Sarah Reyner

BSC 251L
Section 3
Fall 2013

Table of Contents

1.

Permanently Damaged

2.

The Imperative Role of Cranial Nerves

3.

Why Sugar is Sweet

4.

The Fuel Factory of the Human Body

5.

Miraculous Conception

6.

Marijuana as a Medicine

Permanently Damaged

The spinal chord is the primary relay center that delivers signals from the brain
to the body and vice versa. It is responsible for the integration of both motor functions
and sensory perception, and is therefor highly detrimental when injured. Specialized
structures called meninges surround the chord and the vertebral column to provide
cushioning and protection. Ironically, these structures are often the cause of injury to
the spinal chord when they become dislodged. Injury from acute force against the spine
is usually the origin of spinal damage. Disabilities can also be congenitally acquired,
meaning that they were acquired prenatally or at birth. Because there is such high
variation among spinal ailments, they are therefor categorized based on their location
within the vertebral column. Such anatomical groupings are responsible for the major
distinctions between paraplegic and quadriplegic (Smith 2012).
Paraplegia is a spinal malfunction occurring in the thoracic, lumbar, or sacral
regions of the spine. It can be caused from various activities that over exert pressure on
the spine or from fetal defects received before birth. Unlike most injuries, the symptoms
resulting from paraplegia are immediate and most likely permanent. The spinal cord
consists of many nerve bodies and fibers, which lack the ability to mend itself when
traumatized. Such symptoms include loss of sensation and motor function from the
waist down and potential sexual and urinary control. A majority of the cases of
paraplegia lose their ability to walk while few retain some form of motor skills. Because
these victims are immobile for the remainder of their life, their life expectancy is
severely reduced (Smith 2012).
Imagine waking up with no abilities to move anything past your neck. This
nightmare is called quadriplegic, and results with the paralysis of all four limbs and
occasionally portions of the trunk. If it spreads to the trunk, the patient may experience

urinary, bowel, sexual, and respiratory difficulties. Those suffering from such
complications are often hospitalized and connected to apparatuses that replace the
struggling structure (Smith 2012). As with paraplegia, quadriplegia is caused by trauma
or congential deformities and is usually a permanent condition once the spinal cord has
been damaged. However, paraplegia displays differently in victims because the damage
is done above the thoracic region of the spinal cord, or the neck region (Vanputte et al.
2011).
Unfortunately, both victims of paraplegia and quadriplegia have little hope for
full recovery. Given any treatment, the chance that impaired nerves will repair
themselves is extremely unlikely. Because a majority of these cases originate by
accident, it is difficult to prevent spinal damage from occurring.
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The Imperative Role of Cranial Nerves

Cranial nerves play a crucial role in the nervous system of the human body.
There are a total of twelve nerves attributed to this group, each of which originate in the
brain. The first two nerves diverge and extend to the brainstem while the remaining

nine disassociate from all cranial structures and attach to the spinal cord (Vanputte et
al. 2011). Roman numerals I-XII are used to label these 12 nerves ordinally, initiating
with the foremost, frontal nerve and progressing to the final dorsal nerve (Gutierrez et
al. 2012). Furthermore, each are grouped into one or more of the functional groups,
which include: sensory, somatic motor, and parasympathetic (Vanputte et al. 2011).
Three nerves are limited to only sensory functions, which include the olfactory,
optic, and vestibulocochlear nerves. The olfactory nerve (I), is located in the cribiform of
the ethmoid bone. This nerve grants olfaction abilities by transmitting various scents
away from the nasal cavity. The Optic nerve (II) enables the special sense of sight, by
transmitting visual information from the retinal tunic of the eye to the brain through the
optic disk. The vestibulochochlear nerve is primarily responsible for the auditory and
equilibrium special senses (Vanputte et al. 2011).
The trochlear, abducens, accessory, and hypoglossal cranial nerves function
primarily in motor innervation. The trochlear (IV) nerve innervates the superior
oblique, one of the eye muscles that allows the eye to move in inferior and lateral
directions. The lateral rectus, an additional muscle responsible for eye movement, is
innervated by a abducens (VI) nerve. This sixth nerve is a somatic motor nerve that is
responsible for binocular vision. Movement of the back and shoulder muscles of the
trapezius is controlled by motor function of the accessory (XI) nerve. The hypoglossal
(XII) nerve allows the ability to swallow by innervating several muscles of the tongue
and throat (Vanputte et al. 2011).
The remaining five cranial nerves have a combination of two or more functions.
The cranial nerve associated with the eye is the oculomotor nerve (II), which has motor
and parasympathetic functions. It sends motor information to the four rectus muscles

