centrifugal compressors
may be used since compression ratios
are low. The make-up compressor
flow rates vary from 5,950 to 29,750
m/h, and while the flow rates can
support centrifugal design compressors, the compression ratios are too
high for centrifugal design and thus
reciprocating designs are used.

Hydrocracking
Hydrocracking produces gasoline
from heavy feedstocks. In many cases, hydrocracking and cat reforming
units work in unison. Hydrocracking
takes place at higher pressures, 6.9
MPa to 13.8 MPa and has a high concentration of hydrogen with a fixedbed catalyst. Two compressors are
used for this application: the first is
the recycle compressor which takes
hydrogen-rich gas from the separator
and recycles that gas to the process
front end where it mixes with the liquid feedstock, and the second is the
make-up compressor which adds
hydrogen to the process after the separation and before the recycle compressor. The recycle compressor is

28 .

usually a barrel-type centrifugal compressor since the compression ratio is

low, while the make-up compressor is
a multistage balanced opposed reciprocating compressor because the
compressor must boost the gas from
1.4 MPa to 13.8 M P a .
To reduce emissions within the
refinery, hydrocarbon gases are collected, recompressed and used elsewhere. Hydrogen collected from the
reciprocating compressor packing
group and from the barrel-type compressor mechanical seal are often
recycled back into the process by
small, positive displacement, reciprocating compressors.

Polymerization
Compressors are required to feed
gases at elevated pressures into reactors or compress gases to a pressure
that will permit liquefaction after
which the liquid is pumped directly
into the reactor. Typical gases compressed include ethylene, hydrogen,
hydrogen chloride, methyl chloride,
phosgene, propane, and butane.
Depending on the polymer and the
process used, pressures can range
from 0.1 MPa to 380 M P a

Higher flow rate

applications require
centrifugal or axial flow
machines.
The original low density polyethylene process required gas pressures of
200 MPa to 320 M P a Three positive
displacement compressors were used
in series to compress ethylene from
0.5 Pa to 240 M P a The combined
power requirements of these three
compressors exceeded 7,500 kW.
The operating pressures of the linear linear low density process have
been reduced to 1 to 2.1 MPa, however, compression equipment is
required to keep the gas circulating in
the reactor and fluidize the polymer
particles.
Some specialized co-polymers still
use pressures of 200 to 320 MPa. The

FEBRUARY 1993 . CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS

flow rates are small in comparison to

standard, full-size plants. Feed compressors for additives operate to 320 MPa,
and power is in the range of 75 k W .
High density polyethylene is often
co-produced with polypropylene in a
pressure range of 1 to 3.5 MPa. The
catalyst is fed to the reactor with the
gas is flashed, separated, and recycled.

Electronics
and semiconductors
Gases are produced for the manufacture of electronic components and
semiconductors. Purity of the gases is
vital and ultrapure systems are used in
all phases of manufacturing. Adding
to the purity requirements is the handling problem associated with strong
oxidizers, flammable, pyrophoric,
and highly toxic compounds.
Oxidation processes are used for
the formation of protective silicon
dioxide coating on wafer surfaces.
This is accomplished in a diffusion
furnace in an oxygen atmosphere.
Protective atmosphere doping uses
nitrogen in the purity range of of
99.9999% for the manufacture of
microelectronic components to protect
the material as well as being a carrier
gas for dopants. Chip manufacturing
involves ultrahigh-purity argon for silicon crystal growing, oxide removal
(etching) and doping of wafers for
desired chemical composition.
Manufacturing of integrated circuits and semiconductors use ultrahigh purity gaseous chemicals for dopi n g etching, epitaxy, and ion
implantation. Gaseous chemicals such
as arsine, phosphine, silane or chloroslanes, diborane, halocarbons, hydrogen selenide, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur hexafluoride are used in a mixture
of diluent gases like argon, helium,
nitrogen, and hydrogen.

Hydrogen recovery
Even though the cost of hydrogen
is relatively low, hydrogen is recovered for safety reasons. The hydrogen
vapor from liquid storage tanks is
recovered by a compressor rather than
venting it to the atmasphere. This
reduces the possibilities of auto-ignition, a situation that could occur when

vapor is vented by a relief

device.
High-pressure piston compressors use packing vents to
dispose of effluent leaks.
Small compressors recover,
recompress, and inject the gas
into the process stream.

