BSC 251: Exam 2 Notes

Chapter 14: Integration of Nervous System Functions Part One

Seeley: Read pp. 471 484
Learning Outcomes:
1. List and describe the various types of sensory receptors and describe
their functions. What is a receptive field?
2. Define adaptation.
3. Describe the functions of the anterolateral and dorsal column/mediallemniscal systems and describe where the neurons of these systems
decussate and synapse.
4. Describe the structure and function of the spinocerebellar tracts.
Within the white columns of the spinal cord are tracts that carry information
to and from the brain
Ascending tracts are sensory

pathway begins with a receptor

pass thru neurons
ends in brain (primary sensory cortex or cerebellum)
Descending tracts are motor

Sensations

perception of a stimulus

conscious awareness of stimulation

proprioception: the perception of position and movements of parts of the body

arriving info

Types of Senses (means by which the brain perceives info about environment-how
brain receives AP)

Special
o specialized receptors located in specific spot
o more specialized in structure
o have specialized nerve endings
o localized to specific organs
o smell, taste, sight, hearing, and balance

General

o receptors distributed over a large part of the body

o somatic: include touch, pressure, itch, vibration, temperature,
proprioception, and pain;
provide sensory info about the body and environment
o visceral: provide info about pain and pressure of internal organs
Types of sensory receptors
1.

Mechanoreceptors:
a. respond to mechanical stimuli such as compression, bending, or stretching of cells
b. sensitive to distortion of the cell membrane from pressure, touch, itch, vibration,
proprioception, hearing, and balance
c. 3 kinds
i. tactile: touch/pressure/vibration
ii. baroreceptors: pressure changes (blood vessels, digestive and urinary tract)
iii.

proptioceptors: position of joints/muscles

2. Chemoreceptors: sensitive to changes in chemical concentrations of certain

chemicals; pain
3.

Thermoreceptors: temperature receptors

a. respond to changes in temp at the site of the receptor and are necessary for sense
of temp
b. located in dermis, skeletal muscle, liver, and hypothalamus
c. cold and warm receptors

4.

Nocioceptors: pain receptors

a. superficial
b. respond to painful mechanical, chemical and thermal stimuli
c. some sensitive to temp, chemicals from damaged cells or foreign ones
d. large receptive field-respond to more than one type of stimulus

5. Photoreceptors: respond to light striking the receptor cells and are necessary for
vision; in eye
6. Exteroceptors: receptors that detect changes in EXTERNAL environment
7.

Visceroceptors: interoreceptors ->monitor visceral organs and functions

a. sensitive to change in INTERNAL environment/organs

8.

Proprioreceptors: perception of body postition, movement, and the extent of

stretch or the force of muscular contractions
a. mechanob. in muscles, tendons, (ex) joints

Characteristics of Receptors:

Specificity: receptors are very sensitive to typical stimulation

allows us to detect original stimulus

labeled line: link (neural) receptor to appropriate part of CNS

Receptive field: area monitored by a single receptor. Vary in size

gives our degree of sensitivity

Labelled lines: are the links between the (neural) receptor and the CNS. Action
potentials conducted along a labelled line are always perceived as one
modality(type of stimulus), no matter what caused the action potential.

Adaptation: reduction in sensitivity in the presence of a constant stimulation

overtime

takes a stronger stimulus to generate an AP

Can occur in PNS or CNS

Peripheral adaptation: occurs in the PNS, at the receptor or sensory

neuron.

Central adaptation: occurs along the sensory pathway.

Organization of Sensory Pathways:

pathway begins with a receptor

pass thru neurons

ends in brain (primary sensory cortex or cerebellum)

1. First order neurons

PNS

dendrites are receptor, or synapse with receptor in CNS

sensory neuron delivering information to CNS (conduct AP in response to the

receptor potentia)

soma located in the dorsal root ganglion/cranial nerve ganglion

synapse with interneurons in the CNS

2.

