Sensoriamento Remoto Hiperespectral e

Multiespectral de Alta Resoluo:

Perfil do curso:
Princpios fsicos de sensoriamento remoto; interferncias atmosfricas; propriedades espectrais de
materiais naturais. Noes sobre medies espectrorradiomtricas com sensores portteis e interpretao
de dados. Sensores (orbitais e aeroportados) da regio do visvel, infravermelho prximo, infravermelho de
ondas curtas, infravermelho mdio e infravermelho termal - os programas AVIRIS, HyMAP, SEBASS, HSS,
HYPERION e ASTER,. Processamento de imagens multiespectrais (ASTER) e hiperespectrais (AVIRIS,
HyMAP, SEBASS, HYPERION). Exemplos de aplicao da tecnologia de S.R. e PDI em mapeamento geolgico
e explorao mineral.
Bibliografia bsica:

Princpios, Processamento de Dados e

Aplicaes
Prof. Carlos Roberto de Souza Filho (IG-UNICAMP)

Andrew Rencz and Robert A. Ryerson (Editors), 1999, Remote Sensing for the Earth Sciences (Manual of Remote Sensing,
Vol 3), John Wiley & Sons; 3rd Edition.
Gary L. Prost, 2002, Remote Sensing for Geologists, Taylor and Francis, 2nd Edition
John A. Richards, Xiuping Jia, 2005, Remote sensing digital image analysis, Springer-Verlag, 2nd Edition.
John R Jensen, 2004, Introductory Digital Image Processing, Prentice Hall 3rd Edition.
Paulo Roberto Meneses & Jos da Silva Madeira Netto, 2002, Sensoriamento Remoto Reflectncia dos Alvos Naturais,
Braslia DF; Editora UnB, 1a Edio.
Steven Drury, 2001, Image Interpretation in Geology, Stanley Thornes Pub Ltd, 3rd Edition.
Steven M. de Jong e Freek D. van der Meer (Editors), 2004, Remote Sensing Image Analysis: Including the Spatial Domain
(Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing), Springer.
Thomas M. Lillesand, Ralph W. Kiefer, Jonathan W. Chipman, (2004), Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation, John Wiley
& Sons, 5th Edition.
Freek Van der Meer, 2001, Imaging Spectroscopy: Basic Principles and Prospective Applications, Kluwer Academics.
Volume Especial da Revista Remote Sensing of Environment sobre o ASTER (Vol. 99, No. 1-2), de Dezembro de 2005.
Material bibliogrfico do ASTER disponvel em: http://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/bibliography.asp

REMOTE SENSING OF EARTH RESOURCES

Introduction to Spectral Remote Sensing

and Principles of Spectroscopy
Electromagnetic Radiation
Analogic

Atmospheric windows available VNIR, SWIR, TIR

EMR interactions with matter

(ii)
Atmosphere

Spectroscopy

(i) Source

Digital

USERS

(vi) Data

(v)
Sensors

Sources:

Visual

Digital

(iv)
Retransmission
to the atmosphere

(vii) Interpretation (viii) Final

and analysis
products

(iii)
Interaction with
surface materials

University of Campinas - Profs. Carlos Roberto de Souza Filho Lecture Notes on Remote Sensing
CSIRO Exploration and Mining (Australia) - Robert Hewson,Tom Cudahy and Jon Huntington
JPL/NASA - Mike Abrams, Simon Hook - ASTER Documentation
Drury, S.A., 2001, Image Interpretation in Geology, 3rd Edition.
Pontual, S., Merry, N. and Gamson, P., 1997, Spectral Interpretation Field Manual (G-MEX).

DATA ACQUISION

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

DATA ANALYSIS

Electromagnetic Energy

UV

Electromagnetic Spectrum

c = f * (wave theory)

0.5
0.78
0.6
0.38
Blue Green Red

E = h * f (quantum theory)

E = h. c /

IV

Electromagnetic
Spectrum
V / NIR / SWIR
/

Shorter
Wavelengths
High Energy

Longer
Wavelengths
Low Energy

MWIR / LWIR

Optical Region

Wavelength (m)

Cosmic
Rays

Visible
1mm

10-7

10-6

10-5

10-4

10-3

10-2 10-1

10

102

103

X
Rays

Gamma
Rays

Microwaves
(Radar)

UV

104

105

106

107

108

Wavelength
(nm) 10-5

10-4

10-2

10-3

10-1

10

101

400

14000

105

106

Reflected
Energy

Rays
X Rays

Ultraviolet
(0.28-0,38m)

Infrared
Near (0.78-1.5m)
Short (1.5-3 m)
e Mid (3-5m)

Radio & Television

Waves

1m

Radiowaves
Microvave
Thermal
Infrared (>3m; <1mm)

B G R

Wavelength
(nm) 400
(m) 0.4

NIR

700
0.7

SWIR

107

108

109

1010

1011

1012

Emitted
Energy
MWIR

1500 3000
1.5
3.0

LWIR

5000
5.0

LWIR

14000
14.0

Reflected vs. Emitted Energy

MWIR

1000

Earth
Reflectance
Earth
Emission

(100%)

100

(100%)
10

Assumes no
atmosphere

radiant exitance (W-m-2-um-1)

Irradiance (W-m-2-um-1)

104

1
.4

0.1

.7

10

Wavelength (m)

E = h. c /

E = h * f (quantum theory)

ENERGY DISTRIBUTION CURVES FOR BLACKBODIES AT

200K AND 6000K

Sampling the Spectrum

B G R
400 nm

MED

NIR

SWIR
1500

visble radiante energy band

LWIR

MWIR

3000

5000

109

14000 nm

Panchromatic: one very wide band

Spectral radiant excitance

LOW

700

TEMPERATURES BETWEEN

(Wm-2m -1)

c = f * (wave theory)

Multispectral: several to tens of bands

Blackbody radiation curve at

the suns temperature

108

6000K
107

4000K

106

3000K

105

2000K

Hyperspectral: hundreds of narrow bands

Blackbody radiation curve at

incadescent lamp temperature

Stefan-Boltzmanns Law.
Higher T => >> amount of emitted
energy

M = . T4

104

600 K-1000K - fires

= Stefan Boltzmanns cte. = 5,67 . 10

-8

W.m2

1000K

103

102

HIGH

Areas under curves correspond to

the total amount of emitted energy
in all wavelengths

Blackbody radiation curve

at the Earths temperature
(373K = H2O boiling)

500K

101

300K

0.1

0.2

0.5

WAVELENGTH

10

max = A/T
A = 2898 m . K

200K

Wiens Displacement Law

20

50

100

(m)