100

10

Reactor gas feeds

Hydrogen. Hydrogen is
required for full or partial
1
hydrogenation of fats and oils
by converting unsaturated
radicals of fatty glycerides to
highly or completely saturated glycerides, pharmaceutical
0.1
intermediates, and final products. Compressors are used
for initial hydrogen feed and
recycle of hydrogen in the
process.
Hydrogen from either gas plants or
tube trailers is boosted by positive
displacement piston and diaphragm
compressors to the reaction feed pressures required.
Carbon dioxide is a solvent at
supercritical conditions. High purity
carbon dioxide is compressed to the
critical pressure conditions and is
then recycled after separation.
Nitrogen is sparged into reactors to
reduce dissolved oxygen, blankets
sensitize compounds against oxidation and contamination, and purges
process reactors and piping systems at
shutdown and startup.
Refrigerant gases such as chlorodifluoromethane are fed to reactors for
manufacture of fluoropolymers such as
polytetralluoroethylene (PTFE) .

Gas separation
Cryogenic separation of atmospheric gases results in the highest purity
levels in comparison to membrane separation or Pressure Swing Adsorption
(PSA). If the final product can tolerate
lower gas purity levels, PSA production of nitrogen and oxygen can result
in cost reductions of 20-60%.
Conventional air compressors feed
the PSA unit. Depending on the pressure requirements, reciprocating piston compressor can be installed to
boost the PSA outlet pressure to that

Inlet Flow, Actual m /hour

Figure 1, Range of CPI Compressors
, Intercooler

, Pulsation Dampener

inder
Crankcase (Frame)

n Figure 2. Piston design.

required by the plant. These compressors are sized to meet peak
demands for the gas (gases) and are
frequently specified with a standby
unit of 50 or 100% capacity.
Membrane separation can produce
higher purity gas streams and are used
in upgrading hydrocarbon gases.
Processing pressure drops may
require the treated gas to be compressed for recycle. In most cases centrifugal compressors are applicable
because of the low compression ratio.

Nitrogen boosting
Under certain conditions, nitrogen
is required to maintain flow of liquid

from storage tanks or tank cars.

Typically, bone dry nitrogen is introduced under pressure to induce flow.
Chlorine tank cars frequently use
this method during cold weather and
the importance of using an oil-free,
nonlubricated compressor is apparent. Hydrocarbons from lubricants
could carryover and react with the
chlorine, while water vapor (150
ppm or more) would cause a highly
corrosive condition.
Nitrogen also acts as a blanketing
gas to prevent fire or explosion conditions and creates an oxygen free environment to enhance long-term storage,
especially for perishable products.
Nitrogen is used to balance pres-

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS . FEBRUARY 1993 . 29

AIR AND GAS FLOW

First Stage
/ Diaphragm Cylinder

sures in high-speed mechanical seals

to prevent leakage of gas to the environment. The system also permits
monitoring of seal performance by
pressure decay in the seal. Small, positive displacement, reciprocating
compressors are used to pressurize
the seal and maintain purge flow.

Second Stage

Compressor types
Compressor selection is based on
the process operating variables and
how those variables fit the design
ranges of the types of available compressors. Figure 1 illustrates the range
of compressors used in the CPI.
Positive displacement piston
compressors are normally selected
for applications where the inlet flow
rate is no greater that 6,800 m/h.
Design discharge pressures can
range from 0.5 MPa to 380 MPa. The
latter for small displacement
machines assure low density polyethylene process. Diaphragm compressors, a specialized version of
positive displacement piston compressors, are limited to single cylinder inlet flows up to 204 m/h.
Centrifugal compressors range from
inlet flows of 850 m/h to 340,000 m/h
with case pressures to 70 MPa for small
centrifugal units and considerably lower pressure for large units, and axial
flow compressors range from 34,000
m/h to 1,020,000 m/h with case pressures generally limited to 1 to 2 MPa
for all sizes.

Drive Motor )t Baseplate

Crankcase (Frame)

n Figure 3. Diaphragm design.

