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Knowledge of
Process Compressors
How good are
you at selecting
medium-power
reciprocating
compressors?
Edward H. Livingston,
Howden Compressors
Incorporated
he role of compressors in the chemical process industries (CPI) is critical since they are used to circulate
gas through a process, enhance
conditions for chemical reactions, provide
inert gas for safety or control systems,
recover and recompress process gas, and
maintain correct pressure levels by either
adding and removing gas or vapors from a
process system.
The chemical engineer involved with
process design and equipment selection
must have a working knowledge of compressors, since they are the most mechanically complex machinery used in the CPI.
This working knowledge must not only be
related to the thermodynamics of the gas
being compressed, but also to the type of
compressor to be used for a particular
process. The latter has become more important as the result of the passage of the Clean
Air Act Amendments of 1990, legislation
which places limitations on emissions from
process equipment. Fugitive emissions from
such sources as compressors, pumps,
valves, and piping systems and connections
must be reduced over the coming years in
order to comply with EPA Equipment Leak
Regulations.
work done enhances the pressure and density. Flow through the cylinder is controlled
by valve actions. Examples of reciprocating
machines include piston compressors, lubricated and nonlubricated, and metal
diaphragm compressors.
2. Turbomachinery, or dynamic compressors, are those in which a dynamic head
is imparted to the gas by means of high
speed impellers rotating in a confining case.
This category includes axial-flow, radial,
centrifugal and fan-blower compressors.
3. Rotary machines are those in which
gas is moved by the positive displacement
of two rotating lobes or by oscillating vanes
confined in an eccentric cylinder.
4. Ejector machines are those in which
gas is moved by kinetic energy induced
through high-velocity nozzles.
This article will primarily deal with reciprocating, positive displacement compressors
with emphasis placed on applications and
machines having installed power of 200 kW or
less. However, some comments with respect to
larger compressors will be made due to their
importance in process applications.
Before we discuss specific compressor
types in detail, lets look at typical applications of the units.
Brief background
Both positive displacement and dynamic compressors are used in the refining of
crude oil. Crude oil feed-stock contains
polluting compounds such as sulfur, chlorides and salts. Refining processes extract
these pollutants and convert them into
needed byproducts, thus reducing emissions into the atmosphere. Hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide are being treated by
chemical absorption systems such as
27
Hydrotreating
Hydrotreating removes objectionable elements such as sulfur, nitrogen,
oxygen, and halides from feedstock
by reacting them catalytically with
hydrogen. In this application, three
compressors are frequently used: the
recycle compressor which takes
hydrogen-rich gas from the hydrogen
separator and recycles it to the
process front end, the make-up compressor that adds hydrogen to the
process at the front end, and the vent
gas compressor which handles hydrocarbon gas mixtures of molecular
weights from 20 to 40.
The size of the recycle and makeup compressors depends on the
hydrotreater capacity. In general,
recycle compressor flow rates vary
from 25,500 to 127,500 m/h and reciprocating or centrifugal compressors
may be used since compression ratios
are low. The make-up compressor
flow rates vary from 5,950 to 29,750
m/h, and while the flow rates can
support centrifugal design compressors, the compression ratios are too
high for centrifugal design and thus
reciprocating designs are used.
Hydrocracking
Hydrocracking produces gasoline
from heavy feedstocks. In many cases, hydrocracking and cat reforming
units work in unison. Hydrocracking
takes place at higher pressures, 6.9
MPa to 13.8 MPa and has a high concentration of hydrogen with a fixedbed catalyst. Two compressors are
used for this application: the first is
the recycle compressor which takes
hydrogen-rich gas from the separator
and recycles that gas to the process
front end where it mixes with the liquid feedstock, and the second is the
make-up compressor which adds
hydrogen to the process after the separation and before the recycle compressor. The recycle compressor is
28 .
Polymerization
Compressors are required to feed
gases at elevated pressures into reactors or compress gases to a pressure
that will permit liquefaction after
which the liquid is pumped directly
into the reactor. Typical gases compressed include ethylene, hydrogen,
hydrogen chloride, methyl chloride,
phosgene, propane, and butane.