ESPALHADA
Scattered
ESPALHADA
Scattered
ESPALHADA
ESPALHADA
TRANSMITIDA,

TRANSMITIDA,
Transmitted
REFLETIDA
REFLETIDA

ABSORVIDA
ABSORVIDA
Absorbed
TRANSMITIDA
Transmitted
TRANSMITIDA

ESPALHADA
ESPALHADA
Scattered

ENERGIA
ENERGIA ABSORVIDA
ABSORVIDA
ESQUENTA
ESQUENTA A
A ATMOSFERA
ATMOSFERA
OU
OU
RE-EMITIDA
RE-EMITIDA COM
COM SUAS
SUAS
CARACTERSTICAS
CARACTERSTICAS
Reflected
ESPECTRAIS
ESPECTRAIS ALTERADAS
ALTERADAS

ABSORVIDA
Absorbed
ABSORVIDA

Target
ALVO

TODA
TODA ENERGIA
ENERGIA TRANSMITIDA
TRANSMITIDA
ATRAVESSA
ATRAVESSA A
A ATMOSFERA
ATMOSFERA
E
E ALCANA
ALCANA O
O SENSOR
SENSOR SEM
SEM
SOFRER
SOFRER ALTERAO
ALTERAO

Image from the NASA Langley Research Center, Atmospheric Sciences Division.
http://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/erbe/ASDerbe.html

UV

VIS

NIR

SWIR

MWIR

LWIR

Electromagnetic Energy
ALTA
HIGH

Transmitncia
Total (%)
Total
Transmission
(%)

Atmospheric Absorption

BAIXA

LOW

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

0.4 0.5 0.6

0.8

10

Comprimento
de Onda (m)
WAVELENGTH

(m)

Absoro Atmosfrica
Atmospheric
Absorption
Energia(light)
(luz) Transmitida
Energy
transmitted

Transmitncia
Atmosfrica
Atmospheric
transmittance
(windows)

Types of Energy Recorded by Sensors

and Respective Regions of the Spectrum

Atmospheric Windows

TIR

VIS NIR - SWIR

Reflected Wavelengths

Emitted Wavelengths

Sensor

Sun

Sensor

Reflected Solar Energy

Incoming Solar Energy

Emitted thermal
energy

Atmospheric Transmission

Atmosphere

Atmosphere

Microwaves
Information about chemical composition
of surface materials

SAR Antenna

Backscattered energy
pulse

Information about physical characteristics

(geometry and shape)
shape) of surface materials

Energy

ENERGY
Suns Energy

( 6000K)

Surface

Interaction of energy and objects

SOURCES

Earths Energy (300K)

U.V

VIS

IR

Emitted Energy
1m

0.3m

10m
Wavelength

100m

1mm

1m

MWMW-LWIR

Transmittance

Reflected Energy

100 %

0%

Incident Energy

Blocked
Energy
U.V VIS

0.3m

V-MWIR

ATMOSPHERIC
TRANSMITANCE

IR

1m

10m

100m

1mm

1m

Wavelength

Absorbed Energy

Human Eye
Photography
Multispectral

Thermal
Scanners

Radar and
Passive
Microwave

Scanners

Transmitted Energy
0.3m

1m

10m
Wavelength

100m

1mm

1m

Energy Balance Equation: EI () = ER() + EA() + ET()

Reflected Energy

Reflected Energy
The manner in which a material reflects energy is primarily a
function of the optical properties and surface roughness of the
feature.
Most objects are diffuse reflectors

Reflectance: Is the ratio of reflected energy to incident energy.

Varies with wavelength
Function of the molecular properties of the material.

Reflectance Signature: A plot of the reflectance of a material as a

Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflectance

function of wavelength.

Energy
Scattered in
All Directions

Smooth
Surface

Rough
Surface

Specular
Reflectance

Diffuse
Reflectance

(Microscopic)

Red brick
Kaolinite
Sandy loam
Concrete
Grass

All solids and liquids

have reflectance
signatures that
potentially can be
used to identify them.

Emissive Energy
Emissivity - is a measure of how efficiently an object radiates energy compared to a
blackbody at the same temperature.
Varies with wavelength
Function of the molecular properties of the material.

Emissivity Signature - A plot of emissivity as a function of wavelength. All

materials have emissivity signatures that potentially can be used to identify them.

Blackbody
Graybody

0.5

Red brick Kaolinite

Grass Water
Black paint Concrete

Selective
emitter

(emissivity
signature)

Wavelength

Fe3+

LEAF
PIGMENTS

Fe2+

CELL STRUCTURE

0.96m

1.1m

40
FRACA
ABSORO
DE GUA

REFLECTANCE
PEAK
VIS ~ 0.54mm

1 2

REFLEC.
PEAK
SWIR
~ 1.6mm

TM5

ATMOSPHERIC
ABSORPTION

TM4

20

VEGETATION
REFLECTANCE

LEAF WATER CONTENT

(red edge)

30

DOMINANT
MINERALOGICAL
EFFECTS

H2O

0.7mm

50

(OH-) HYDROXYLS
MINERALS
(Clays),
CARBONATES, MICAS,
CHLORITE, AMPHIBOLES

ALTERED ROCKS SHOW

HIGH REFLECTANCE
IN THIS REGION

ABSORPTION
RED
PEAK

ATMOSPHERIC
ABSORPTION

ABS.
Fe2+
Fe3+

REFLECTANCE (%)

Emissivity

1.0

WATER
ABSORPTION
BANDS
REFLEC.
PEAK
SWIR ~ 2.2mm

H2O

Vegetation Spectroscopy

2.6mm2.73mm

TM7
1.4mm

10

CHLOROPHYL
ABSORPTIONS

0.38

0.8
800

1.0
1000

1.2
1200

0.72
VISIBLE

H2O
1.93mm
WATER
ABSORPTION

0
0.4
0.6
600
400
BL-GREEN- RED.

H2O

WATER
ABSORPTION

MSS7

0.45m 0.65m

1.4
1400

1.6
1600

1.8
1800

2.0
2000

Al-OH Mg-OH CO =
3
2.2
2200

2.4
2400

2.6 mm
2600 nm

1.3

VEGETATION

SOIL

l
3.0

SHORTWAVE INFRARED

NEAR INFRARED

WATER

SPECTRAL BEHAVIOUR OF VEGETATION

ALTA

Soil

biochemical components
componentes
bioqumicos:
protena
protein
lignina
lignin
celulose
cellulose

Reflectncia
Reflectance
(%)

Wavelength (m)

chlorophyl
outros
and
other
pigmentos
pigments

Reflectance
Reflectncia

Altered
Vegetation

Pine

Aspen
Abeto
BAIXA

water
gua
dossel
estrutura
do dossel e
structure
estrutura
leaf
cell structure
foliar

0.5

0.4

80

Grass

70
60

Pine
50
40
30

Oak

20

Aspen

10
0
0.4

0.5

0.6

VISIBLE

0.7

TM1 TM2

TM4

0.8

Influncia (i) do contedo de

clorofila; (ii) da forma, rea e
nmeroofde(i)folhas
e, (iii) da
Effects
chlorophyll
content;
estrutura
geral (celulose),
(ii)
of the shape,
area andnas
propriedades espectrais de
number of leaves and; (iii) cell
plantas. Embora exibam
structure
of celulose
propriedades
similaresonnothe
spectral
of plants.
espectroproperties
visvel, as plantas
podem ser facilmente
distinguidas
pelashow
sua similar
Although
plants
reflectncia no infravermelho
signatures in the visible
prximo (NIR).
spectrum, they may be
distinguished in the NIR.