Inlet Pulsation
Dampener

\ Last Stage
Crankcase (Frame)
Diaphragm Cylinder 1
First Stage _I
Baseplate
Piston Cylinder

\
Second Stage
Piston Cylinder

n Figure 4. Hybrid design.

Crosshead

Packing Case

Suction Valve Pockets

w/Valves

Engineering considerations
and economics
For the higher flow rate applications, the process engineer has few
alternatives, with selections being limited to either centrifugal or axial flow
machines. However, in the lower flow
range, several choices are available:
positive displacement piston and
diaphragm compressors, or hybrid
machines that combine piston and
diaphragm cylinders on one crankcase.
General arrangements of these compressors are shown by Figures 2
through 4.

Piston compressors
All piston compressors have a

30

. FEBRUARY 1993

Crankcase

Compression Cylinder

n Figure 5. A simplification of compressor crankcase elements.

crankcase that converts rotary motion

to linear motion: a crosshead for guiding the motion of the piston, a piston
fitted with seal rings, a cylinder in
which gas compression takes place,
and one or more suction valves and
one or more discharge valves that regulate the flow of gas into and out of
the compression cylinder. A simpli-

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS

fied diagram of these elements is

shown in Figure 5.
Air compressors should not be
considered as process gas compressors. There are significant design differences inherent in the air compressors and the improper use of an air
compressor in a process gas application could have severe consequences,

such as excessive leakage, fire, or

explosion. For example, the air compressor piston is sealed from the
crankcase by piston rings, usually of
cast iron. Since gas can leak into the
crankcase, the simple air compressor
should be limited to air or nitrogen
even if the crankcase is pressurized.
Process-gas piston compressors
are designed with a distance piece to
eliminate gas leakage into the atmosphere and crankcase. The piston is
mounted on a piston rod which is connected to a crosshead. The piston rod
is relatively small in diameter, and
therefore can be sealed within a packing case with one or more sets of
packing. Figure 6 illustrates a typical
packing case. Special purged packing
cases and distances pieces are fitted
on these compressors to further minimize gas leakage.
In the lubricated process-gas compressor fluid is injected into the compression cylinder to provide lubrication for the piston rings and the
compressor valves. Packing is both
lubricated and cooled by injecting the
same lubricant into the packing set(s).
The lubrication is provided by either a
separate, crankshaft driven lubrication pump, or an auxiliary motor driven lubricator.
Nonlubricated compressor operation prevents the entrainment of oil in

Cylinder

Distance

Valve Hold-down

Vent to Flare

I .

Cylinder

Purge Connection

n Figure 6. A typical packing case.

the gas being compressed. Types of

service for nonlubricated compressors
include oxygen compression, food processing, container manufacturing,
breweries, chemical, and specialty gas
plants where oil contamination of the
end product cannot be tolerated.
Nonlubricated reciprocating compressors vary in design, but fundamentally
the piston is driven through a crosshead
from the crankshaft. The piston rod is
sealed by a stuffing box with packing
rings. The compression cylinders are
mounted to distance pieces which iso-

Valve Flange

Packing Rings

suction Vave

Suction Valve
&Retainer

late them from the crankcase thus preventing oil carryover. The cylinders
may be mounted horizontally, vertically, at an angle, or in combinations of
these on multistage, multithrow
crankcases. Nonlubricated cylinders
are normally limited to pressures of 25
to 41 MPa. A typical non-lubricated
piston cylinder is shown in Figure 7.
For the successful operation of nonlubricated piston compressors, nonmetallic piston rings are required.
Materials such as PTFE with fillers
have proved to be the most efficient.
Discharge Valve
& Retainer

Gas Plate
Contour
Diaphragm Group
O-Ring Seals
Head Integrity O-Ring
Head Integrity
Detection Port
Piston Seals

Rider (Guide) Ri&

Piston
Piston Ring

Figure 7. A typical lubricated piston cylinder.

Crankcase

Discharge Valve

nFigure 8. Motion of the displacing element causes the

diaphragm to move into the compression chamber to
reduce volume and thereby increase gas pressure.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS . FEBRUARY 1993 .