Depending on the polymer and the
process used, pressures can range
from 0.1 MPa to 380 M P a
Electronics
and semiconductors
Gases are produced for the manufacture of electronic components and
semiconductors. Purity of the gases is
vital and ultrapure systems are used in
all phases of manufacturing. Adding
to the purity requirements is the handling problem associated with strong
oxidizers, flammable, pyrophoric,
and highly toxic compounds.
Oxidation processes are used for
the formation of protective silicon
dioxide coating on wafer surfaces.
This is accomplished in a diffusion
furnace in an oxygen atmosphere.
Protective atmosphere doping uses
nitrogen in the purity range of of
99.9999% for the manufacture of
microelectronic components to protect
the material as well as being a carrier
gas for dopants. Chip manufacturing
involves ultrahigh-purity argon for silicon crystal growing, oxide removal
(etching) and doping of wafers for
desired chemical composition.
Manufacturing of integrated circuits and semiconductors use ultrahigh purity gaseous chemicals for dopi n g etching, epitaxy, and ion
implantation. Gaseous chemicals such
as arsine, phosphine, silane or chloroslanes, diborane, halocarbons, hydrogen selenide, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur hexafluoride are used in a mixture
of diluent gases like argon, helium,
nitrogen, and hydrogen.
Hydrogen recovery
Even though the cost of hydrogen
is relatively low, hydrogen is recovered for safety reasons. The hydrogen
vapor from liquid storage tanks is
recovered by a compressor rather than
venting it to the atmasphere. This
reduces the possibilities of auto-ignition, a situation that could occur when
100
10
Gas separation
Cryogenic separation of atmospheric gases results in the highest purity
levels in comparison to membrane separation or Pressure Swing Adsorption
(PSA). If the final product can tolerate
lower gas purity levels, PSA production of nitrogen and oxygen can result
in cost reductions of 20-60%.
Conventional air compressors feed
the PSA unit. Depending on the pressure requirements, reciprocating piston compressor can be installed to
boost the PSA outlet pressure to that
, Pulsation Dampener
inder
Crankcase (Frame)
Nitrogen boosting
Under certain conditions, nitrogen
is required to maintain flow of liquid
First Stage
/ Diaphragm Cylinder
Second Stage
Compressor types
Compressor selection is based on
the process operating variables and
how those variables fit the design
ranges of the types of available compressors. Figure 1 illustrates the range
of compressors used in the CPI.
Positive displacement piston
compressors are normally selected
for applications where the inlet flow
rate is no greater that 6,800 m/h.
Design discharge pressures can
range from 0.5 MPa to 380 MPa. The
latter for small displacement
machines assure low density polyethylene process. Diaphragm compressors, a specialized version of
positive displacement piston compressors, are limited to single cylinder inlet flows up to 204 m/h.
Centrifugal compressors range from
inlet flows of 850 m/h to 340,000 m/h
with case pressures to 70 MPa for small
centrifugal units and considerably lower pressure for large units, and axial
flow compressors range from 34,000
m/h to 1,020,000 m/h with case pressures generally limited to 1 to 2 MPa
for all sizes.
Crankcase (Frame)
\ Last Stage
Crankcase (Frame)
Diaphragm Cylinder 1
First Stage _I
Baseplate
Piston Cylinder
\
Second Stage
Piston Cylinder
Packing Case
Engineering considerations
and economics
For the higher flow rate applications, the process engineer has few
alternatives, with selections being limited to either centrifugal or axial flow
machines. However, in the lower flow
range, several choices are available:
positive displacement piston and
diaphragm compressors, or hybrid
machines that combine piston and
diaphragm cylinders on one crankcase.
General arrangements of these compressors are shown by Figures 2
through 4.
Piston compressors
All piston compressors have a
30
. FEBRUARY 1993
Crankcase
Compression Cylinder
Cylinder
Distance
Valve Hold-down
Vent to Flare
I .