0.9

NIR

Wavelength (m)

Reflectance (%)

TM3

Near Infrared
Infraverm.
Prximo

0.9m

Curvas de Reflectncia
de Alguns
Tiposofdevegetation
Vegetao
Reflectance
Spectra Espectral
of different
types

60

TM1 TM2

90

0.7

0.6

Visible
Visvel

Wavelength
Comprimento
de Onda (m)

gua
water

Wavelength (m)

Reflectance (%)

Reflectance (%)

Grass
Grama
Green
Vegetation

TM3

TM4

40

20

0
0.4

0.5

0.6

Visible

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

Near Infrared
Wavelength (microns)

Reflectance curves 1-5 show progressive stages of color changes

in leaves, previously to the Autumn. The colors varies from green,
to yellow-green, to red-green, to maroon, until they dry completely.

Interaction Between Electromagnetic

Energy and Surface Materials
Energy Source
(Sun)

Sensor

Mineral Spectroscopy
Photons reflected/emited
towards the sensor
after interacting with
surface materials
(minerals and rocks)
rocks)

Rocks / Minerals

Spectral Regions Relevant to Geology

Visible and near infrared (VNIR)

400 - 1000 nm
Iron oxides (Hematite, Goethite, Jarosite)
REEs
Vegetation

Shortwave Infrared (SWIR)

1000 - 2500 nm
(OH) bearing minerals
Clays, phyllosilicates, amphiboles, sulphates

Carbonates

Thermal Infrared (TIR)

8000 - 12000 nm
Silicates: quartz, feldspars, garnets, pyroxenes
carbonates

Phenomena Responsible For Spectral Behavior

of Minerals and Rocks

Causes of Spectral Behaviour

Absorption coefficient

Wavelength (m)
10-7

10-6

10-5

1mm
10-3

10-4

10-2

10-1

10

102

103

1m
104

105

106

107

108

Visible

-Rays
X-Rays

TV / Radio

Infrared
Ultraviolet
(0,28-0,38 m)

Microwaves

Near (0,78-1,5 m)
Shortwave (1,5-3 m)

Thermal Infrared
(>3m - <1mm)

Nuclear

Electronic
Electronic

Vibracional

Spin

Transitions

Transitions
Transitions

Transitions

Orientation

Spectral Regions Relevant to Geology

Visible and near infrared

wavelength-dependent
compositional
electronic and/or vibrational processes

(VNIR)

400 - 1000 nm
Iron oxides (Hematite, Goethite, Jarosite)
REEs
Vegetation

Shortwave Infrared

Diffuse and/or specular reflection

Volume and/or surface scattering
Single and/or multiple scattering
wavelength-dependent

SPECTRAL SIGNATURES

2. Cation Composition
(SWIR)

3. Crystallinity (disorder)
4. Water (free, absorbed, structural)
5. Particle size

Clays, phyllosilicates, amphiboles, sulphates

Carbonates

8000 - 12000 nm
Silicates: quartz, feldspars, garnets, pyroxenes
carbonates

1. Mineralogy

1000 - 2500 nm
(OH) bearing minerals

Thermal Infrared

Scattering effects

6. Orientation
(TIR)

7. Mixtures
8. Organic matter

Physical Basis
Minerals exhibit diagnostic features at various
wavelengths which provide a means for their
remote identification.
These features are produced by electronic or
vibrational processes resulting from the
interaction of electromagnetic energy with the
atoms and molecules which comprise the
minerals that make up a rock.

Physical Basis
Electronic Processes
Crystal field effects, Charge Transfer
Bands, Conduction Bands, Color Centers
Vibration Processes
Fundamentals, Water and Hydroxl,
Carbonates Other groups, e.g phosphates

Physical Basis
The different processes require different amounts of
energy to proceed, and therefore are manifest in
different wavelength regions.
Electronic processes require the most energy and
results in spectral features at visible to near infrared
wavelengths.
Fundamental vibrational processes require less
energy, and occur beyond 2.5 um. Between 0.5 and 2.5
um there is an overlap of features due to both
processes.

Crystal Field Effects

Most common electronic process, seen in
spectra of transition elements.
Electron moves from lower to higher energy
state by photon absorption.
Crystal field varies with crystal structure
allowing mineral identification.

Charge Transfer Absorptions

Reflectance spectra of two olivines, showing change in band shape and position
with composition. 1 um band due to crystal field absorption of Fe2+.
Fo - forsterite (Mg2SiO4) in the forsterite-fayalite (Fe22+ SiO4) solid solution
series. Fo29 has an FeO content of 54% while Fo91 has an FeO content of 8%.
The 1 um band position varies from 1.08 um at Fo 10 to 1.05 um at Fo 90.

Inter-element transitions where the

absorption of a photon causes an electron to
move between ions or between ions and
ligands.
Very strong compared with crystal field
effects. Typically centered in the ultra violet
with wings extending into the visible.
Cause of red color in iron oxide.

From Clark (1999).

Vibrational Processes
The bonds in a molecule or crystal lattice act like
springs with attached weights. The frequency of
the vibration depends on the strength of the bond
and mass of the elements.
For a molecule with N atoms, there are 3N -6
normal modes of vibration called fundamentals.

Reflectance spectra of iron oxides: hematite (Fe2O3) and goethite (FeOOH). The intense absorption
around 0.4 um is due to charge transfer. The 0.9 and 0.86 um absorption features are due to transitions
(crystal field absorption).

The fundamental vibration modes of silicate

minerals occur near 10 um.

From Clark (1999).

Silicate Minerals

Vibrational Processes

1.8

Emissivity (Offset for clarity)

Olivine

Also vibrations can occur at multiples of

the fundamental frequency.

1.6
Hornblende

1.4

Augite

0.2

Muscovite

1.2
Albite

1
Quartz

0.8
8

10
12
Wavelength (micrometers)

14

The additional vibrations are called

overtones when they involve multiples
of a single fundamental mode, and
combinations when they involve
different modes of vibration.