31

AIR

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GAS

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Head Integrity
Detection O-Ring

Not only are the wear rates

extremely low on the rings made
of these materials, but cylinder
wear is also reduced. It is vital
that these materials be uniform
throughout the entire cross section so that wear rates and sealing
properties are continuous for the
life of the ring.
Another type of oil-free piston
compressor is one in which a
labyrinth profile is used.
Normally, the leakage volume
past the labyrinth does not exceed
5% of the rated displacement. A
two-compartment distance piece
for oil wiping and for holding piston alignment is required.

, Gas Plate
Process
O-Ring
Diaphragm
Group
Hydraulic
O-Ring

Head Integrity Detection Port

Oil Plate

n Figure 9. Typical leak detection arrangement for a

diaphragm compressor.

Diaphragm compressors
Piston compressors and
diaphragm compressors share
many of the same components:
a crankcase, crankshaft, connecting rod(s), and piston.
The main difference between
piston and diaphragm compressors is how the gas is comVent to Flare
pressed. Unlike other types of
Vent to Flare
reciprocating piston compressors in which the primary dis- nFigure 10. Typical leakage monitoring system.
placing element, a piston, contacts the gas, the metal diaphragm
ture diaphragm failure is minimal. As
compressor completely isolates the
a result, this equipment has become
gas from the displacing element durwidely accepted for all types of conting the entire work cycle. The motion
amination-free applications in laboraof the displacing element is transmittory, pilot, and plant operations.
ted to a hydraulic fluid, and the
Corrosive gases can be handled in
hydraulic fluid transmits its motion to
these compressors because the comone or more thin, flexible metal discs
pression cylinder can be manufaccalled diaphragms. This motion
tured from virtually any machinable
causes the diaphragm to move into the
material. Certain limitations do apply
compression chamber, reducing the
and these limitations are related to the
volume and thereby increasing the
diaphragm material. Materials of congas pressure. See Figure 8.
struction commonly used for gas conBecause the diaphragms isolate the
tacting parts include 17-4ph, 17-7ph,
gas from the compressor lubricants,
the discharged gas is as pure as the
304SS, 316SS, 400SS, 20Cb, nickel,
gas entering the compression head.
carbon and low alloy steels. Designs
The gas only contacts clean, dry
to handle H2S and conforming to
National Association of Corrosion
metallic surfaces and static elastomer
Engineers (NACE) MR-01-75 can be
or metallic seals. With improved
produced.
diaphragm materials and contour configurations, reliability of these
The benefit of a no-leakage design
is evident and is of greater importance
machines has been demonstrated by
with the advent of the Clean Air Act.
years of service in critical applications. With proper installation and
Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacmaintenance, the likelihood of prema
turing Industry (SOCMI) factors have

32

FEBRUARY 1993 . CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS

been developed by the EPA for all

equipment, including compressors. For compressor seals, the
emission factor is 0.228 kg/h/s
ource.e Using standard design and
construction methods, leak rates
from a diaphragm compressor are
in the order of 1 x 10-7 standard
cc/s. When extremely low leak
rates are required, in the order of 1
x 10e8 standard cc/s or less, the
diaphragm can be sealed by metallic 0 rings or it can be sealwelded to the gas head.
In the event the integrity of the
diaphragm or seal is breached,
effluent process gas is retained in
the head assembly detection system. With a relatively inexpensive
monitoring system, an anomaly
can be detected and corrected
before there is a discharge to the
atmosphere. Figure 9 illustrates a
typical arrangement for diaphragm
compressors and Figure 10 illustrates a monitoring system

Hybrid compressors
Hybrid compressors are
unique since they combine nonlubricated piston technology with
diaphragm technology on one
reciprocating frame (crankcase).
These compressors find application
when inlet pressures are low, the gas
flow rates are relatively high, and
the gas must be compressed to high
pressure. Depending on the gas flow
rate, multiple two or three stage
diaphragm compressors, or a five
stage piston compressor may otherwise be required. To avoid such a
situation, two or three stages of nonlubricated piston cylinders are used
with a final stage diaphragm cylinder. In a single machine, the large
capacity of a piston compressor is
combined with the high pressure
and leak-tight performance of a
diaphragm cylinder.

