Chemistry Summary Notes

Recall the structure of the atomic nucleus. (1)

Atoms are composed of sub- atomic particles. The three main particles are:
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Protons: positively charged (+1); in the nucleus; have an atomic mass of 1 unit.
Neutrons: no charge; in the nucleus; have an atomic mass of 1 unit.
Electrons: negatively charged (-1); orbit nucleus; are about 1/2000th the mass of proton or
neutron.
The nucleus is very small and dense.

How the electrons are arranged for the first twenty elements.
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The electrons are arranged in orbits at different energy levels around the nucleus.
The inner or first orbit can have up to two electrons.
The second and third orbits can have up to eight electrons.

Atomic number the number of protons in an atom. This identified the atom. Every atom has an
equal number of protons and neutrons
Mass number the number of protons + the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
Define the terms isotope, radioisotope and nuclear radiation. (2)
Isotope Isotopes of an element all have the same number of protons, but a different number of
neutrons.
Radioisotope Unstable isotopes that decay or break up, giving off high-energy radiations (alpha,
beta and gamma radiation) and forming different atoms.
Nuclear radiation the energy and the particles that are released from the nucleus in its break-up
Define the terms radioactivity, alpha particle, beta particle, gamma radiation and halflife. (3)
Half-life the length of time required for half of the isotopes atoms to decay. This length is different
for each radioisotope.
Radioactive decay the process of changing from one element to another while emitting radiation
Alpha Particles ()
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Small, heavy and positively charged particle make of 2 protons and 2 neutrons stuck together
4
2
An alpha particle is a Helium ion 2 He
Do not travel fast, when moving through air they hit into anything near them and do a lot of
damage
Lose energy very quickly
Not able to penetrate a piece of paper

Beta Particles ()
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Very small, light and fast moving negatively charged particles

Electrons which have come from the nucleus
Damage they do is more spread out

They will penetrate thin aluminium foil or a piece of paper

Gamma rays ()
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Similar to x-rays, not particles but electromagnetic waves

They have no mass or charge and travel at the speed of light
Go through most things easily, able to be stopped by a metre of concrete or 10cm of lead

Use the correct notation to denote isotopes (nuclear symbol).(4)

FOR EXAMPLE: URANIUM
235

mass number
U

92

atomic number

Describe, with examples, uses of radioisotopes in society. (5)

Industrial Uses
Food preservation food in sealed containers can be preserved by exposing it to gamma radiation.
The radiation kills the micro-organisms in the food and keeps it from spoiling.
Other uses
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Examining faults in planes

Nuclear weaponry
Smoke detectors

Medical Uses
Treating cancer radiotherapy is the use of radioisotopes, or other radiation such as X-rays, to kill
cancer cells or prevent them from multiplying. It can be targeted in a small area so that the
surrounding tissue is not damaged. There are two methods to this, internally, when the radioactive

material is placed inside the body, or externally, where the radioactive material is shot into the body
from outside it.
Diagnostic medicine radioactive substances may be inserted into the body to detect or identify the
cause of disease. The radiation produced by the substance while it is in the part of the body under
investigation is measured to diagnose the problem.
Other uses:
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Sterilising medical equipment

Nuclear medicine
Gamma rays emitting radioactive tracers are swallowed by patients to diagnose problems in the
body

Describe the benefits and problems in medical and industrial uses of radioisotopes. (6)
Advantages:
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Used to diagnose and treat cancer

Can be used to detect faults in machinery without taking the machinery apart e.g. jet engines
Can be used to detect the thickness of materials
Can be used to work out the absolute age of rocks (and thus, the age of the Earth).

Disadvantages:
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Can kill good cells in the process of detecting or treating illnesses

Radioisotopes used in industry, medicine or scientific research can harm the users, so they need
to be monitored for their exposure levels
In the process of killing cancer cells, healthy cells are also killed leading to short-term illness and
short effects
Food irritation causes bacteria as well as vitamins to be destroyed and new chemicals to be
created within food

Radiation Sickness
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Very high levels of nuclear radiation (such as that given off in a nuclear bomb) can cause
radiation sickness
Many of the organs inn the body can be affected, making the person very sick, affect the
reproductive organs and possibly lead to death.

Cancer
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Nuclear radiation can alter the DNA in cells, causing mutations and possibly alter them in a way
that can cause them to become cancerous.
Sometimes the cancer doesnt develop until many years after exposure to radiation.