Radiance and
Emissivity
Reflectance spectra showing vibrational bands
due to OH, and H2O (from Clark 1999).

Reflectance spectra showing vibrational

bands due to OH, CO3 and H2O (from Clark
1999).

M= C

1
exp C
T
1

where:
M = blackbody spectral exitance.
= wavelength.
T = absolute temperature.
C = first radiation constant.
C = second radiation constant.

Radiance (W/m*m*m)/1.0e6

Plancks Formula

100
450K

80
60
40

350K
20

273.15K

0
4

8
10
12
14
16
Wavelength (micrometers)

18

20

Spectral Emissivity
Materials are not perfect blackbodies, but instead emit radiation in
acordance with their own characteristics. The ability of a material
to emit radiation can be expressed as the ratio of the spectral
radiance of a material to that of a blackbody at the same

Spectral Emissivity (cont.)

The most intense absorption features in the
spectral of all silicates occur near 10 m in the
region referred to as the Si-O stretching region or
reststrahlen band.

temperature. This ratio is termed the spectral emissivity:

= L (Material) / L (Blackbody)

The emissivity minimum occurs at relatively short

wavelengths (8.5 m) for framework silicates (quartz,
feldspar) and progressively longer wavelengths for
silicates having sheet, chain and isolated SiO4
tetrahedra.

Gypsum
Quartz
Sinter

Emissivity (offset for clarity)

Alunite

Kaolinite
Montmorillonite

Spectral Analysis

Jarosite

Dolomite
Calcite

th (

VNIR spectra of key Fe-bearing minerals

Sources of Spectral Features - VNIR

Hematite
Reflectance (%)

Electronic processes which involve the transfer

of electrons from lower to higher energy states
within electron orbits (crystal field) or from the
ligand to the cation (charge transfer)

0,90-0,92um

Jarosite

Goethite
0,65um

0,86-0,92um

Crystal Field

Minerals included in this group:

Charge transfer
adsorption

Hematite, Goethite, Jarosite

0.4

Wavelength (m)

1.4

Vibrational Transitions (SWIR)

REE-bearing
REE-bearing VNIR
VNIR Spectra
Spectra

Phenomena that occur at molecular levels, caused by molecular vibrations and their effects over the bonds
between their atoms (stretch & bend). The vibrations that matter to SWIR remote sensing are not the main
ones (called fundamentals),
fundamentals but the secondary ones, called overtones and combination tones.
tones

They occur generally between 1,2 a 5,0 m and are typical of materials that contain:

The most common absorption feature of this type in geologic materials is due to O-H- (hydroxyl
hydroxyl), common in
several minerals. The exact of the feature depends on the place within the molecule where the hydroxil
is located and also on the strength of the bond. These characteristics may be associated with specific
features, used to identify the presence of several types of minerals through the analysis of their
reflectance spectra.

Minerals that have spectral absorption features due to vibrational transitions:

O-H- , H2O, CO32-, PO43- and BO33-

crystal field
effects

kaolinite/dickite/haloysite
pyrophyllite
illite/sericite/muscovite
smectites
Mg-clays
chalco-silicates (epidote)
zeolites (natrolite)

- chlorites (Mg Fe)

- biotite/phlogopite
- amphiboles (actinolite/tremolite/hornblende)
- carbonates (calcite/dolomite/siderite/magnesite/ankerite)
- sulphates (alunite, gipsum, jarosite)
- Mg-phylosilicates (talc, serpentine)
- Ammonium-bearing minerals (buddingtonite, NH4-illite/sericite)

10

SWIR Spectra of Minerals

Sources of Spectral Features - SWIR

Silicates -> ions (OH-)

Montmorillonite

Vibrational processes related to OH

Di-octahedral and Tri-octahedral

(Mg-OH e Al-OH,...)

Fundamental bends (9.0 - 11.0 um region)

Overtone and combination tones (SWIR active)

Reflectance (%)

Fundamental stretches (2.7 - 3.0 um region)

Muscovite

vibrational process
Kaolinite

1400 nm feature (1st overtone of OH

fundamental stretching vibration)

bond-bending
combinations

2000-2500 nm features (combination of

stretching and bending vibrations)

Micas e Clay Minerals

Absorption features at

Wavelength (m)

SWIR Spectra of Minerals

HYDROXYL MINERAL GROUPS-

vibrational process

Al(OH)

2.2 - 2.3 m.

Mineral Absorption Bands in the

2000 - 2500 nm region

2160 - 2170 nm

Pyrophyllite, Alunite

(OH-) and H2O

Gipsum

Al(OH)

Reflectance (%)

in the mineral
crystalline structure

Absorption features

Montmorillonite

at 0.94 , 1.14 , 1.4 and

2180 - 2228 nm

Halloysite, Kaolinite, Dickite, Nacrite (doublets at ~1.4 and ~2.2m)

Muscovite, Illite, NH4-Illite (single, symmetric absorption features at
~1.4 and ~2.2m)
Montmorillonite, Palygorskite (asymmetric absorption feature at
~1.4m)

Fe(OH)

2230 - 2260 nm

FeOH Chlorite, FeOH Biotite

1.9 m.
Minerals with OH- or H2O molecules

Fe(OH) & Al(OH) 2260 - 2298 nm

Jarosite, Nontronite & Gibbsite

Wavelength (m)

HYDROXYL MINERAL GROUPS-

Fe-Mg(OH)

Mineral Absorption Bands in the

2000 - 2500 nm region

2300 - 2330 nm

Phlogopite I and II, Mg-Chlorite, Hornblende (edenite), Actinolite/

Tremolite, Talc, Serpentine (antigorite), Saponite

Fe-Mg(OH)

2330 - 2360 nm

Epidote, Mg-Fe Chlorite, Fe-Chlorite, Biotite, Fe-Biotite, Hornblende

Si(OH)

2240 nm (broad)

Opaline silica

Significance of (OH)(OH)-Bearing Minerals

Mineralised environments: ie. alteration zonation (mica,
chlorite, pyrophyllite, sulphates etc)
Primary rock types (mica, amphiboles, chlorite, serpentine
etc.)
Weathering regimes and processes (kaolinite and illite
chemistry, smectites, gibbsite, sulphates etc)
Fluid composition, temperature/pressure
e.g. Al/Mg-Fe substitution
e.g. High temperature species: Pyrophyllite, Topaz, Dickite, etc.
e.g. Crystallinity: Illite and kaolinite

11

Al(OH)
Al(OH) Mineral
Mineral Spectra
Spectra
2160-2228 nm

Reflectance (Spectra Offset for Clarity)

AlAl-(OH) Mineral Spectra

Most have their major combination band
absorptions between 2160 and 2228 nm
Some (kaolinites) have doublets in this range
Many also have smaller secondary features
between 2300 and 2400 nm
Minerals include in this group:
Pyrophyllite