of the eye, enabling eye ball movement, while parasympathetic fibers manipulate the
size and shape of the lens and pupil (Vanputte et al. 2011). The largest cranial nerve is
the fifthly ranked, trigeminal (V) nerve. This nerve has both motor and sensory
functions. It receives and transmits sensory input from the surface of the eye, primarily
from the conjunctiva and cornea, and portions of the nasal and oral cavity. It also
innervates several muscles involved in chewing, one palatine and inner ear muscle, and
two throat muscles. The ability to smile and frown is granted by the facial (VII) nerve,
which has both motor and sensory functions. Along with the muscles of facial
expression, this nerve also innervates one muscle of the inner ear and two throat
muscles. The sensory function of the facial (VII) nerve supplies gustation to two-thirds
of the tongue and produces saliva in the oral cavity (Vanputte et al. 2011).
The remaining one-third of the sensory perception on the tongue are transmitted
by the sensory function of the glossopharyngeal (IX) nerve. This function also transmits
general sensory input from areas proximal to the pharynx and middle ear. The final
cranial nerve is the vagus (X) nerve. This nerve is vital to the parasympathetic division
of the autonomic system, housing around 75% of the neurons involved in its activities.
Additionally, its sensory function provides taste perception to the bottom of the tongue
and throat. Swallowing and voice production is enabled by the vagus nerves motor
function on the muscles of the throat (Vanputte et al. 2011).
The transmission of information in and out of the brain is the role of each of
these twelve cranial nerves. Each nerve has a unique sensory, motor, or a combination
of functions that enable the human body to perform certain essential tasks and perceive
various general and special senses.

Word Count: 667

Why Sugar is Sweet

When we bite into a cookie, the sweet taste of the baked dough and chocolate
chips is due to the special sense of gustation. This ability to perceive taste is the main
function of sensory structures called taste buds (Gutierrez et al. 2012). These stimuli
detectors are arranged throughout various areas in the oral cavity including the lips,
throat, tongue, and palate. However, papillae, or specialized bumps embedded in the
surface of the tongue, house a majority of these taste receptors. Papillae do not hold the

ability to detect taste; they are only bumps on the tongue that enclose the taste buds, the
true gustatory receptors (Vanputte et al. 2011).
Papillae are found on various regions of the tongue and display contrasting
shapes. These distinct characteristics are used to differentiate papillae into 4 groups:
filiform, vallate, foliate, and fungiform. Although palpillae houses taste buds, only
vallate, foliate, and fungiform are associated with gustatory perception (Gutierrez et al.
2012). The vallate papilla are located sparingly in a V shape on the back of the tongue
and are surrounded with a wall. The sides of the tongue contain foliate papilla, which
encompass a leaf like form. The fungiform papilla appear similar to a mushroom and
irregularly cover the surface of the tongue. Also located on the surface of the tongue is
the filament shaped, filiform papilla. Although they play no role in taste perception,
their abundant projections create a rough surface that aids in maneuvering food in the
oral cavity (Vanputte et al. 2011).
Have you ever wondered why children pinch their nose to prepare for unpleasant
tastes. This is because sensory input of taste and olfaction strongly correlate. When a
source of taste approaches the mouth, the nose and the mouth both detect the chemical
stimuli using chemoreceptors. Taste and smell are used simultaneously to enhance
flavor sensations. Their relationship exists in respect to the perception of flavor. When
a child holds their nose, they are blocking their ability to detect odor, limiting their
sensation to only taste (Vanputte et al. 2011).
The sugary experience of biting into a cookie is primarily due to the gustatory
perceptions that taste buds provide. Located within papillae throughout the oral cavity,
these sensory receptors detect various flavors. The combination of the two special
senses of smell and taste result in enhanced flavor detection (Vanputte et al. 2011).