Recall the problems with fossil fuels. (7)

Environmental Dangers i.e. pollution when fossil fuels are burnt they release carbon dioxide, a
greenhouse gas which is a main contributor to global warming
Acid rain Sulphur oxide, another greenhouse gas, is released and absorbed by clouds. When these
clouds rain, the rain becomes acidic, contributing to the destruction of buildings, crops and land
formations.
Affecting human health the ozone layer id depleting due to excessive fossil fuel burning, causing
harmful UV rays to seep into the earths troposphere and atmosphere, causing life threatening diseases
such as skin cancer

Impacts on aquatic life oil spills are more frequent with the increased use of fossil fuels. Crude oil
mixed into the ocean causes serious health effects to aquatic life.
Coal mining Coal mining destroys vast amounts of land, resulting in an ecological imbalance
disturbing wildlife and the ecosystem.
Rising prices and non-renewable due to their limited availability, the prices for fossil fuels are
beginning to skyrocket, creating political unrest amongst its biggest users as well as major problems if
it begins widely unavailable.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using nuclear power stations. (8)
Advantages
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Produces much less carbon emission than fossil fuels

Only around 3 percent of nuclear waste is classified as high level waste
The volume of high level waste produced per person for a lifetimes worth of energy is tiny
The fission products are dangerous for a certain time, around 300 years
The 97% remaining waste shouldnt be regarded as waste, but rather be reused and recycled

Disadvantages
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Britain already has enough waste to fill Albert hall 5 and a half times
High level waste is extremely dangerous and must be safely stored for thousands of year a
terrible legacy for future generations
97% of high level waste takes thousands of years to decay

State and explain the law of conservation of matter. (9)

The law and conservation of matter states that in any given system that is closed to the transfer of
matter, the amount of matter in the system stays constant.
The law of conversation of matter says that in chemical reactions, the total mass of the products must
equal the total mass of the reactants.
Recall acids, bases and salts. (10)
Acids and bases neutralise one another:
ACID + BASE SALT + WATER
The products (i.e. the salt and water) are neutral (i.e. they have a pH of 7).
A salt is defined as the product formed from the neutralisation reaction of acids and bases. Salts are
composed of a metal and a non-metal.
Neutralisation Reactions
hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride (table salt) + water
Salts:

All salts have a crystalline structure and high boiling points and most dissolve in water.
A salt is an example of what is known as an ionic compound.
The name of a salt contains at least two words, which identify the ions that make it up (e.g.
sodium chloride contains sodium and chloride ions).
Salts are composed of metals and non- metals or groups of non- metals.

Classify compounds into the following groups based on common chemical characteristics and/or
the elements that make them up: (11)
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Salts & molecular compounds

o Anything with a metal and a non-metal is a salt. It involves ionic bonding.
o Anything that is covalently bonded, non-metals joined together

Acids & bases

o pH, 7 and above is a base, 6 and below is an acid
o Acids taste sour whereas bases taste bitter
o Acids are more corrosive

Organic (carbon) and inorganic

o Acids, bases, and salts are inorganic compounds.
o The basis of all organic compounds is carbon. Organic compounds can occur naturally,
such as crude oil, or they can be man-made, such as plastics.
o NaBr Inorganic. C2H5OH Organic.

Define the term precipitation as the formation of a solid when two different solutions are
added together and a chemical reaction occurs. (12)
Precipitation is the formation of a solid when two different solutions are added together and a
chemical reaction occurs.
A precipitate is an insoluble solid produced by the reaction between 2 clear (not necessarily
colourless) solutions of soluble substances.

Example:
cobalt chloride + silver nitrate silver chloride + cobalt nitrate
colourless solution + colourless solution pink precipitate + colourless solution
A precipitate is an insoluble solid formed when the appropriate ions are present.
Conduct an experiment to determine if mixing two different salt solutions produces a
precipitate. (13)
Solubility Rules
1. All compounds of Group 1 metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) are soluble.
2. All nitrates are soluble.
3. All chlorides are soluble, EXCEPT silver, lead and mercury.
4. All sulphates are soluble, EXCEPT barium, lead and calcium.