Cylinder
Purge Connection
Valve Flange
Packing Rings
suction Vave
Suction Valve
&Retainer
late them from the crankcase thus preventing oil carryover. The cylinders
may be mounted horizontally, vertically, at an angle, or in combinations of
these on multistage, multithrow
crankcases. Nonlubricated cylinders
are normally limited to pressures of 25
to 41 MPa. A typical non-lubricated
piston cylinder is shown in Figure 7.
For the successful operation of nonlubricated piston compressors, nonmetallic piston rings are required.
Materials such as PTFE with fillers
have proved to be the most efficient.
Discharge Valve
& Retainer
Gas Plate
Contour
Diaphragm Group
O-Ring Seals
Head Integrity O-Ring
Head Integrity
Detection Port
Piston Seals
Piston
Piston Ring
Crankcase
Discharge Valve
31
AIR
AND
GAS
FLOW
Head Integrity
Detection O-Ring
, Gas Plate
Process
O-Ring
Diaphragm
Group
Hydraulic
O-Ring
Oil Plate
Diaphragm compressors
Piston compressors and
diaphragm compressors share
many of the same components:
a crankcase, crankshaft, connecting rod(s), and piston.
The main difference between
piston and diaphragm compressors is how the gas is comVent to Flare
pressed. Unlike other types of
Vent to Flare
reciprocating piston compressors in which the primary dis- nFigure 10. Typical leakage monitoring system.
placing element, a piston, contacts the gas, the metal diaphragm
ture diaphragm failure is minimal. As
compressor completely isolates the
a result, this equipment has become
gas from the displacing element durwidely accepted for all types of conting the entire work cycle. The motion
amination-free applications in laboraof the displacing element is transmittory, pilot, and plant operations.
ted to a hydraulic fluid, and the
Corrosive gases can be handled in
hydraulic fluid transmits its motion to
these compressors because the comone or more thin, flexible metal discs
pression cylinder can be manufaccalled diaphragms. This motion
tured from virtually any machinable
causes the diaphragm to move into the
material. Certain limitations do apply
compression chamber, reducing the
and these limitations are related to the
volume and thereby increasing the
diaphragm material. Materials of congas pressure. See Figure 8.
struction commonly used for gas conBecause the diaphragms isolate the
tacting parts include 17-4ph, 17-7ph,
gas from the compressor lubricants,
the discharged gas is as pure as the
304SS, 316SS, 400SS, 20Cb, nickel,
gas entering the compression head.
carbon and low alloy steels. Designs
The gas only contacts clean, dry
to handle H2S and conforming to
National Association of Corrosion
metallic surfaces and static elastomer
Engineers (NACE) MR-01-75 can be
or metallic seals. With improved
produced.
diaphragm materials and contour configurations, reliability of these
The benefit of a no-leakage design
is evident and is of greater importance
machines has been demonstrated by
with the advent of the Clean Air Act.
years of service in critical applications. With proper installation and
Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacmaintenance, the likelihood of prema
turing Industry (SOCMI) factors have
32
Hybrid compressors
Hybrid compressors are
unique since they combine nonlubricated piston technology with
diaphragm technology on one
reciprocating frame (crankcase).
These compressors find application
when inlet pressures are low, the gas
flow rates are relatively high, and
the gas must be compressed to high
pressure. Depending on the gas flow
rate, multiple two or three stage
diaphragm compressors, or a five
stage piston compressor may otherwise be required. To avoid such a
situation, two or three stages of nonlubricated piston cylinders are used
with a final stage diaphragm cylinder. In a single machine, the large
capacity of a piston compressor is
combined with the high pressure
and leak-tight performance of a
diaphragm cylinder.
designer may concentrate on the clearance volume reduction to improve volumetric efficiency and valve losses
could be high, thus affecting compression efficiency. A decrease in compression efficiency leads to increased
power requirements.
Compression efficiency (valve
design effect) is also illustrated in
Figure 11. The pressure increases
along curve ABC, and when the
cylinder pressure exceeds the line discharge pressure P2 at point B, system
energy unseats the discharge valve.
Pressure spikes to point C, and the gas
is released into the discharge piping.
The discharge event is a series of
pressure waves that will degenerate
until the piston reaches the end of its
stroke at point D. From top dead center, unexpelled gas pushes on the piston and expands along curve DEF.