Second order neurons

in CNS (spinal cord or brain stem)

usually interneurons that receive information from first order neurons

axons cross to opposite side of the body: decussation

3. Third order neurons

located in the thalamus

carry information to the cerebrum

sypnapse with neurons of the primary sensory cortex

Three Major Somatic Sensory Pathways (each with two pairs of spinal tracts)
-names match with sensations
Anterolateral Pathway

1.

sensation: crude touch, pressure, pain, temperature

pathway: peripheral receptors to primary sensory cortex (always aware of these)

decussation occurs within the spinal cord

includes spinothalamic, spinoreticular, and spinomesencephalic tracts

spinothalamic: carries pain and temp info, as well as light touch and pressure,
tickle, and itch sensations
spinoreticular: pain
spinomesencephalic: pain and touch
Phantom Limb Pain and Referred pain are due to the stimulation of neurons within
the pathway of spinal tract and not necessarily the stimulation of a receptor
Phantom limb pain: still can perceive stimulation in location where a lost limb use
to be
Referred pain: painful sensation in a region of the body that is not the source of the
pain stimulus; cell damage which puts pain in another part of body (ex: pain in arm
during heart attack)
2.

Dorsal (posterior) Column Pathway/medial lemniscal pathway

carries the sensaation of two-point discrimination (fine touch), proprioception,

pressure, and vibration
lemniscal refers to the ribbon-like pathway as it passes thru brain

sensations: fine touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception

pathway: begins in peripheral receptor ends in the primary sensory cortex

spinal tracts: fasciculus gracilis and fasciculus cuneatus

fasciculus gracilis: (ASCENDING) passes through the nucleus gracilis of

medulla and carries information from the lower half of the body to
thalamus (3rd) then to primary sensory cortex

fasciculus cuneatus: (ASCENDING) passes through the nucleus cuneatus

of medulla (decussation) and carries information from the upper half of
the trunk to thalamus and then primary sensory cortex (3rd)

sensory homunculus: maps body parts associated with region of primary sensory
cortex that was stimulated

We are aware of the location of sensation due to the specificity of the area of the
primary sensory cortex that is stimulated

proportion of the primary sensory cortex dedicated to any region of the body is
proprotional to the # of receptors in that area

3. Spinocerebellar Pathway

sensation: proprioceptive information ONLY (position of skeletal muscles,

tendons, joints)

pathway: receptor to cerebellum

some decussation (cross to opposite side)

no third order (no thalamus)

not conscious of this

Motor Pathways
Learning Outcomes
1. Distinguish between upper and lower motor neurons
2. State the location of the primary motor cortex.
3. List the tracts and their functions for both the direct and indirect motor
pathways.
4. Describe the roles of the basal nuclei and the cerebellum in muscle
movement.
Somatic motor system: motor pathways of the somatic nervous system

skeletal muscle control

voluntary
cerbrum
Visceral moter system: motor pathways of the autonomic nervous system

control of other tissue types (cardiac, smooth, glandular tissue)

hypothalamus
Organization of the somatic motor pathways: 2 neurons
can control force of contractions

upper motor neurons: located in the CNS processing center

connect to lower motor neurons directly or thru interneurons
axons extend down thru stem and some into spinal cord
synapse with laver

 cell bodies located in cerebral cortex

lower motor neurons: located in the brain stem or spinal cord

axons extend thru ventral root (axons leave the CNS and extend thru
peripheral nerves to supply skeletal muscle)

motor unit: peripheral neurons that innervate the muscles

single neuron that synapses with many fibers it innervates

if a lower motor neuron is stimulated a muscle will contract (all fibers it

innervates will contract at the same time)

Two Motor Pathways that are highly integrated: SOMATIC

*Direct (pyramidal) and Indirect (extrapyramidal) pathways (See table 14.4
p. 492)
(1)