Piston and diaphragm

compressor efficiency
The volumetric efficiency of a
positive displacement compressor is
the ratio of the gas handled to the
compressor displacement including

gas compressibility. Several factors

influence volumetric efficiency:
compression ratio;
compressibility factors of the gas
at suction and discharge conditions;
cylinder clearance volume;
valve action (losses);
piston ring leakage (piston compressors);
adiabatic or polytropic exponent;
and
water vapor.
Compressor manufacturers can
control clearance volume, valve
action (losses), piston ring leakage,
and the compression ratio (by multistaging). Of great concern to the compressor manufacturer is the control of
clearance volumes at high-compression ratios and when gases have a low
specific heat ratio.
Piston compressor clearance volumes can range from 7% to 22% with
fixed valve pockets; diaphragm compressors are normally designed with
clearance volumes between 4% and
7% depending on the size of the
diaphragm cylinder. For pressure applications to 300 MPa diaphragm compressor clearance volumes may be as
high as 10% to 12%, due to practical
manufacturing tolerance limits, particularly in the valve pocket area.
The effect of clearance volume is
illustrated in Figure 11. Clearance
volumes of 5%, 10%, and 15% are
given for illustrative purposes. The
5% compression slope ABC will
attain P2 quicker than the compression slopes of 10%. Likewise, upon
re-expansion at the end of the compression stroke DEF, the slope is
steeper and therefore allows the gas to
enter the cylinder sooner during the
suction cycle.
Compression efficiency is controlled by the valves and valve pocket
design. For example, the compressor

Figure 11. Compressor efficiency (valve design effect).

designer may concentrate on the clearance volume reduction to improve volumetric efficiency and valve losses
could be high, thus affecting compression efficiency. A decrease in compression efficiency leads to increased
power requirements.
Compression efficiency (valve
design effect) is also illustrated in
Figure 11. The pressure increases
along curve ABC, and when the
cylinder pressure exceeds the line discharge pressure P2 at point B, system
energy unseats the discharge valve.
Pressure spikes to point C, and the gas
is released into the discharge piping.
The discharge event is a series of
pressure waves that will degenerate
until the piston reaches the end of its
stroke at point D. From top dead center, unexpelled gas pushes on the piston and expands along curve DEF.
Slightly below point E at P1, the pressure is further reduced to point F.
Here a sufficient differential pressure
exists to unseat the suction valve. Gas
is drawn in by the piston for the
remainder of the stroke until the piston reaches bottom dead center.

Table 1. Relative Cost Factors.

Installed Power
to 30 kW
31 to 50 kW
51 to 100 kW
101 to 200 kW

Lubricated
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0

Nonlubricated

Diaphragm

1.3
1.3
1.4
1.4

1.5
1.9
1.7
1.6

Volumetic efficiency increases

with a decrease in clearance volume
and a decrease in compression ratio.
While the other factors do influence
volumetric efficiency, clearance volume has the most pronounced effect.
In the end, a compromise position
must be taken to balance volumetric
and compression efficiency. In general, the design compromises are related to compression ratio. For high
compression ratios (6 to 15), clearance volume is the principal factor
and valves are secondary. For the
intermediate compression ratios (3 to
6), clearance volume and valve
design should be balanced. For low
compression ratios (less than 3),
valve design is primary.
For a given operating condition
where either a piston or diaphragm
compressor can be considered,
diaphragm compressors will have a
higher volumetric efficiency since
clearance volumes are less and ring
leakage is not a factor. This will also
permit compression ratios of 15: 1
across one cylinder. Most piston compressors limit compression ratios to
5: 1 or less in nonlubricated designs
due to the inherent problem of heat
removal and the effect of high temperatures on piston rings.
Isothermal efficiency is usually
higher in the diaphragm compressor.
This is due in part to the large, flat surface area of the cylinder, the proximity of the cooling passages to the compressor valves, and the recirculation
of the hydraulic fluid on the back side

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS . FEBRUARY 1993

33

AIR

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FLOW

Table 2. Typical selection guidelines.