Alunite

Halloysite

Kaolinite

Dickite

Nacrite

Muscovite

Illite

Montmorillonite

Montmorillonite

Illite

Kaolinite

Pyrophyllite

Palygorskite

Kaolinite (Kandite) Group:

Montmorillonite

Illite
Kaolinite

Halloysite

Kaolinite
Dickite
Halloysite
Nacrite

Kaolinite

All tend to have

diagnostic doublet
structures near 1400
and 2200 nm

Pyrophyllite

Al-OH (Kaolin)
Al
Al-OH
(Kaolin) Spectra
Spectra
Different 1400 nm doublet
spacings

Kaolinite
Kaolinite Group
Group Spectra
Spectra

Different absorption geometry between

2160 and 2210 nm

Reflectance

Reflectance (Spectra Offset for Clarity)

Al(OH)
Al(OH) Mineral
Mineral Spectra
Spectra (zoom)
(zoom)

Dickite

Hydroxyl Mineral Absorption Bands in

the 2000 - 2500 nm region
Al(OH)

2170 - 2210 nm

Topaz, Pyrophyllite, Kaolinite, Montmorillonite, Muscovite,

Illite

Fe(OH)

2240 - 2320 nm

Jarosite,
Jarosite, Nontronite,
Nontronite, Saponite,
Saponite, Hectorite

Mg(OH)

2300 - 2400 nm

Chlorite, Talc, Epidote, Amphibole, Antigorite, Biotite,

Phlogopite

Si(OH)

2240 nm (broad)

Opaline silica

12

Fe(OH) and Fe/Mg(OH) Mineral

Spectra - I

Fe(OH)
Fe(OH) Mineral
Mineral Spectra
Spectra (2240
(2240 -- 2320
2320 nm)
nm)

Have their major combination band absorptions between

2240 and 2320 nm, between the Al(OH) and Mg(OH) regions
Minerals included in this group:
Saponite (Mg,Fe)

Nontronite (Fe)

Jarosite (Fe)

Fe-rich illite

Hectorite (Li,Mg)

The first three are smectites and have deep water bands
near 1900 nm

Hydroxyl Mineral Absorption Bands in

the 2000 - 2500 nm region
Al(OH)

Topaz, Pyrophyllite, Kaolinite, Montmorillonite, Muscovite,

Illite

Fe(OH)

2250 - 2300 nm

Weathering and alteration products of mafic rocks

Components of propyllitic alteration zones

Jarosite, Nontronite, Saponite, Hectorite

Mg(OH)

MgMg-(OH) Geol. Significance

2170 - 2210 nm

Weathering components of kimberlitic rocks

Secondary biotite in porphyry alteration systems

2300 - 2400 nm

Chlorite, Talc, Epidote,

Epidote, Amphibole, Antigorite,
Antigorite, Biotite,
Biotite, Phlogopite

Si(OH)

2240 nm (broad)

Opaline silica

MgMg-(OH) Mineral Spectra - I

Mg(OH)
Mg(OH) Mineral
Mineral Spectra
Spectra
2300-2400 nm

Have their major combination band

absorptions between 2300 and 2400 nm
Many have two features in this range
Some have strong secondary features
near 2260 nm (believed to be related to
iron)
Minerals included in this group:
Amphiboles

Talc

Chlorites

Epidote

Phlogopite

Biotite

Anthophyllite

Antigorite

13

Mg(OH)
Mg(OH) Mineral
Mineral Spectra
Spectra

Chlorite
Chlorite SWIR
SWIR Spectra
Spectra
Fe absorption near
1100 nm causes variable
gradients in this region

Wavelengths of Chlorite features vary with Mg / Fe composition.

Note in this plot the 1900 nm water band does not change but
all the other chlorite features vary as these two chlorites have
different Mg / Fe ratios.

Hydroxyl Mineral Absorption Bands in the

2000 - 2500 nm region
Al(OH)

2170 - 2210 nm

Topaz, Pyrophyllite, Kaolinite, Montmorillonite, Muscovite,

Illite

Fe(OH)

2250 - 2300 nm

Jarosite, Nontronite, Saponite, Hectorite

Mg(OH)

Si(OH) Mineral Spectra

Have a very broad feature near 22402250 nm
Sometimes also associated with deep
water bands near 1430 and 1930 nm
Minerals included in this group
Opaline silica

2300 - 2400 nm

Chlorite, Talc, Epidote,

Epidote, Amphibole, Antigorite,
Antigorite, Biotite,
Biotite, Phlogopite

Si(OH)

2240 nm (broad)

Opaline silica

Si(OH)
Si(OH) Mineral
Mineral Spectra
Spectra

Other Minerals active in the SWIR

2240 nm

Carbonates
Sulphates
NH4 minerals
Hydrothermal opaline silica
spectra from Cuprite Nevada

buddingtonite

14

Carbonates Geol. Significance

Zonation possibly indicative of proximity
to base metal carbonate-gold systems
Distal to porphyry source & cool

(Fe) Siderite
(Mn) Rhodochrosite
(MnMg) Kutnahorite
(MgCaFe) Ankerite
(MgCa) Dolomite
(CaMg) Mg-Calcite
(Ca) Calcite

Carbonate SWIR Spectra

Major 2300 - 2400 nm feature
Minerals included in this group
Calcite, Dolomite, Magnesite, Siderite,
Ankerite

Ferroan species show broad absorption

near 1000 nm
Many carbonates also have a small
absorption feature near 2000 nm

Proximal to porphyry & hot

Carbonate
Carbonate SWIR
SWIR Spectra
Spectra

Carbonate
Carbonate SWIR
SWIR Spectra
Spectra

2300-2400 nm

Mg

Sulphate
Sulphate Mineral
Mineral Spectra
Spectra

Ca

Ammonium
Ammonium Mineral
Mineral SWIR
SWIR Spectra
Spectra

Sulphates have their (OH) bands in

relatively unique positions and are
easily interpreted

15

Mineral Chemistry - Spectra (1)

Mineral Chemistry - Spectra (2)

VNIR spectral effects changes in iron oxide unit cell

SWIR Absorptions related to vibration of

octahedrally coordinated atoms (Al3+, Fe2+,
Fe3+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cr3+, Ti4+, vacancies)

Al3+ substitution in Hematite and Goethite

Al3+ smaller cation than Fe - distorts unit cell

Up to 33% Al substitution for Fe in Goethite
Broadens and shifts absorption to longer wavelengths
900 nm crystal field absorption - 39 nm shift

Tschermak substitution (e.g. white micas)

Tetrahedral Si4+ for Al3+
Octahedral Mg2+ or Fe2+ for Al3+
Increase interlayer cations K, Na, Ca