Word Count: 403

The Fuel Factory of the Human Body

When you eat a cheeseburger, chances are that you are not wondering how your
body transports and processes it into fuel, you just trust that it will. In order to supply
enough energy to perform everyday tasks, the digestion system must convert that food
into a form that every system in your body can use. To do so, the digestive system
ingests food, transports to digestive organs where it is converted into useful substances
which are then absorbed, ridding the excessive materials as waste (Vanputte et al. 2011).
The first step on the journey through the digestive system begins with the first
bite. When food enters the oral cavity, it is broken down into smaller, more manageable

sizes by teeth controlled by the muscles of mastication. The saliva initiates digestion of
carbohydrates using enzymes called amylase. Once the the food reaches at an optimal
condition to advance, the tongue pushes it down the pharynx. This involuntary motor
movement called swallowing, sends the food through the pharynx, and down an
additional transportation tube called the esophagus, which opens into the stomach
(Vanputte et al. 2011).
The environment in the stomach cavity suits its function. The fluid that fills its
interior contain hydrochloric acid and pepsin creating a high acidity level. This
harshness of the acidity acts on the more difficult substances to digests, such as protein.
After approximately 4 hours, the liquified version of the ingested food, called chyme, is
propelled to the small intestine (Vanputte et al. 2011).
When the chyme reaches the small intestine it has been pumped full of called
bile, a substance created by the liver, and bicarbonate ions from the pancreas. Digestion
then continues as bile breaks down fat molecules while the lining of the tract finalizes
any remaining undigested particles. As the digested solution advances through the
small intestine, small projections attached to the walls, called villi, absorb a select
portion of the substance. Small capillaries connected to the villi transport the absorbed
material to the rest of the body (Vanputte et al. 2011).
The remaining substance not absorbed by the villi then flows into the large
intestine, where water is removed and transported to the veinous system. After
lingering for about 12 hours in the large intestine, it has been converted to feces and
excreted out of an opening in the anus (Vanputte et al. 2011).
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Miraculous Conception
The process of creating a human being is a miracle in itself. The reproductive
system grants men and women the ability to create a child. This anatomical unit
consists of several sex organs that serve the sole purpose of reproduction. As we all
know, it takes both male and female gametes to initiate fetal development. The
dramatic contrasts between the development and function of each sexs reproductive
structures are what distinguish genders and are responsible for the wonder of
procreation (Vanputte et al. 2011). The development of haploid reproductive cells
known as gametes are essential in the reproductive cycle. The female eggs, or oocytes
and invaded and fertilized by the male sperm cell. The combination of the two gamete
cells result in fetal growth (Vanputte et al. 2011).

The development of sperm cells in males is known as spermatogenesis. From the

onset of puberty, this process initiates in the seminiferous tubules, which are lobules
located inside the male testes. Cells inside the tubules, known as spermatogonium,
divide by mitosis to produce identical daughter cells called primary spermatocytes.
These daughter cells then divide by meiosis to produce secondary spermatocytes, which
divide by once again meiotically to form spermatids. The completion of sperm cell
development is termed spermiogenesis. During this period, the cell acquires a head and
tail. Enzymes that enable sperm cells to invade female oocytes are positioned on the
head of the sperm cell in a cap called the acrosome. The tail, which connects to the
sperm cell body, is called a flagellum. This long structure allows sperm cell mobilization
(Vanputte et al. 2011).
Oocyte, or female egg production is called oogenesis. The occurrence of this
process significantly contrasts with male spermatogenesis. Male sperm cells begin
development at the start of puberty, whereas female oocytes demonstrate a majority of
growth prenatally, starting with diploid reproductive cells called oongonia. Their
mitotic division forms separate daughter oongonia cells called primary oocytes. These
cells retain from further division until the pubescent period. This developmental stage
is distinguished by the onset of ovulation, during which the ovary discharges secondary
oocytes which are the products of the meiotic division of primary oocytes. From then
on, the secondary oocyte relies solely on male sperm to activate any further division
(Vanputte et al. 2011).
Both male and female development of gametes are suspended until they merge
during sexual intercourse. This gamete unification, known as fertilization, occurs when
the secondary oocytes membrane is invaded by the male sperm cell. The onset of this

