Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
by DONALD M. HILTY, MD; MARTIN H. LEAMON, MD; RUSSELL F. LIM, MD; ROSEMARY H. KELLY, MD, MPH;
and ROBERT E. HALES, MD, MBA
Drs. Hilty and Leamon are Associate Professors of Clinical Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at University of Califorinia, Davis; Dr. Lim
is Associate Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at University of Califorinia, Davis; Dr. Kelly is Intructor, Department of Psychiatry, and
Faculty, Certificate Program in Infant Mental Health, University of Washington; and Dr. Hales is Joe Tupin Professor and Chair of
Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis.
ADDRESS CORRESPONDENCE TO: Donald M. Hilty, MD, University of California, Davis, 2230 Stockton Blvd.,
Sacramento, CA 95817; Phone: (916) 734-8110; Fax: (916) 734-3384; Email: dmhilty@ucdavis.edu
DISCLOSURES: Dr. Hilty is on the speakers bureau for Abbott Labs and Eli Lilly. Dr. Hales is a consultant for
Sepracor and is on the speakers bureau, APA symposium support, and teleconference programs for Bristol-Myers
Squibb. Drs. Leamon and Lim have no relevant conflicts of interest to disclose.
Key Words: : bipolar, diagnosis, review, treatment, depression
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INTRODUCTION
Bipolar spectrum disorders are a
major public health problem, with
estimates of lifetime prevalence in
the general population of the United
States at 3.9 percent,1 with a range
from 1.5 to 6.0 percent.2 Bipolar
disorder is also associated with
significant mortality risk, with
approximately 25 percent of patients
attempting suicide and 11 percent of
patients completing.3 Furthermore,
inadequate treatment and service
structure causes high rates of jailing
for bipolar patients.4 Bipolar
depression is still undertreated, too,
with patients suffering such
symptoms 31.9 percent of the time
over nearly 13 years.5
Review articles for adults6,7 and
pediatric patients8 imply progress,
but we have not fully researched
depressive episodes, combination
treatment, health services
interventions, and special
populations. Practice guidelines,9
decision trees,10 and elaborate
algorithms11,12 are well written, but
are not user friendly.
More pharmacologic options are
now available, and psychoeducation,
self-help, and psychotherapy
(individual, couple, and family)
interventions are frequently utilized.9
The Depression and Bipolar Support
Alliance has taken a leading role in
educating patients, their families,
medical professionals, mental health
professionals, and the public at large
about manic-depressive illness. The
National Alliance of the Mentally Ill
(NAMI) has also sought information
by surveying family members about
utilization and value of mental health
services.13
EPIDEMIOLOGY
Bipolar I disorder starts on
average at 18 years and bipolar II
disorder at 22 years.9,14 A community
study using the Mood Disorder
Questionnaire (MDQ) revealed a
prevalence of 3.7 percent.15 The
National Comorbidity Study showed
onset typically between 18 and 44,
with higher rates between 18 and 34
than 35 and 54.1 In a survey of
members of the DBSA, more than
44
Psychiatry 2006 [ S E P T E M B E R ]
ETIOLOGY AND
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
There is not a single hypothesis
that unifies genetic, biochemical,
pharmacological, anatomical, and
sleep data on bipolar disorder.20
Biochemical investigations are
underway for transmitters
(catecholamines, serotonin, gamma
aminobutyric acid (GABA),
glutamate and others), hormones
(brain-derived neurotrophic factor,
thyroid and others), and steroids
alone and in collaboration. Imaging
studies, emerging throughout
medicine, may shed light.
Epidemiological evidence,
particularly studies of concordance
in identical and fraternal twins,
implies that affective disorders are
heritable. For family members of
bipolar probands, the morbid risk is
between 2.9 and 14.5 percent for
bipolar disorder and 4.2 and 24.3
percent for unipolar disorder,
depending on the diagnostic criteria
used and the heterogeneity of the
probands.19 The degree to which
bipolar I, bipolar II, hypomania,
tomography (CT)
TABLE 1. Medical, surgical, and medication differential diagnosis for mania and depression
studies, though
ventricular
Mania
Depression
enlargement has been
SUBSTANCES
SUBSTANCES
suspected. Magnetic
Intoxication
Intoxication
resonance imaging
Amphetamines
Alcohole
(MRI) studies reveal
Anticholinergic
Barbiturates
an increase in white
Barbiturates
Benzodiazepines
matter intensities
Benzodiazepines
Cannabis
associated with bipolar
Withdrawal
Cocaine
disorder and
Hallucinogens
Amphetamines
correlated with age,21
Opiates
Cocaine
though the clinical
Phencyclidine
Withdrawal
MEDICATIONS
significance is
Alcohol
Ibuprofen
Acetazolamide
unknown. Overall,
Barbiturates
Amantadine
Indomethacin
most functional
Benzodiazepines
Levodopa/Methyldopa
Anticholinesterases
imaging studies
Lidocaine
Azathioprine
(single-photon
MEDICATIONS
Meclizine
Baclofen
emission computer
Baleen
Metaclopramide
Barbiturates
tomography [SPECT]
Methsuzimide
Benzodiazepines
Bromide
and positron emission
Metronidazole
Bleomycine
Bromocriptine
tomography [PET])
Mithramycin
Bromocriptine
Bronchodialators
have noted prefrontal
Nitrofurantoin
Butyrophenones
Calcium replacement
Opiates
Carbamazepine
Captopril
and anterior
Oral contraceptives
Chloral
hydrate
Cimetidine
paralimbic
Phenacetin
Cimetidine
Corticosteroids
hypoactivity in bipolar
Phenothiazines
Clonidine
Cyclosporine
depression, while
Phenylbutazone
Clotrimazole
Decongestants
preliminary studies of
Phenytoin
Corticosteroids
Disulfiram
manic patients have
Prazocin
Cycloserine
Hydralazine
yielded inconsistent
Procainamide
Danazol
Isoniazid
findings.