Mn2+ and Fe2+ substitution for Fe3+ in Maghemite

Broad conduction band - reduces albedo
Ref: Morris et. al. (1985)

Cation substitution (Al, Fe and Mg) in chlorite,

biotite, phlogopite
Mg number (Fe:Mg ratio)

White Mica
Chemistry

4.00

Chlorite
Chlorite Spectral
Spectral Characteristics
Characteristics

muscovite
3.80

RIII (mol)

3.60

(Mg,Fe)oct Sitet = Aloct Al tet

3.40

3.20

phengite

Muscovite
3.00

RIII = Aloct + V + Cr
2190

2195

2200

2205

2210

2215

Wavelength (nm)
Phengite

From Scott and Yang, 1997

Tschermak substitution
Longer => less Al, more Si and
divalent cations (Mg and Fe++)

Compositional
Compositional Effects
Effects -- IV
IV

Compositional
Compositional Effects
Effects -- III
III

C hlo rites
Wavelength o f M gO H abso rptio n versus M g num ber

C hlo rites
W avelength o f FeO H abso rptio n versus M g num ber
2365

2262
2260

y = -16.243x + 2261.6

2258

R = 0.9011

2360

y = -41.2x + 2365.5

2355

R = 0.9192

Wavelength (nm)

Wavelength (nm)

2256
2254
2252
2250

2350
2345
2340
2335

2248

2330

2246

2325

2244

2320

2242

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

M g N umbe r

M g N umbe r

16

Compositional
V
Compositional Effects
Effects --V

Crystallinity

B io tites and P hlo go pites

W avelen gth o f M gO H ab so rptio n versu s M g n um b er

Ordered versus disordered kaolinites

2370
2365
2360

R = 0.9071

2355
Wavelength (nm)

More ordered samples produce stronger, sharper

absorptions: doublets are more sharply defined
The Hinckley Index usually clear correlation
Other Kaolin family variations

y = -41.184x + 2361.4

2350
2345

(Halloysite, Kaolinite, Dickite)

2340
2335
2330

Ordered versus disordered illite / muscovites

2325
2320

1M, 2M & 2T illites

2315
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

M g N um be r

Kaolinite
Kaolinite Hinckley
Hinckley Index
Index Series
Series

Water Effects
Water is SWIR active
reduces overall brightness
reduces spectral contrast of mineral features
may even completely obscure features

Water is a blackbody in TIR

Major water absorptions at 1450, 1920, 2700 and 7000 nm
Major ramp down from 1000 - 2700 nm
Samples should therefore be dry
SWIR can identify different types of water
Hydrous species (eg. Smectites, Halloysite)

SWIR
SWIR Water
Water Spectrum
Spectrum
Water has its own SWIR spectrum
that mixes with mineral spectra

Dry
Dry and
and Wet
Wet Cracow
Cracow Kaolinite
Kaolinite
Wet samples can compromise
spectral interpretation

17

Particle Size Effects - 1

Particle
Particle Size
Size Effects
Effects

Rock versus Powder measurements

Powders yield brighter

spectra than rocks

Generally smaller particle size (powders) yields

brighter spectra
Powders produce relatively weaker absorptions
due to greater surface scattering and less volume
scattering

Not all minerals react to grain size effects in the

same way or to the same degree
volume (multiple/single) scattering
absorption coefficient (opaque/transparent)

Particle
Particle Size
Size Effects
Effects

Mineral Mixture Effects

Linear mixtures
magnitude of spectral features correlated with abundance
single scattering (e.g. many clays)

Non-linear mixtures
These three calcite grain sizes illustrate that
smaller particle sizes yield brighter spectra
with reduced absorption depths

Magnitude of spectral features correlated non-linearly with

abundance (e.g. carbonates)
multiple scattering
contrasting absorption coefficients (opaques and
transparent materials like sulphides mixed with
carbonates/quartz/mica/chlorite).

18

Kaolinite
Kaolinite // Muscovite
Muscovite Mixtures
Mixtures

Computed additive mixtures

Muscovite
Muscovite // Chlorite
Chlorite Mixtures
Mixtures

Quartz
Microcline
Orthoclase
Albite

Computed additive mixtures

Visible -SWIR

Quartz
Microcline
Orthoclase
Albite

thermal IR

Library DHR - Quartzites

Chalcedony

Silica
Crystallinity
Opaline
8000

0.85

7000

0.75

6000

Cup1A
Cup1B

5000

0.65

intensity

emissivity

Reflectance

0.95

4000

3000

0.55

CUP001A
CUP001B

0.45

2000

1000

7.5

8.5

9.5

10.5

11.5

wavelength (um)

12.5

13.5
0
15

25

35

45

55

65

XRD 2theta

19

Feldspar TIR Reflectance Spectra

Feldspars

0.7

Ubiquitous
11 types
(structurechemistry)
K-Na-Ca ternary
Alkali vs
plagioclase
Chemistry, temp
Igneous rock
classification
Alteration

9.0

reflectance

0.3

9.48
0.1
0

Plagioclase feldspars

7.5

8.5

9.5

Y100i.txt

emissivity

Feldspar Chemistry

3.782

TIR (all l) and XRD (3.7 d-spacing)

3.78

Y101ii(B)txt

Y107c.txt
Y107l.txt

0.15

Y115ii.txt
Y121ii.txt

0.1

Y122i.txt
0.05

Y123iii.txt
Y123iv.txt

0
8

8.5

9.5

10

10.5

11

1.25

Y124i.txt
Y124iv.txt

0.4

Ca albite-rich

0.35
0.3

emissivity

1.1

0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1

1.05
0.05
0

8.5

9.5

10

10.5

11

Y100ii.txt
Y101viii.txt
Y109i.txt
Y111iii.txt
Y112i.txt
Y112iv.txt
Y112iii.txt
Y113ii.txt
Y113i.txt
Y116i.txt
Y118iii.txt
Y119i.txt
Y119iv.txt
Y127i.txt

11.5

12.5

13.5

wavelength (m)
0.25

3.78

XRD d-spacing

emissivity

0.2

Y101ix.txt
Y101vii(A)txt
Y108i.txt
Y110i.txt
Y110ii.txt
Y114i.txt
Y114ii.txt
Y120ii.txt

0.15

0.1

0.05

8.5

9.5

10

10.5

3.776
3.774
3.772

Na-rich

3.77

3.768

3.77

3.772

3.774

3.776

3.778

3.78

3.782

actual XRD d-spacing

Albitisation
0.012

PLS Final Regression Coeffs.