newfound relationship sparks prenatal development. The 3 stages of this period begins
with the initial fertilization and conclude at birth (Vanputte et al. 2011).
The initial stage of fetal growth is called the germinal period. This stage extends
for 14 days following the fertilization of the egg by the sperm, collectively called a zygote.
Soon after conception, this zygote begins its journey from the ovaries to the uterus
through hollow structures known as fallopian tubes. Once inside the uterine walls, the
zygote cell begins to proliferate and eventually forms a hollow multi-cell structure called
a blastocyst. The hollow body of the blastocyst is composed of the layers: the ectoderm,
endoderm, and mesoderm, which act as blueprints for future development of major
functional systems. As this triple layered mass of cells reaches the uterus, it becomes
implanted in the uterine lining, which will nourish the fetus for the remainder of
development (Vanputte et al. 2011).
At the start of the third week when the zygote experiences implantation, it
becomes an embryo. This marks the beginning of the third through 8th week of
development, the second prenatal period called the embryonic period. During this time,
the germ layers formed during the germinal period distinguish themselves into organs.
However, it is not until day 56 until the organs begin mature to the level of proper
function. This final stage is called the fetal stage. With a duration spanning from week
9 until birth, it is no surprise that the fetus undergoes the most drastic changes during
this period (Vanputte et al. 2011).
The birth of a child from a mothers womb reflects the synchronization of the
male and female reproductive system. Conception is a result of a the fertilization of an
oocyte from a sperm following male-female sexual intercourse. The 9 month journey
from this initial affixation to the birth of the fetus is segregated into 3 phases based on

prenatal developmental feats. Reproductive structures begin development prenatally

and dramatically accelerate at the start of puberty. The maturation of these structures
enables procreation which initiates the development of a new reproductive system,
forming an infinitive cycle (Vanputte et al. 2011).
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Marijuana as a Medicine
The medicinal purposes of the plant Cannabis sativa, popularly known as
marijuana have a documented history in the United States dating back to the early 17th
century. Settlers of Jamestown, Virginia initially imported the plant to produce hemp,
however, it was soon recognized for its therapeutic purposes in 1850 when it was
published in the U.S. Pharmoacopeia, a well known medical reference book. However,
social reform during the 20th century brought disapproving mindsets towards the use of
marijuana for recreational use. Consequently, by 1937 both the possession and sale of
the drug became illegal in every state. It wasnt until the 1970s that physicians were
prohibited from prescribing it to patients for medicinal use. Since its complete
prohibition, marijuana has slowly arisen back into medical practice. Today, beginning
with California, 21 states and the District of Columbia have allowed marijuana for
medicinal use in some form. Such reform has uprooted a controversial debate over the
use of medical marijuana as a beneficial treatment verses being a dangerous and
addictive means of abuse (Procon 2013).

A majority of the argument against the use of marijuana as a narcotic strongly

relates to the opposition for recreational use as well. The first point made in their
argument is based off of moral reasoning. They claim that it would place a damper on
the United States governmental institutions if they were to legally distribute this drug.
Also, the use of marijuana clouds judgement and cognitive skills which raises the
potential for those prescribed to make moral or irrational decisions that they wouldnt
have made without it (Procon 2013).
Furthermore, the distribution will provide easier availability for those who abuse
the drug recreationally. Easier accessibility creates the potential for new users and
abusers. The second argument stems from the abuse of the drug. Opponents claim that
the addictive qualities of marijuana could make the prescribed patients dependent on
the drug. Additionally, the initial use of marijuana is claimed to lead to the use of more
harsh and effective drugs, formally labeling it as a gateway drug. (Procon 2013)
The major claim main for the argument against medically prescribed marijuana
is that there is not sufficient evidence that backs the pharmaceutical benefits that
proponents claim it provides. They believe that the few studies that have been
conducted do not support marijuana being any more sufficient than current drugs on
the market. Additionally, because it has to be inhaled into the lungs in the form of
smoke, the potential for health risks exist. Some of the results of the studies that have
been conducted on cannabis claim that these potential health risks include inclined
heart rate and blood pressure upon inhalation. Opponents use these results to argue
that although the plant does help certain symptoms, the side effects of smoking it makes
it unsafe and inferior to current pharmaceuticals and treatments (Procon 2013).