Direct pathways

PYRAMIDAL

upper motor neurons in cerebral cortex synapse directly with motor

neurons in brainstem or spinal cord

fibers of these pathways form the medullary pyramids

oluntary control of skeletal muscle

[upper motor neurons] pyramidal cells of primary motor cortex and premotor
cortex of frontal lobe of cerebrum (controls voluntary muscle contractions)
descend into brain stem and spinal cord and synapse with lower motor neurons

tracts include: corticobulblar tracts and corticospinal tracts

corticobulbar tracts: control muscle movement of eye, jaw, face, neck and
pharynx (had and face)

cranial nerves

ex: facial expression and chewing

corticospinal tracts: control other skeletal muscle movement; structures of

the body (below the head, esp. the hands)

lateral: movements of neck, trunk, upper and lower limbs, esp

fingers; ex: typing and pushups

anterior: ex: movement of neck and trunk; moving with a hula

hoop

damage to these tracts does NOT cause complete paralysis

stimulation of specific region of the primary motor cortex will result in specific
muscle contraction

size of primary motor cortex dedicated to body region is proportional to the # of

motor units (homunculus)

main function: to regulate speed and agility of movements; damage to direct

pathway does not cause complete paralysis

(2) Indirect pathways

EXTRAPYRAMIDAL

axons do not pass thru pyramids or corticobulbar tracts

involves subconscious control of skeletal muscle by cerebrum, diencephalon and

brain stem (posture and balance control) (smooth muscle movements)

modifies commands issued by pyramidal system

cerebral nuclei and cerebellum modify activity of both motor pathways

upper neurons of the indirect pathways are located in the cerebrum and
cerebellum and synapse with intermediate nuclei rather than lower motor
neurons

tracts of the indirect pathway system

rubrospinal tract: involves the red nucleus; determines the tone of skeletal
muscles particularly in the distal portions of the upper limbs (arms)

movement coordination

ex: positioning of digits and the palm of the hand when reaching
out to grasp

vestibulospinal tract: maintains posture and balance, receives information

via cranial nerves (receptors of the ear, vestibular nerve) about position of
the head, motor commands alter muscle tone, extension, and position of
the neck, eyes, head and limbs

maintenance of upright posture and balance

ex: extension of the upper limbs when falling

origin: vestibular nucleus

reticulospinal tract: maintenance of posture and balance and walking

origin: nuclei of reticular formation

in response to ongoing movement (ex: walking)

tectospinal tract: muscular response to bright light, sudden movement and

loud noises

movements of the head and neck in response to visual and auditory

reflexes

ex: movement of head and neck away from a sudden flash of light

nuclei located in superior colliculus of tectum (midbrain)

Basal Nuclei: at border of diencephalon and cerebrum

modulate activity: walk AND talk at the same time

adjust the activities of the direct and indirect pathways (somatic)

important in the initiation of movements and maintaining movement

maintains background levels of muscle contractions allowing for repeated activity

disorders associated with the basal nuclei include Parkinson disease and cerebral
palsy, OCD, schizophrenia

Cerebellum:

modulate activity: posture and balance

maintains muscle tone in postural muscles

controls balance, particularly during movement

coordinates eye movements

comparator: quality control

regulates upper motor neuron activity
compares intended movements with current movements and adjust activity to
ensure smooth, coordinated movement
adjust activation of motor units dependent on balance and proprioception as well
as past experience
voluntary movements begin with the activation of more motor units than
necessary, cerebellum reduces the number of motor units activated

Parkinson Disease:

excitatory neurons of the cerebral nuclei become more active causing problems
with the control of skeletal muscle movement
dopamine: an inhibitory neurotransmitter required to modulate motor activity

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis:

demyelinating disorder affecting motor neurons, effect is loss of motor control

only

ALS or Lou Gherigs disease

removes myelin sheath from motor neurons and causes neurons to deteriorate
starts with hands, progressively lose more skeletal muscle function
effects diaphragm as well
DO NOT lose mental control
genetic (some studies)
environmental