13

8.2

9.6

0
10.5

9.0

7.5
8

3.778

-0.012

Na anorthite-rich
0

Albitised monzodiorites

Ca-rich

y = 0.7267x + 1.0317
R2 = 0.6705

3.768
3.766

FRC "weighted" emissivity

y = 12.7x - 46.8
R 2 = 0.61

1.15

predicted XRD d-spacing

albite-rich

0.2

wavelength (m)

3.775

10.5

wavelength (m)

Field TIR
spectra

11

8.5

9.5

10.5

11.5

12.5

13.5

wavelength (m)

wavelength (mm)

Garnets
structural and
chemical variations

Pyroxenes

X3Y2Z3O12 where Z is
Si4+ ; X and Y vary
3.5

spessartine
andradite
grosssularite
pyrope
almandine

VNIR-SWIR
2 groups - isomorphous
substitiuion
(1) ugrandite (uvarite, grossular,
andradite) Ca-rich
Y site - (Al3+,
Fe3+, Ti3+ and Cr3+)
TIR
(2) pyralspite (pyrope-almandinespessartine) Ca-poor

mean-normlasied reflectance

ratio of mFTIR emissivities

(9.6 m/9.9 m)

0.4

0.2

Y107b.txt

3.77

plagioclase

9.3

Alkali
feldspars

0.3

0.95
3.765

microcline (K)
orthoclase (K/Na)
sanidine (K/Na)
albite (Na)
labradorite (Na/Ca)
anorthite (Ca)

alkali
10.0 10.5

0.5

0.25

1.2

9.62

0.6

2.5

Fe-Ca

Al-Ca

1.5

Mn-Al

Mg-Al
0.5
0
7.5

8.5

9.5

10.5

11.5

12.5

13.5

wavelength (m)

20

TIR JHU Library - Olivines

Available
Available Spectral
Spectral Libraries
Libraries
NAME

SOURCE

MINLIB/3000.REF

CSIRO/ DEM

COST

RANGE (nm)

INSTRUMENT

SOFTWARE

CHARACTERISED

COMPATIBILITY

ANCILLARY DATA

Nil

400-2500

IRIS

XSPECTRA

Samples

JPL

JPL

Free

400-2500

Beckman

XSPECTRA

Yes

USGS

USGS

Free

400-2500

Beckman

XSPECTRA

Yes

VICM

CSIRO/DEM

Nil

1300-2500

PIMA-II

XSPECTRA/PIMAVIE

AUSM

CSIRO/DEM

Nil

1300-2500

PIMA-II

XSPECTRA/PIMAVIE

SPECMIN

Spectral International

$US2000

1300-2500

PIMA-II

XSPECTRA/PIMAVIE

ISPL

1300-2500

PIMA-II

XSPECTRA/PIMAVIE

John Hopkins Univ.

Free

SWIR Spectral Libraries

USGS & JPL libraries

Some

W
Some

available in ENVI
0.4 to 15 m reflectance
Minerals
Vegetation

Yes

W
ISPL/USGS

Yes

JHU

2000-25.000

Yes

SALISBURY

Jack Salisbury

Free

MID IR

FTIR

XSPECTRA

CO Laser

CSIRO/DEM

Free

9.2-11.5

CO Laser

XSPECTRA

?
Some + Samples

Free = Public domain

Nil = No cost to project

TIR Spectral Libraries

Johns Hopkins Univ. TIR library (available in ENVI)
0.4 to 15 m, hemispherical reflectance
Minerals
Igneous (coarse and fine grained)
Sedimentary (coarse and fine grained)
Metamorphic (coarse and fine grained)

Environmental

Soils
Vegetation
Water and snow
Lunar
Meteor
Man made

FieldField-LaboratoryLaboratory-Mine Spectrometers

IRIS Mk IV and Mk V
PIMAPIMA-II and PIMAPIMA-SP
Ocean Optics
ASD FieldSpec Pro
CO2 Laser
MicroFTIR

OARSOARS-TIPS (HyLogger
(HyLogger))
ASD (FaceMapper
(FaceMapper))

VNIRVNIR-SWIR
SWIR
VNIR
VNIRVNIR-SWIR
TIR
SWIRSWIR-MIR -TIR
VNIRVNIR-SWIRSWIR-MIR- TIR
VNIRVNIR-SWIRSWIR-MIR -TIR

21

Analytical
Spectral
Devices

(CARY - 5G)

Fieldspec Pro

Field
Field Spectrometer
Spectrometer
FIELDSPEC
FIELDSPEC FR
FR

Fieldspec Pro

Various configurations
350-2500 nm
10 nm spectral resulotion @ SWIR

TERRASPEC

TERRASPEC
More robust fibre
contact
http://www.asdi
.com/
http://www.asdi.com/

FieldSpec FR
FR
FieldSpec

FIELDSPEC
FIELDSPEC FR
FR Field
Field Portable
Portable Spectrometer
Spectrometer
1512 channels (spectral bands)
between 350-2500nm
10 measurements per second
IFOV 25 but adaptable down to 1
allows simulation of any remote sensing
system based on reflection of sun light

PIMA
PIMA Field
Field Portable
Portable Spectrometer
Spectrometer

Field
Field Spectrometer
Spectrometer -- PIMA
PIMA

SWIR only (1300 - 2500 nm)

Suitable for phyllosilicates, sulphates, carbonates
Internal light source (no atmospheric effects)
Contact mode of measurement
2 nm sampling, 4 nm resolution
1 cm FOV
8 second to X minute measurement (integration)
Australian developed & supported
Superior SNR and spectral resolution

22

Field FTIR Thermal Infrared

Spectrometer

Core Logging
Continuous core
/chip scanning

S pe ctra l Ra nge

5000-666 cm -1 (2.0-15.0 m) (Nomina l ra nge , but

full ra nge with hot s ource is 6410-415 cm -1 , or 1.5624 m.)

0.50.5-1 cm
resolution

S pe ctra l S a mpling

N/A

Da ta Inte rva l

3 cm -1

10,000s of
observations

S pe ctra l Re solution

6 cm -1

Fie ld of Vie w

4.6

~ 1 m / minute
at present
1000s metres of
core/chips

S ca n Time

1 s e c (us ua lly a ve ra ge d for 16 se conds )

P owe r S ource

2.5 kg 12 V ba tte ry in s ling pa ck for s pe ctrome te r

a nd bla ckbody (4 hr. ope ra tion).
Compute r
inde pe nde ntly powe re d.