On the opposite side of the spectrum, the argument proposes the legalization of
Cannabis sativa for the use of alternative treatments for a variety of illnesses, ailments,
and symptoms. The numerous medical benefits that it provides are used to contradict
the oppositions claim about marijuanas invalidity as a treatment. Supporters claim
that the jarring symptoms of multiple sclerosis, cancer, and AIDS can be relieved by the
use of weed. Also, that its potential side effects are minuscule compared to the
harshness of the current drugs used to treat the same ailments. Such drugs are
hazardous to the body because they can be immensely toxic. Thus, the argument is that
marijuana is a natural alternative to chemically produced medications and is therefore a
safer and more effective alternative (Procon 2013).
The next supporting argument tackles the oppositions claim of the addictive
nature of weed. Primarily, they claim that the potential to form a habit from its use is
significantly smaller than the dependence that comes from the use of alcohol, nicotine,
and other medications. Each of these more addictive substances are legal to be
prescribed by physicians and all have withdrawal symptoms associated with their use.
Marijuana does not have a distinct withdrawal effect after its use which is the most
difficult symptom of addiction to overcome. Therefore, the comparison of dependency
amongst users of weed to legal alternatives nullifies the argument surrounding its
addictiveness (Procon 2013).
Next, the proposition claims that the term gateway drug that surrounds
marijuana is unrealistic and mediocre when discussing its medicinal purposes. They
claim that the argument of using this natural method will eventually lead to harsher
drugs is based on the personal tendencies of its users. The progression to these forms of
drugs is inevitable for those who are inclined for addictive and abusive tendencies. They

claim that the reason marijuana is targeted is due to the fact that it is the easiest to
obtain and therefore is the first on the list for recreational drug abuse (Procon 2013).
The side that I have chosen on this debate is surprising due to the fact that I am,
by nature, a conservative person. I believe that the benefits that Cannabis sativa
provides are more significant than the social and personal issues that is raises as well as
potential side effects. With hopes of being employed as a nurse in the upcoming future,
I have put a lot of thought into this debate. By working in the medical field, I will be
exposed to a great deal of disparities and I would not like to deny treatment to any
patient, especially if it is the best possible option.
Firstly, many of the claims against the validity of marijuanas medicinal purposes
can be expunged by taking several measures. For example, apprehension due to the lack
of medical experimentation can be easily affirmed. This is an obvious solution: to
conduct experimental investigations on determining the benefits and side effects of
marijuana and compare the results with the currently prescribed medications.
Secondly, the numerous claims opponents are making about weed can just as
easily be redirected towards the current drugs on the market. Narcotics and other
regulated drugs have just as high, if not higher, risks for addiction. These drugs can also
be trafficked illegally for recreational use. Finally, I do agree with the argument of
marijuana as a gateway drug. Although drug abusers tend to begin their habits with
marijuana due to easy access, the point is moot because this gateway leads to the
abuse of the currently prescribed narcotics. Essentially, the drugs that we are worried
that drug abuse will lead to are the ones that we are legalizing.
The two spectrums of this argument rank either as conservative or liberal. The
conservative side aims to preserve the current systems set in place, opposing the

legalization of marijuana for medical use. On the other hand, the proponents of
medicinal weed aim to push the boundaries and experiment with new methods and
treatments. Although, I fall into the proposing category, my argument differs from the
majority. I see not legalizing this drug as denying an effective treatment to a patient in
pain. I also believe that using this natural alternative to treat patients will decrease the
usage of the more serious narcotics that are currently being prescribed.
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Resource Cited
Gutierrez. M, Regan. J. 2012. Anatomy and Physiology II Lab Manual. The Department
of Biological Sciences, University of Southern Mississippi. Hattiesburg, MS.
ProCon.org. (2013, October 15). Should Medical Marijuana Be an Option. Retrieved
from http://medicalmarijuana.procon.org/
Smith, N. (2012). Paraplegia and quadriplegia. Informally published manuscript,
Department of Pediatrics, New York University, New York, NY, Retrieved from
http://pediatrics.med.nyu.edu/conditions-we-treat/conditions/quadriplegiaand-paraplegia
Vanputte, Regan, Russo. 2011. Seelys Anatomy and Physiology. 9th Edition.
McGraw

Hill.

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