Propranolol
Dapsone
Levodopa
There are two other
Reserpine
Digitalis
Methylphenidate
Streptomycin
Disulfiram
Metoclopramide
important biochemical
Sulfonamides
Fenfluramine
Metrizamide
models for bipolar
Tetracycline
Gresofulvine
Procarbazine
disorder. Post and
Triamcinolone
Guanethidine
Procarbazine
collaborators have
Vincristine
Hydralazine
Procyclidine
proposed a model that
electrophysiological
kindling and
behavioral sensitization underlie
if two rhythms become
assessment is underutilized in
bipolar disorder, particularly the
desychronized (i.e., if one becomes
assessing medication side effects, the
increasing frequency of episodes
free-running in and out of phase with return to the outpatient sector from
over time.22 Parallels between this
the other).19 It is unclear if and how
inpatient, and employing vocational
model and bipolar disorder include
genetics contribute to the course
rehabilitation in preparation for
the following: Predisposing effects of (e.g., rapid cycling), circadian and
work.25
both genetic factors and early
seasonal rhythms, and the capacity
environmental stress; threshold
for kindling and sensitization.
DIAGNOSIS
effects (mild alterations eventually
Cognitive processing is often
The fourth edition of the
producing full-blown episodes); early impaired in bipolar patients, even in
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
episodes requiring precipitants while euthymic patients.23,24 Executive
of Mental Disorders Text Revision
later ones do not; and repeated
function, visulospatial, memory,
(DSM-IV-TR) includes bipolar I
episodes of one phase leading to
verbal fluency, and attentional
disorder, bipolar II disorder,
emergence of the other.19
deficits have been noted. This may
cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar
Circadian rhythm
be a primary feature of bipolar
disorder not otherwise specified.26
desynchronization has also been
disorder, secondary to other
The episodes are characterized by
implicated in bipolar disorder.
dysregulation (e.g., insomnia) or
mania, hypomania, depressive, and
Animal data indicate that periodic
secondary to comorbid conditions
mixed episodes. By definition,
physiological disturbances can occur
(e.g., substance use). Cognitive
patients with bipolar I disorder have
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Psychiatry 2006
45
Comments
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Psychiatry 2006 [ S E P T E M B E R ]
ASSESSMENT
The evaluation of a bipolar patient
involves a number of important
clinical and psychosocial issues. The
primary tool is the neuropsychiatric
assessment with the history and
physical examination. Brief histories
(less than 30 minutes) may be a
liability, due to the complexity of the
mood course in patients not already
diagnosed. Collateral information is
required in most cases from family,
friends, or prior places of treatment.
A delineation of episodic versus
chronic symptoms is helpful, except
with patients with cycling of mood
day-to-day, in a mixed episode, or
otherwise very unstable course.
Screening instruments can be used
for manic episodes (e.g. Mood
Disorder Questionnaire [MDQ]),
though they may have more utility in
primary care settings. The MDQ has
13 yes/no items, and seven positive
answers call for a full clinical
evaluation.15
The clinician must also assess for
the presence of psychotic features,
cognitive impairment, risk of suicide,
risk of violence to persons or
property, risk-taking behavior,
sexually inappropriate behavior, and
substance abuse. In addition, it is
important to assess for the patients
APA
CONSENSUS
GUIDELINE
CANMAT
OTHER
EVIDENCE
Mania
euphoric
Lithium
Traditional
(non-AAP) MS:
lithium or
valproate
N/A
Lithium
Maniamild
or moderate
Lithium or
valproate
Traditional
(non-AAP) MS:
lithium or
valproate
N/A
Valproate
and/or AAP(1)
Maniasevere
Valproate or
lithium with
AAP
Valproate and
AAP
N/A
Valproate
and/or AAP(1)
Maniamixed
Valproate
Traditional and
AAP
N/A
Valproate or
AAP
Rapid
cycling
depression
MS(1) and
MS(2)
Lamotrigine or
lamotrigine/
lithium
Lithium
Lamotrigine
Valproate
Lamotrigine
Rapid
cycling
mania
MS(1) and
MS(2)
Valproate or
valproate/AAP
Lithium
Lamotrigine
Valproate
Valproate
Depression
mild or
moderate(2)
Optimize MS
N/A
N/A
N/A
Depression
severe
MS(1) and
SSRI, MS(2), or
ECT
N/A
N/A
N/A
EPISODE
MANAGEMENT
Treatment guidelines. The
American Psychiatric Association
(APA) developed the Practice
Guideline for the Treatment of
Patients with Bipolar Disorder.9
The principles of psychiatric
management are outlined in Table 2.