5. All carbonates insoluble, EXCEPT Group 1 metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr).
6. All hydroxides are insoluble, EXCEPT those of Group 1.
Write an equation in words for precipitation.(14) Name each precipitate thus formed. (15)
Examples:
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Cobalt chloride + sodium carbonate = Cobalt carbonate (ppt) + sodium chloride

Copper sulphate + sodium carbonate = Copper carbonate (ppt) + sodium sulphate
Iron nitrate + sodium carbonate = iron carbonate (ppt) + Sodium nitrate
Copper sulphate + sodium chloride = copper chloride + Sodium sulphate
Iron nitrate + sodium chloride = iron chloride + sodium nitrate

Explain the precipitation in terms of the solubility of salts. (16)

A precipitate is an insoluble solid that emerges from a liquid solid. The emergence of the
insoluble solid from solution is called precipitation. Precipitates can form when two soluble
salts react in solution to form one or more insoluble products.
Define the term combustion as a rapid chemical reaction that occurs when a substance
reacts with O2 in the air producing heat and light energy. (17)
Combustion a rapid chemical reactions that occurs when a substance reacts with oxygen in
the air, producing heat and light
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Example of oxidation reaction

Depends on a continuous supply of
fuel and oxygen
Reaction that release energy are
classified as exothermic reactions
Heat energy from an ignition source is
needed to raise the temperature of the
fuel and oxygen until the ignition
occurs.

Define the term incomplete combustion.

(18)
Complete combustion
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When hydrocarbons burn in lots of oxygen, carbon dioxide and water are produced. This
is called a complete combustion. These reactions so produce heat energy which may be
harnessed.
Combustion is an oxidation reaction

Incomplete combustion
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When the supply of oxygen is limited, incomplete combustion may occur. This is
usually characterised by a black, smoky flame. During incomplete combustion, two
reactions tend to occur simultaneously.
Incomplete combustion produces less heat energy than complete combustion and can
also produce a deadly pollutant carbon monoxide gas. Carbon monoxide is a highly
dangerous poisonous gas.
When inhaled, carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin in red blood cells more
easily than oxygen, preventing the blood from carrying oxygen from the lungs to other
body tissues.

Conduct an experiment involving the lighting of a Bunsen burner and describe this as a
combustion reaction. (22)
Write a general word equation for combustion of a hydrocarbon. (21)
Complete Combustion:
Ethane + oxygen gives carbon dioxide + water
Incomplete Combustion:
Reaction 1: ethane + oxygen gives carbon monoxide + water
Reaction 2: ethane + oxygen gives carbon + water
Write an experimental report on the combustion of magnesium metal (23)
A strip of magnesium was held in a Bunsen burner flame and allowed to combust in the presence of
oxygen. The strip glowed very brightly and a new compound was formed. It was whitish in colour
and was called magnesium oxide.
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Safety Considerations:
o Dont look at the bright light when conducting the experiment

Define the term decomposition as a chemical reaction in which energy is used to break
down a chemical compound into simpler compounds and/ or elements.(24)
Decomposition a reaction in which chemical compounds break down into simpler forms or
their constituent elements e.g. silver sulphide silver + sulphur
Conduct an experiment to decompose a metallic compound such as CuCO3 (25)
Write a word equation to describe the decomposition of CuCO3. (26)
Decomposition rule for a metal carbonate metal carbonate metal oxide + carbon
dioxide
Copper carbonate copper oxide + carbon dioxide
heat
CuCO3

CuO + CO2

Write an experimental report on the decomposition of CuCO3 (27)

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Safety Considerations
o Dont want lime water coming into the test tube of the copper carbonate. If the
lime water enters the hot test tube, it will crack/explode the test tube.
Must first take the lime water tube away THEN turn the Bunsen burner off.
o Remove the delivery tube from the limewater test tube BEFORE removing the
CuCO3 test tube from the Bunsen burner flame
Cooper carbonate copper oxide + carbon dioxide
Limewater turns cloudy indicating the presence of carbon dioxide
Copper carbonate turns black

Explain why the electrolysis of water is a decomposition reaction. (28)

The electrolysis of water is the decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen. This is a
decomposition reaction as a stimulant (electricity) is applied and the water decomposes into
its original make up.
Decomposition is taking a compound and turning it into two smaller things. Those two
smaller things can be other compounds or elements.
Compound compound/s/elements
Water hydrogen + oxygen (both elements)
In this case, you are taking a compound and producing two elements.