Special Senses
Seeley and Martini: Read entire chapter
Learning Outcomes:
1. Describe the olfactory organ.
2. Describe the process of stimulation of olfaction.
3. Describe the structure of the taste bud. Distinguish between a taste bud
and papilla.
4. Explain the process of gustatory stimulation.
5. List and describe the accessory structures of the eye.
6. Describe the three layers of the eye and the functions of each.
7. List the three chambers of the eye and the substances found in each.
8. Describe the structure of the lens and explain how it is held in place.
9. Explain how the lens allows us to focus on objects near and far.
10. Describe the changes in rod cells when exposed to light.
11. List and describe the different types of photoreceptors.
12. Describe the structure of the outer, middle, and inner ear.
13. Explain how sound waves pass from the air to the inner ear.
14. List the three regions of the inner ear and the function of each.
15. Describe the neural pathway associated with sound.
16. Distinguish between static and dynamic equilibrium.
Special Senses: (classified as special if receptors are located in specific organ)

olfaction

gustation

hearing

equilibrium

vision

Olfaction:

sense of smell

occurs in response to odors that stimulates sensory receptors in the extreme

superior region of the nasal cavity

olfactory organ->located in the nasal cavity (superior portion)

olfactory receptors: proteins interact with chemicals that have entered the nasal
cavity;

have specific binding sites for molecules that enter a nasal cavity

air move in

dissolve nucleus

bind to receptor proteins

olfactory bulb: ganglion-like enlargement at the rostral end of the olfactory tract
that lies over the cribiform plate; receives the olfactory nerves from the nasal
cavity

binding of odorant to olfactory receptor causes AP that is conducted to the CNS

chemoreceptor: interact with chemicals

odorants: are chemicals that stimulate receptors resulting in an AP; bind to

specific membrane proteins; AP conducted to CNS, NOT odorant

Olfactory Pathway
i.

olfactory tracts: extend to cerebrum (nerve tract that projects from the
olfactory bulb to the olfactory cortex)

ii. olfactory cortex (temporal lobe): perception of smell (termination of the

olfactory tract in the cerebral cortex within the lateral fissure of the cerebrum)
iii. secondary areas in frontal lobe associate smell with emotion and involved in
adaptation
FIGURE 15.2: Action of Odorant Binding to Membrane of Olfactory Hair
1.

The plasma membrane of an olfactory hair, unstimulated. The gated ion channel
is closed

2.
3.

An odorant binds to a specific odorant receptor

The associated G protein is activated. The Beta, Alpha, and y subunits dissociate.
The a subunit of the G protein binds to and activates adenylate cyclase

4.

Adenylate cyclase catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP)

5.

cAMP opens ion channels, such as Na+ and Ca+2 channels.

6.

Ions entering the olfactory hair cause depolarization of the neuron

Gustation (taste)

organ: tast buds

papillae: bumps on the tongue

specialized portions of the tongue

some have tastebuds

taste buds: clusters of taste cells associated with epithelia of oral cavity and
pharynx

*ORGAN

sensory structures that detect taste, or gustatory stimuli

gustatory cells: chemical binds to the receptor causing AP (chemoreceptor)

chemicals bind to taste receptors and cause an AP

primary taste sensations include: sweet. salt, sour and bitter

umami and water

umami: pleasant; beef, chicken, cheese(savory foods, amino acids)

water: receptors; hypothalamus

Gustatory pathway

1.

taste sensations are conveyed to the insula via the facial and glossopharyngeal
nerves and somewhat by the vagus nerve

2.

neural pathway includes medulla and thalamus

[Hearing and Equilibrium]