S ize

Optica l he a d 25 x 25 x 20 cm
Ele ctronics/compute r ca se 33 x 46 x 5 cm
Optica l he a d 4.4 kg
Ele ctronics/compute r ca se 7.55 kg (with compute r)
Ba tte ry 2.5 kg
Light duty tripod 1.5 kg

We ight

Field FTIR Thermal Infrared

Spectrometer
Raw Output (Instrument Units)

Raw Data
30.00

24.00

18.00

12.00

6.00

0.0
7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

11.00

12.00

13.00

14.00

Wavelength (micrometers)
Cold Blackbody

Warm Blackbody

Sample

Calibrated Data
Apparent Emissivity
1.10

9.00

Apparent Emissivity

Radiance (W/m2um sr)

10.00

8.00

7.00

6.00

1.00

0.90

0.80

0.70

0.60

5.00
7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

11.00

12.00

Wavelength (micrometers)

13.00

14.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

11.00

12.00

13.00

14.00

Wavelength (micrometers)
Apparent quartz emissivity

Calibrated quartz

23

Spectral Analysis Methods

Field vs Lab.

Spectral enhancement
Hull quotient spectra
1.10

Background, continuum or hull removed

Derivative spectra
1st or 2nd derivatives

0.98

Feature extraction
Gaussian decomposition - wavelengths, depths, widths and
asymmetries

0.86

Automatic Mineral Identification

0.74

Tetracorder
Spectral Assistant

0.62

Similarity measures
0.50
7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

11.00

12.00

13.00

14.00

Wavelength (micrometers)
Field measurement (uFTIR)

Partial Unmixing
Spectral Angle Mapper

Quantification

Laboratory measurement (Nicolet)

Partial Least Squares

Software

SIMIS (Spectrometer-Independent Mineral Identification Software)

TSG (The Spectral Geologist)

Field/lab spectra
Field/lab and core spectra
TSA (The Spectral Assistant)
TSG-Core

PIMAVIEW-111

ASD

ENVI (Environment for Visualising Images)

Tetracorder (USGS SpecLab)

Neil Pendock Suite

CSIRO/HyVista Suite

ERMapper

Field/lab spectra
Field/lab spectra
Hyperspectral images
Field/lab spectra
Hyperspectral images
Field/lab spectra
ASTER and hyperspectral images
ASTER and hyperspectral images
ASTER

Reflectance,
Reflectance, Hull
Hull and
and Hull
Hull
Quotient
Quotient Spectra
Spectra

Continuum Slope Effect

.... Hull quotient spectrum

.... Hull or continuum

Reflectance spectrum ....

24

Main Approaches to Spectral

Data Analysis

Spectral Analysis
and its application to
Exploration and Mining

Manual Interpretation
Mineral identification
software
Automated
User defined training libraries

Spectral parameters / digital

mineralogy

Dr Sasha Pontual,
Pontual, AusSpec International

Mineral Identification Software

Mineral Identification Software

Rely totally upon training library

Fast, consistent, digital output

Some have fixed libraries (e.g. TSA)

Still misses many subtle

variations

Some have user defined libraries (i.e.

built into TSG)

But very useful with large

datasets
(if used intelligently)

Mineral Identification Software

Questionable accuracy (i.e. if more than 2 minerals)
Danger of black box mentality
User must carry out visual checks
User must use other knowledge (geology, target etc.)

Example

Reconnaissance phase
Ridge and Spur sampling
~5 x 5 km area
over 2000 samples collected for
geochemical analysis
Measured on-site using PIMA II

25

Dominant Mineral Map: TSA results

Illite
Paragonite
Kaolinite
Halloysite
Gibbsite

~ 5 x 5 km
ridge and
spur samples

Spectral Parameters
They are measurements of:

Wavelength
Depth
Width
Areas of absorption features
Or combinations of these values i.e. commonly as
ratios of depths of features

Influenced by mineralogical factors such as

composition and crystallinity

Advantages of Spectral Parameters

Highly specific controlled by only one or two
variations in mineralogy
Consistent
Very fast
Produce digital results that can be integrated
with other data
Allow results to be presented in a familiar
format

Single Mineral Group

TSA results - class
extraction scalars
Illite Group
Distribution

Colours relate to
signature strength
(spectral
weightings)

A Few Common Parameters

Wavelength AlOH illite composition
Depth AlOH/water illite-smectite
crystallinity
Kaolinite crystallinity
Wavelength MgOH/CO3
Depth of AlOH, MgOH or FeOH

Used in over 90% of projects

calculated automatically

Understanding Spectral Parameters

Can be influenced by several factors
Can mean different things with different
datasets

By themselves spectral parameters are

not intelligent!

(i.e. to the non-spectral expert geologists)

26

Calculating Spectral Parameters

Applications to Mineral Exploration

Patterns of Mineral Distribution

TSG calculates spectral parameters using

any of these methods:

Provide information on:

The spectral profile (i.e. directly from the

spectra)
Arithmetic expressions (i.e. ratios)
Feature parameters (i.e. based on
deconvolution of the spectra)
Class Extraction Scalars (i.e. data filtered by
Class, eg. TSA Mineral 1, lithology etc.)

Illite Crystallinity Map

Alteration
Zoning, lithology and structure

Weathering
Weathering profiles
Weathered altered signatures

Understanding alterationalterationmineralisation relationships

Class extraction of
Spectral Parameters

Data Integration
-

Hot colours indicate increased

illite crystallinity
Greys are samples with no
illite

Scatterplot screen in TSG

Geochemical data - elemental distribution, and

mineralisation
Geophysical data - changing physical
characteristics
Spectral Data - associated mineralogical
variation

21

0 40 5

06

07

08

09

10

11

01

12

450RL

20

14

15

16

17

Geochemistry

Basalt

400RL

phengite

Chlorite
Mg Fe

Case Study: Allendale, Victoria

muscovite

Chlorite

Sericite

O
2

Al

gO

O
2

gO

Depth
10m

Ta
rge

/K

Data Integration
350RL

Mineralisation
As ppm

300RL

50m

1 0 0 m E 2 0 0 m E 3 0 0 m E 4 0 0 m E 5 0 0 m E 6 0 0 m E 7 0 0 m E 8 0 0 m E 9 0 0 m E 1 0 0 0 m E11 0 0 m E 1 2 0 0 m E1 3 0 0 m E1 4 0 0m E

55m
60m
450RL

21

0 40 5

06

07

08

09

10

11

01

12

14

15

16

17

Basalt

350RL
300RL

Mineralogy
(Spectral data)

400RL

Lithology

100m

20

Sericite Composition

Specifically mapping
the alteration envelope

1 0 0 m E 2 0 0 m E 3 0 0 m E 4 0 0 m E 5 0 0 m E 6 0 0 m E 7 0 0 m E 8 0 0 m E 9 0 0 m E 1 0 0 0 m E11 0 0 m E 1 2 0 0 m E1 3 0 0 m E1 4 0 0m E

150m
Basalt

Muscovite & kaolinite

characterise mineralised
structures

200m

Geochemical Data

Mineralogical Data

Fe Carbonate

(Spectral Data)

27