Process and Operating Requirements

Compressor Type

Contamination during compression

Limited contamination during compression
Medium corrosive gas
Highly corrosive gas
Hazardous gas (toxic, flammable)
Leaktight
Low suction pressure, low compression ratio
Low suction pressure, high compression ratio
High discharge pressure (to 25 MPa)
High discharge pressure (> 25 MPa)

Lube or NL piston
NL piston or diaphragm
All
Diaphragm
Oiaphragm or NL piston
Diaphragm
Lube or NL piston
Hybrid
NL piston or diaphragm
Lube piston or diaphragm

of the diaphragm group. However,

isothermal efficiency of any positive
displacement compressor is less than
a dynamic compressor. Hence, a
comparison of isothermal efficiency
between compressor types is a false
comparison. Overall efficiency. volumetric and compression will normally favor diaphragm types.

Engineering economics
For comparison purposes, capital
cost factors for lubricated, non-lubricated and diaphragm compressors arc
given in Table 1. These values are relative and are based on manufacturers
standard materials of construction
and exclude drivers.
Performance cost factors are usually based on such ratios as cost/kW,
cost/m/h, and cost/Nm/h. Whatever
measurement is used, the piston compressor has the most favorable ratio
within the context of its application.
However, relative cost factors should
not be the sole criteria for compressor
selection assuming that any of the
types discussed have the pressure and
displacement capabilities. Process or
environmental constraints can raise
the cost factors of lubricated piston
compressors above other types.
Cleanup and disposal equipment and
monitoring instruments for hazardous
gases will rapidly escalate the ratios.
This points out the need to match
application. In Table 2, some typical
selection guidelines are given.
Applications requiring compression equipment to boost pressure in
the range of 101 kPa to 21 MPa and as
high as 40 MPa should consider the
use of hybrid compressors. These

34

machines combine the high flow of

the nonlubricated piston compressor
with the leaktight, high-pressure
capabilities of diaphragm compressors. The benefit to the engineer is
that the total package is on one compressor and driver, not multiple compressors and drivers. A limitation of
such equipment is the diaphragm
cylinder operating speed which must
be in the range of 400 to 450 rpm.

Process and
equipment considerations
Process c o n t a c t i n g materials of
construction. Table 3 lists typical

materials of construction for lubricated and non-lubricated piston compressor cylinders.

For temperatures of -25C to
-200C, type 304SS low carbon,
alloyed cast iron, or nickel alloy steel
should be used. These materials will

provide low temperature impact

strength and thus avoid brittle failure
of critical component\.
Liners are recommended for cylinders since they can be replaced easily
in comparison to complete cylinder.
Two types are used--a wet liner or a
dry liner. Wet liners form the inside
pressure boundary of the cylinder and
also the inside of the water cooling
jacket. Because it is a pressure boundary, the liner wall must be designed to
withstand the internal gas pressure
and the external cooling water pressure. The liners arc either pressed or
shrunk into place. Dry liners are not
pressure boundaries. They arc thinner
in section and are pressed into the
cylinder. Liner materials include
steel, stainless steel. nodular iron or
gray iron. The liner material selection
should be reviewed with the manufacturer since there may be limitations
relating to pressure and piston ring
combinations.
Table 4 lists typical materials of
construction for diaphragm compressor cylinders.
Diaphragm compressor gas plates
can be produced from any machinable
material. Some limitations do apply
because of the special requirements
placed on diaphragm material by the
compressor manufacturers. Certain
alloys are not readily available. or are
available only with a tremendous cost
impact. Such materials include high
nickel alloys, and so forth.
The diaphragm compressor cylin-

Table 3. Typical piston compressor materials of construction.

Component

Material

Remarks

Cylinders and Heads

Gray Iron
Ductile Cast Iron (DCI)
Steel
Stainless Steel

Pressures to 10 MPa
Pressure to 16 MPa
Pressure to 400 MPa
Pressure to 25 MPa

Piston

Aluminum
Cast Iron, Steel
Stainless Steel

Large cylinders, low inertia

High pressures, chlorides
Corrosive conditions

Liners

Gray Iron, DCI

Ni-resist
Stainless Steel

Most common
Low temperature, corrosion
Corrosive conditions

Packing

PTFE-Fitted
Metal

Pressures to 28 MPa
Pressures > 28 MPa

. FEBRUARY 1993 . CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS

Table 4. Typical diaphragm compressor

process materials of construction.

Table 5. Typical compressor valve materials

of construction.