A therapeutic alliance is crucial for
understanding and managing the
patient, detecting recurrence of
illness, enhancing adherence, and
addressing psychosocial stressors.
Patients require ongoing education
regarding the illness, treatment
options, and the impact of the illness
KEY:
APAAmerican Psychiatric Association. In: Hirschfeld RMA, Bowden CL, Gitlin MJ, et
al. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with bipolar disorder (revision).
Am J Psychiatry 2002;159(Suppl):135.
Consensus GuidelineKeck P, Perlis R, Otto M, et al. The Expert Consensus Guideline
Series: Medication treatment of bipolar disorder 2004. Postgrad Med 2004;1120.
CANMATCanadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments
AAPatypical antipsychotic
MSmood stabilizer
ECTelectroconvulsive therapy
1Particularly if insomnia significant
2If no mood stabilizer, initiate one
N/ANot addressed
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Psychiatry 2006
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Indication
Lithium
Carbamazepine
oxcarbazepine
Valproate
Lamotrigine
Risperidone
Olanzapine
Quetiapine
Ziprasidone
Aripiprazole
Mania
FDA approval
Euphoric
Irrit./Mixed
+
+
?
+
+?
+
+
+
?
?
+
+
?
+
+
+
+
+
?
+
+
+
+
+
?
Rapid cycling
+?
Use in hepatic
disease
+(1)
Use in renal
disease
Use in rash
patients
Medicalinduced mania
+?
Violence/rapid
stabilization
?+
?+
+?
Substance
comorbidity
Long-term
depression
+(2)
FDA Class
D/C
Breastfeeding
Hormone
effects
Ind. OC(3)
Prolactin
Short-term
side effects
Cognition
Polydip.
Tremor
Sedation
Anemia
LFT elev.
Sedation
Weight gain
LFT elev.
Rash
Headache
Wt. gain
EPS(4)
Gluc. elev.(5)
Weight gain
Sedation
Gluc. elev
Gluc. elev
Agitation
Sedation
Agitation
Long-term
side effects
Thyroid
Renal
Anemia
Pans?
PCO
T.D.?
Chol. elev.
T.D.?
Chol. elev.
T.D.?
Chol. elev.
T.D.?
T.D.?
600-2400
(0.61.2)
QD or BID
4001200/
6001800
BID
7502500(6)
(50125)
BID
100mg BID
26mg
BID
520mg HS
300600mg
BID
4080mg BID
1030mg AM
Dosing
NOTES:
Evidence basehaloperidol and thioridizine also FDA-approved for mania, but not commonly used.
(1) OlanzapineRare reports of LFT elevation
(2) Option to use combined form (olanzapine/fluoxetine = Symbyax).
(3) Induction of oral contraceptivescarbamazepine oxcarbazepine and topiramate.
(4) RisperdoneEPS = extrapyramidal side effects and TD = tardive dyskinesia.
(5) Glucose and cholesterol elevationmay be more for olanzapine, risperidone, and quetiapine than for ziprasidone and aripiprazole.
(6) Valproate ER dosed 5003000mg HS.
48
Psychiatry 2006 [ S E P T E M B E R ]
A summary of psychotherapeutic
treatments reveals better outcomes
and improved adherence to
treatment.36 Cognitive-behavioral,
family-focused psychoeducation (also
known as behavioral family
management), inpatient family, and
group psychotherapy have been
studied. Easy access to a primary
nurse provider increases outpatient
utilization without increasing costs.37
These interventions bridge the gap
between ideal controlled trials and
everyday practice, in which patients
and families benefit from the
increased structure of the
interventions.
Medication selection. The
choice of a mood stabilizer for the
treatment of mania can be guided by
predictors of response, which are
usually determined by the patients
history and the type of episode
(Figure 1).38 Several factors influence
the selection of medication, including
target symptoms, side effects,
personal or family history of
response, ease of adherence (QD,
QHS, or BID preferable), the
teratogenic profile for pregnant
patients, and access to medications
(e.g., cost formulary restrictions)
(Table 4).
Proportion of depression to
mania: A high ratio implies
eventual need for lithium,
lamotrigine, or quetiapine, though
others are effective for depression.
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COMORBIDITY IN BIPOLAR
DISORDER
Comorbid psychiatric disorders in
individuals with bipolar disorder are
associated with poorer outcome and
poorer treatment response,72
increased service utilization, and
increased cost. Substance use,
attention deficit hyperactivity,
anxiety, and impulse control
disorders are the most common.
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MAINTENANCE TREATMENT
Acute treatment usually occurs
between 0 and 8 weeks, with
CONCLUSIONS
Bipolar disorder is a major public
health problem associated with
significant morbidity and a high
mortality risk. Several factors make
treatment complex, including the
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