Anatomy of the Ear
The external ear

pinna/auricle: directs sound waves to external auditory canal

external auditory canal/external acoustic meatus (contains ceruminous glands)

tympanic membrane

ear drum

border

thin and flexible

first structure that converts waves to sound

converts vibrations in air to mechanical movement by eardrum

The middle ear

pocket filled with air

located within temporal bone

allows equalization of pressure between outer and middle ear

communicates with the nasopharynx via the auditory tubes (Eustachian)

auditory tube: regulates pressure differences between outer and middle

ear

auditory ossicles: (1) malleus, (2) incus and (3) stapes; forms a bony bridge that
connects the tympanic membrane with the oval window of the inner ear, held
together by diarthritic joints

think of a rope bridge

muscles regulate the movement of ossicles

*otitus media

 middle ear inflammation due to fluid build up in middle ear

common in children (lower immune system, different angle of auditory tubes
(more flat)
noninfectious forms usually due to allergies
cloudy of viscous means infection
The inner ear

contains the receptors for hearing and equilibrium

membraneous labyrinth containing endolymph

embedded in temporal bone

receptors located in the membranous labyrinth that is filled with

endolymph

bony labyrinth is a shell of bone that surrounds the membranous labyrinth;

perilymph fill space between bony and membraneous labyrinth

divided into three regions: vestibule, semicircular canals and cochlea

hair cells: receptors of the inner ear

Inner Ear Anatomy

Three regions:
A. Vestibule: snails head

egg shaped structure containing two membranous sacs, the saccule and utricle ->
membranous structures primarily involved in static equilibrium

B. Semicircular Canals antenna of snail

contain the semicircular ducts (membraneous)

primarily involved in dynamic equilibrium

C. Cochlea shell

bony structure containing the cochlear duct (membraneous) of the membranous

labyrinth

cochlear duct:

filled with endolymph

contain receptor for hearing

regions above and below cochlear duct are filled with perimlymph

scala vestibuli (vestibular duct): upper region, extends from oval window
to tip of cochlea

scala tympani (tympanic duct): underneath tympanic labyrinth; extends

from tip of cochlea to round window

vestibular duct and tympanic duct are two regions around the cochlear duct, each
filled with perilymph

vestibular duct base is the oval window and ends at the tip of the cochlear
spiral

scala vestibuli

above the cochlear duct

tympanic duct base is the round window and ends at the tip of the cochlear
spiral

scala tympani

below the cochlear duct

organ of Corti (spiral organ):

contains receptors for hearing and hair cells located in the cochlear duct

sits above the basilar membrane (base of duct; flexible)

supported by the basilar membrane

tectorial membrane:

situated above the organ of Corti

forms a shelf that extends over the organ of corti

hair cells of the organ of Corti are in contact with the tectorial membrane

sit on basilar membrane (flexible) and pump tectoral membrane which is

not flexible

PRIMARILY INVOLVED IN HEARING

Receptors in the ear

hair cells:

stereocilia: linked together at tip by tiplinks (if one moves, all move)
their movement opens and closes ion channels which determine membrane
potential of hair cell

changes in the membrane potential are conveyed to the neurons that monitor
hair cells

Physiology of Hearing

Sound:
consists of pressure waves from a vibrating object conducted through some
medium (air, liquid, solid)
result of pressure disturbances originating from a vibrating object
travels as a wave through a medium

Characteristics of sound:
Pitch: (frequency of wavelength) number of waves that pass a particular point in a
given time period

 Intensity: (amplitude) height of wave; higher=louder; number of APs stimulated

conductive deafness: mechanical deficiency in transmission of soundwaves from

outer ear to spiral organ (pathway interrupted)

nerve (sensorineural) deafness: deficiencies of spiral organ or nerve pathways

(receptors or neurons damaged)

The physiology of hearing

Step 1: Sound waves arrive at the tympanic membrane

sound waves traveling thru the air are converted to pressure waves in the
perilymph of the bony labyrinth

Step 2. Vibration of the tympanic membrane causes the auditory ossicles to vibrate

vibration of the basilar membrane causes stimulation of hearing receptors of the

organ of corti

Step 3. Vibration of the auditory ossicles against the oval window causes pressure
waves to form in the perilymph of the vestibular duct.
Step 4. Pressure waves continue through the tympanic duct to the round window.
Step 5. Basilar membrane becomes distorted by the pressure waves in the perilymph
Step 6. Hair cells of the organ of Corti move against the tectorial membrane causing a
change in the TMP of the hair cell, stimulating the neurons.
Each region of the organ of Corti is tuned to a particular frequency or pitch.
We perceive different pitches based on which region of the organ of Corti is
stimulated. The intensity is determined by the frequency of action potentials
generated.
Auditory Pathway