Component

Material

Remarks

Component

Material

Remarks

Gas Plate

Carbon Steel
Low Alloy Steel
304 SS, 316 SS
17-4 PH, A296
High Nickel Alloys
20C b-3

Pressure to 63 MPa
Pressure to 200 MPa
Pressure to 63 MPa
Pressure to 200 M Pa
Pressure to 63 MPa
Pressure to 63 MPa

Valve Seat/Guards

Steel
400 ss
17-4 PH

Standard, medium pressure

Standard, all pressures
Optional, corrosion resistance

Valve Discs

301 SS, 316 SS

Standard for most service

400 ss
17-4 PH/17-7 PH
316 SS
Plastics

Standard
Corrosion resistant
Corrosion resistant
Corrosion resistant/valve action

Ni-Cu alloy

Oxidizer service
Springs

17-7 PH
Nickel superalloy
302 SS, 316 SS

Standard
Corrosion resistant
Corrosion resistant

Diaphragms

der can be designed for structural temperatures from -150C to 317C.

Special construction methods and
hydraulic fluids with acceptable viscosity at these temperature extremes
are required for successful operation of
the compressor at low or high temperatures. Occasionally, the diaphragm
cylinder is located off the crankcase
with an extended distance piece and
piston rod so that the temperature
extremes do not affect the reciprocating
frame. Separate hydraulic systems, one
for frame lubrication and the other for
diaphragm pulsing can be employed.
Valves are common to all reciprocating compressors. Table 5 lists typical materials of construction for compressor valves.
Certain gases or gas mixtures are
corrosive, flammable, or explosive,
When pressures and temperatures are
increased, or when water vapor is present, the gas can be more difficult to
handle. Process contacting materials
of construction should be specified by
the user because the user is most
familiar with the process. However,
the experience of the compressor
manufacturer permits solutions to be
offered, including material of construction choices, In Table 6, guidelines are given for some of the common gases used in the CPI.

Energy use
In todays energy conscious environment, users require the correct
solution for gas compression applications. Energy costs can amount to
80% of a compressors operating cost.
It is important to use only the energy
required for the process.

For constant speed compressors,

several methods can be used to control
capacity. They are suction control,
bypass control, and suction valve clearance control. All of these methods can
be applied to piston compressors.
Diaphragm compressors are limited to
suction control and bypass control.
Suction control limits the gas pressure at the suction valve. Because piston and diaphragm compressors are
positive displacement, the inlet flow
varies directly with the suction pressure
and provides an infinite number of steps
between fully opened and fully closed.
For example, a 10% decrease in suction
pressure will result in a minimum flow
decrease of 10% since both the gas density and the volumetric efficiency are
decreased. Some power savings can be
expected, but compression ratios and
discharge temperatures will be higher
affecting compressor performance.
Bypass control (capacity bypass)
requires additional external piping, a
control valve, and instrumentation.
This provides an infinite number of
steps, but the compressor operates at
full discharge pressure and capacity all
the time. Compressed gas is recycled
back to suction but it must be cooled to
the normal suction pressure or else
higher discharge temperatures will
result. Power savings are non-existent.
Suction valve unloading controls
capacity by maintaining one or more
suction check valves in a partially or
fully opened position. This is a step
control and capacities of 0%, 25%,
50%, 75%, a n d 1 0 0 % c a n b e
achieved. A variation of this control

method is the progressive capacity

control. The action of the suction
valve is delayed and the compression
diagram is altered. This permits
capacity fine tuning from 40% to
100%. No-load power is 15% to 20%
of the full-load power
Clearance control can be either
fixed or variable, the latter preferred
for line control. This control method
permits the capacity to vary by changing clearance volumes which, in turn,
affects the volumetric efficiency. Like
suction valve unloading, it is efficient
and results in power savings almost
proportional to the capacity with noload and full-load power.
Power savings can be realized by
using variable-speed control.
Capacity and power vary linearly
with speed. A speed decrease of 10%
will result in a power decrease of
10%. However, variable-speed drives
have a high initial cost and they must
be carefully sized to meet the torque
requirements of the compressor
which generally limits the practical
turndown to 50% to 80%.