Slightly below point E at P1, the pressure is further reduced to point F.
Here a sufficient differential pressure
exists to unseat the suction valve. Gas
is drawn in by the piston for the
remainder of the stroke until the piston reaches bottom dead center.
Lubricated
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
Nonlubricated
Diaphragm
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.9
1.7
1.6
33
AIR
AND
GAS
FLOW
Compressor Type
Lube or NL piston
NL piston or diaphragm
All
Diaphragm
Oiaphragm or NL piston
Diaphragm
Lube or NL piston
Hybrid
NL piston or diaphragm
Lube piston or diaphragm
Engineering economics
For comparison purposes, capital
cost factors for lubricated, non-lubricated and diaphragm compressors arc
given in Table 1. These values are relative and are based on manufacturers
standard materials of construction
and exclude drivers.
Performance cost factors are usually based on such ratios as cost/kW,
cost/m/h, and cost/Nm/h. Whatever
measurement is used, the piston compressor has the most favorable ratio
within the context of its application.
However, relative cost factors should
not be the sole criteria for compressor
selection assuming that any of the
types discussed have the pressure and
displacement capabilities. Process or
environmental constraints can raise
the cost factors of lubricated piston
compressors above other types.
Cleanup and disposal equipment and
monitoring instruments for hazardous
gases will rapidly escalate the ratios.
This points out the need to match
application. In Table 2, some typical
selection guidelines are given.
Applications requiring compression equipment to boost pressure in
the range of 101 kPa to 21 MPa and as
high as 40 MPa should consider the
use of hybrid compressors. These
34
Process and
equipment considerations
Process c o n t a c t i n g materials of
construction. Table 3 lists typical
Material
Remarks
Gray Iron
Ductile Cast Iron (DCI)
Steel
Stainless Steel
Pressures to 10 MPa
Pressure to 16 MPa
Pressure to 400 MPa
Pressure to 25 MPa
Piston
Aluminum
Cast Iron, Steel
Stainless Steel
Liners
Most common
Low temperature, corrosion
Corrosive conditions
Packing
PTFE-Fitted
Metal
Pressures to 28 MPa
Pressures > 28 MPa
Component
Material
Remarks
Component
Material
Remarks
Gas Plate
Carbon Steel
Low Alloy Steel
304 SS, 316 SS
17-4 PH, A296
High Nickel Alloys
20C b-3
Pressure to 63 MPa
Pressure to 200 MPa
Pressure to 63 MPa
Pressure to 200 M Pa
Pressure to 63 MPa
Pressure to 63 MPa
Valve Seat/Guards
Steel
400 ss
17-4 PH
Valve Discs
400 ss
17-4 PH/17-7 PH
316 SS
Plastics
Standard
Corrosion resistant
Corrosion resistant
Corrosion resistant/valve action
Ni-Cu alloy
Oxidizer service
Springs
17-7 PH
Nickel superalloy
302 SS, 316 SS
Standard
Corrosion resistant
Corrosion resistant
Diaphragms
Energy use
In todays energy conscious environment, users require the correct
solution for gas compression applications. Energy costs can amount to
80% of a compressors operating cost.
It is important to use only the energy
required for the process.
Multistage compressors
Multistage compressors are selected when the single stage compressor
design limitations are reached.
Generally, these limitations are:
compression ratio (clearance
volume);
pressure differential;
discharge temperature; and
power savings.
Practical, maximum single-stage
l
l
l
l
35
In conclusion
The compressor types available to
the process engineer are many and the
proper selection can be quite difficult.
More users are relying on the corn
36
Type
Remarks
Acetylene
Explosive
Ammonia
Corrosive
No copper/copper alloys
Carbon Dioxide
Corrosive
Carbon Monoxide
Toxic
Chlorine
Toxic
Chlorofluorocarbons
Environmental
hazard
Fluorine
Corrosive
Hydrogen
Explosive
Hydrogen Sulfide
Corrosive
Oxygen
Flammable
.
Vinyl Chloride
Flammable