AP originates in organ of corti

passes to medulla via cochlear nerve

from medulla, impulse is passed to inferior colliculi in midbrain

from midbrain to auditory cortex in temporal love via medial geniculate of

thalamus

Equilibrium

receptors of equilibrium are located in the vestibule and the semicircular canal
(bony labyrinth)

static equilibrium: sense of head position in space with respect to gravity

 allows the detection of acceleration

dynamic equilibrium: sense of rotation of the head

vestibule->location of receptors for static equilibrium

utricle:
saccule:
contains clustered hair cells
semicircular canal/duct

bony labyrinth
dynamic equilibrium
Maculae and static equilibrium

macula:
sensory structure in the utricle and saccule, consisting of hair cells and
gelatinous mass embedded with otoliths
mass of hair cells covered by otolithic membrane
located in utricle and saccule of vestible
important for posture; position of the head
Ampullae and dynamic equilibrium

in semicircular canals; hair cells of ampullae are stimulated by rotation

crista ampullaris: elevation on the inner surface of the ampulla of each semicircular
duct for dynamic or kinetic equilibrium
Vision
A. Accessory structures of the eye
1. Eyelid

upper and lower palpebrae

shade eyes during sleep

protect from light and foreign objects

spread lubricating secretions over eye

lacrimal caruncle: oil and sweat glands

bulbar conjunctiva: covers the anterior white surface of the eye

palpebral conjunctiva: underside (inner surface) of eye lid

conjunctival fornices/fornix: point at which the palpebral and bulbar

conjunctivae meet

2. Eyelashes and Eyebrows

protect against foreign objects, perspiration

eyelashes produce air currents

sty: infection of glands of follicle of eyelash

3. Lacrimal tear Apparatus

lacrimal glands: secrete tears (lacrimal; superior/lateral)

tears carried to surface of conjunctiva and passed to eyeball

tears drained via duct system into nasal cavity from lacrimal sac

tears protect, clean, lubricate and moisten the surface of the eye

crying: parasympathetic stimulation, over secretion of tears

4. Extrinsic Eye Muscles

skeletal muscles that allow you to move the eye (VOLUNTARY)

each eye: 6 muscles that move it

motor units are small

5.

Conjunctiva
mucous membrane that covers the surface of the eyeball and lines the eyelid
secretes lubricant fluid
conjunctivitis is the inflammation of the conjunctiva

B. Structure of the Eyeball

1. Wall of the eyeball consists of three layers
Fibrous Tunic:

superficial (outer layer)

contains collagen fibers

cornea: covers iris

LOCATION OF THE GREATEST AMOUNT OF REFRACTION

sclera: "white" of the eye, gives eyeball shape

extrinsic muscles are attached to surface

Vascular Tunic (3 parts)

middle layer

houses blood vessels

choroid: lines most of the sclera

helps with structural support

contains blood vessels

ciliary body: consists of ciliary processes, secretes aqueous humor and ciliary
muscles that control the shape of the lens (smooth muscle)

iris: colored portion of the eye, consists of circular and radial smooth muscle that
regulate amount of light entering through the pupil->(hole thru iris)
Neural Tunic/Retina

inner lining

location of photoreceptors

consists of pigment epithelium and neural portion

beginning of visual pathway

optic disc:

landmark on the retina

origin where optic nerves enter/exit eyeball along with blood vessels
associated with eyeball

axons of gang cells form optic nerve

off center; closer to nose

NO photoreceptors

retina consists of pigment epithelium and neural portion

pigment epithelium absorbs stray light and maintains sharp image (between
neural part and choroid)