Multistage compressors
Multistage compressors are selected when the single stage compressor
design limitations are reached.
Generally, these limitations are:
compression ratio (clearance
volume);
pressure differential;
discharge temperature; and
power savings.
Practical, maximum single-stage
l

l
l
l

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS . FEBRUARY 1993 .

35

AIR AND GAS FLOW

E.H. Livingston is President and CEO of Howden

Compressors Incorporated, Langhorne, PA 19047
Tel: 215/702-7777, Fax: 215/702-7787
His responsibiIities include
management of overall operations,
application and design engineering of piston and diaphragm type reciprocating compressors he has spent 30 years associated
with chemical processing equipment, such
as compressors, pumps, and high pressure
vessels and piping. The author of several
articles on diaphragm compressors and
high pressure equipment, Mr. Livingston
has also lectured in courses on compressors and high pressure equipment for
applications in the chemical and petrochemical industries. He received his engineering degree in chemical engineering
from Drexel University. He is an active
member of AIChE, American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM), ASM
International, and National Association of
Corrosion Engineers (NACE).

compression ratios for piston

diaphragm compressors are 5: 1, and
for diaphragm compressors 8: 1 to
10: 1. These limitations are based on
the clearance volumes and the heat
characteristics of each compressor
type.
High-pressure differentials can
create higher loads (stresses) on the
mechanical parts of the compressor.
In most cases, this can be solved by
multistaging.
High discharge temperatures are to
be avoided to prevent the deterioration of piston rings, packing, and
cylinders. Gas discharge temperatures
should be limited to 200C.
Diaphragm compressors can tolerate
higher gas discharge temperatures
because of the limited use of nonmetallics and a higher rate of heat
rejection.
Power savings from multistaging
can range from 5% to 25% depending on the number of stages. Actual
savings will be a function of the
compressor load factor and compressor size.

In conclusion
The compressor types available to
the process engineer are many and the
proper selection can be quite difficult.
More users are relying on the corn

36

Table 6. Material and construction guidelines

Gas

Type

Remarks

Acetylene

Explosive

Temperature limit, 55 C, low gas

velocity, no copper/copper alloys

Ammonia

Corrosive

No copper/copper alloys

Carbon Dioxide

Corrosive

Corrosive when wet, use 316 SS

Carbon Monoxide

Toxic

Temperature limit 150C, carbon

steel or low nickel alloys

Chlorine

Toxic

Temperature limit 125C,

no hydrocarbon greases/oils
corrosive when wet

Chlorofluorocarbons

Environmental
hazard

Temperature limit 110C, leaktight

construction

Fluorine

Corrosive

Fluorinated hydraulic fluids, 316 SS

or high nickel alloys, degrease all
components

Hydrogen

Explosive

Leaktight construction, potential

embrittlement above 30 MPa

Hydrogen Sulfide

Corrosive

Leaktightness, toxic gas, material

hardness limitations, 21 Rc per
NACE publications

Oxygen

Flammable

Fluorinated hydraulic fluids, 316 SS

or high nickel alloys, degrease all
components, low gas velocity, limit
compression ratios

.
Vinyl Chloride

Flammable

pressor manufacturers to develop the

complete gas handling system for a
particular process. Still, the process
engineer must evaluate and select the
type of compression equipment to be
used. During this phase of the project, several important points must be
considered:
1. Are the process conditions accurately stated and are there any contingencies relating to flow rate and pressure identified?
2. Will the process be scaled-up in
the future and, if so, should the compressor specifications reflect immediate needs, future needs or both?
3. Are standard specifications such
as API 618 relevant to the type of
equipment to be specified? Should a
stand-alone specification be written?

FEBRUARY 1993 . CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRESS

Temperature limit 90C, will

polymerize or liquify

4. Can lubrication be tolerated during compression and if so, must

lubricants be removed from the gas?
5. Can leakage be tolerated?
6. Can neither lubrication or leakage be tolerated?
7. Is there an actual or potential
corrosion problem?
8. Can the manufacturer service
the equipment?
The responses to these questions
are very important and they will help
in the selection process. If there are
questions relating to the type of compressor, controls, process changes,
and the like, discuss these issues with
a manufacturer or another user. If
these steps are not taken, the engineer
is faced with difficult equipment and
cost comparisons.
CEP