neural portion consists of three layers: (i) photoreceptor layer [deepest], (ii)
bipolar cell layer (neurons) [middle], (iii) ganglion cell layer (neurons)
[inner/middle of eye]

light passes through all 3 layers of the neural portion stimulating the
photoreceptors

types of photoreceptors: rods and cones

macula lutea:

is the exact center of the posterior of the retina

around fovea centralis

donut

fovea centralis/central fovea:

area of densely packed photoreceptors located directly behind the pupil

contains only cones

area of highest visual acuity

located within the macula lutea

we perceive light best when focused on the region

donut hole

optic disc is a blindspot

2.

Lens

allows for fine-tune focusing

avascular

transparent, normally; flexible

composed of protein: crystallin/clear

convex on each side

can change shape with ciliary muscles (allows us to focus)

enclosed in capsule

held in place by suspensory ligaments

functions to fine-tune focusing of light rays onto retina

vision disorders

myopia: near-sighted; cannot see far away; convergence is too far in front of
retina; divergent lens fixes

hyperopia: far-sighted; cannot see close up; convergence is too far behind retina;
convergent lens fixes
presbyopia: form of hyperopia that is related to age

color-blindness: mutation prevents production of visual pigment or prevents

cone function

3. Interior of Eye: two cavities

Anterior Cavity

two areas: anterior chamber and posterior chamber

filled with aqueous humor that nourishes the lens and cornea and helps maintain
intraocular pressure (produced by ciliary body)

aqueous humor is constantly replaced

Vitreous Chamber

filled with jelly-like substance vitreous body

vitreous body contributes to the intraocular pressure, holds retina against

choroid (slow turnover)

vitreous body is formed during embryonic development, phagocytes remove

debris

II. Photoreceptors: special cells in eye sensitive to light wavelengths; stimulated when
light hits; pigments in the allow sensitivity

1.

Structure:
A. inner segment contains nucleus and organelles
B. outer segment: in contact with the pigment epithelium; photoreceptor is named
for the shape of the outer segment; contain visual pigment
C. rods:
1. broad spectrum; light
2. bipolar photoreceptor cells that are involved in noncolor vision
3. responsible for vision under conditions of reduced light
4. contain the visual pigment rhodopsin: protein opsin bound to retinal
(sensitive to WIDE range of wavelength)
D. cones:
1. blue, green, red
2. color vision and visual acuity
3. contain visual pigment (modified rhodopsin) that are necessary for color
vision
4. require more intense light for stimulation

Light

travels in waves
visual spectrum: region of electromagnetic spectrum to which our eyes are
sensitive
photon: particle of light energy

Visual pigments

light sensitive pigments that breakdown when exposed to light

rhodopsin: visual pigment of rods; breaks down to opsin and retinal after light
causes chemical change

III. Physiology of Vision

I.

In the absence of light, Na+ channels are open and the photopigment is
constantly releasing neurotransmitter (inhibitory->of bipolar cells)
A. When a photon of light hits the photoreceptor, changes in the visual pigment [key
flattens (chemical change)] causes the Na+ channels to close and the level of
neurotransmitter being released decreases
B. Neurotransmitter released by the photoreceptor causes inhibition of the bipolar
cell (VISUAL PATHWAY)

C. Reduction of the release of neurotransmitter causes excitation of the bipolar cell

and AP passed to the CNS (to ganglion cells and along visual pathway)
IV. Image Formation
Refraction:

bending of light rays as they move from one transparent substance through a
second transparent substance of different density

light rays entering the eye are refracted at anterior and posterior of cornea and
lens

images focused on the retina are inverted and left-right reversed; brain "learns"
to orient visual images
Accomodation

due to concave nature of lens

eye must alter shape to view things at close proximity, increase curvature of lens

changing of the shape of the lens to focus

close vision=round lens

distant vision=flat lens

Convergence:

medial movement of the two eyeballs so that both are directed toward the same
object

binocular vision