Chap 3

1.
The pedosphere can be defined as that shell or layer of the Earth in which soil forming
processes occur. [Bates and Jackson, 1980]
(a)
State how the pedosphere forms an integral part of the environmental system and outline
the interactions between the hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere and pedosphere.
(5)
(b)
Compare the agricultural properties of sand and clay soils.

(5)
(c)
Compare and evaluate soil conservation measures for a named commercial farming
system and a named subsistence farming system.
(7)
(Total 17 marks)
2.
The data figure 1 shows some characteristics of three different forest ecosystems.
Figure 1.
V e g e ta tio n
S o il p ro file
T ro p ic a l ra in fo re s t
T e m p e ra te
d e c id u o u s w o o d la n d
T e m p e ra te
c o n ife ro u s w o o d la n d
L itte r
th in h u m u s la y e r
L itte r
d e e p h u m u s la y e r
L itte r (p in e n e e d le s )
d e e p h u m u s (a c id ic ) la y e r
R e d c o lo u r w ith h ig h iro n
a n d a lu m in iu m c o n te n t
c o a rs e te x tu re
B ro w n c o lo u r b e c o m in g
lig h te r w ith d e p th
P a le g re y la y e r w ith
c o n s id e ra b le le a c h in g
S o m e le a c h in g
D a rk e r la y e r w ith iro n a n d
h u m u s e n ric h m e n t
P a re n t m a te ria l w e a th e re d
to g re a t d e p th
P a re n t m a te ria l
P a re n t m a te ria l
M e a n b io m a s s /
to n s h e c ta re 1
1000
800
600
400
200
0
[Source: adapted from Goodman and Hughes, Geography A level Q and A, Letts Educational, 1995, page 19]
(a)
(i)
Define what is meant by the term biomass.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Outline a method by which biomass can be measured.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
(i)
Identify which of the three forest ecosystems contains the most biomass.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Explain why this ecosystem is so productive. (In your answer you should include
factors other then those in figure 1.)
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(iii)
Explain the difference between biomass and net primary productivity (NPP).
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
(i)
Of the three soil types shown in figure 1, state which forests soil is most fertile.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Explain how you arrived at your answer to (c) (i).

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 13 marks)
The diagram shows a model of human population growth.
F o o d s u p p ly
K ey
P o p u la tio n
F o o d s u p p ly
P o p u la tio n
3.
T im e
(a)
(i)
On the diagram complete the probable population curve for the time period X to Y.
(1)
(ii)
Justify the line you have drawn in (a) (i).

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(b)
(i)
Describe the different rates of growth for human population and food supply shown
in the model.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Suggest reasons for the different rates of growth you have described in (b) (i).
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
With reference to a food production system you have studied, describe two ways in which
the food supply has been increased.
Name and location of food production system ..........................................................
Ways in which food production has been increased ..................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
(d)
Identify two policies governments can implement to control population growth.

.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(2)
(e)
Explain how cultural factors in different societies can hold back efforts to reduce
population growth.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 14 marks)
4.
The Inuit are indigenous aboriginal people of Northern Canada. The data below come from a
study of a Inuit fish farming community. The Inuit fish in the open sea but have also sectioned
off a large fjord (a long narrow inlet of the sea) which they use for farming salmon and shrimps.
The shrimps eat microscopic plants in the sea called phytoplankton. Salmon and kawai (a wild
fish) both eat shrimps.
Figure 1
2
All units in KJm yr

Insolation on fjord
185000.0
Insolation on open sea
1972000.0
Farmed shrimp consumed by Inuit
26.0
Gross primary production by phytoplankton
3470.0
Shrimp consumed by kawai
847.0
Respiratory loss by kawai (open sea)
572.0
Shrimp consumed by salmon (farmed)
461.0
Respiratory loss by salmon
410.0
Kawai consumed by Inuit
6.2
Salmon consumed by Inuit
4.3
Energy used in managing salmon farm
4.1
Energy used in fishing for kawai
6.7
Energy used in managing shrimp farm
14.0
Energy used in other human activities including trading furs
12.5
(a)
Use the data in figure 1 to complete the diagram below.
Sun
F jo rd
O pen sea
F a rm e d s h rim p
847
26
410
F is h in g fo r
k a w a i 6 .7
(6)
(b)
(i)
Define what is meant by the term gross primary productivity (GPP).

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
State how GPP differs from net primary productivity (NPP).

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
Identify the factors other than insolation which affects rates of gross primary
productivity.
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
Using the data in figure 1, determine whether salmon or kawai is more efficient at
converting food into biomass.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
(d)
Compare the efficiency of aquatic food production system with terrestrial food production
system.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
(e)
Calculations based on the data in figure 1 would suggest that farming and eating shrimp
is the most energy efficient food source for the Inuit. Suggest why the Inuit continue to
farm salmon.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(1)
(f)
Suggest ways in which this indigenous food production system might differ from a
large-scale commercial food production system.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 20 marks)
10
5.
An understanding of sustainability is crucial for the effective management of natural resources.

(a)
Define what is meant by the term sustainability.

(2)
(b)
With reference to either soil resources or water resources, explain how your chosen
resource has been managed unsustainably and the consequences this has had for
ecosystem. Your answer should be supported with case studies/examples.
(10)
(c)
Suggest ways in which your chosen resource could be managed more sustainably.
(5)
Expression of ideas
(3)
(Total 20 marks)
6.
(a)
In the context of human population growth, define the terms carrying capacity and
ecological footprint. Suggest how the ecological footprints might differ between an
economically more developed country and an economically less developed country.
(4)
(b)
Suggest ways in which technological development may affect carrying capacity and the
ecological footprint of human populations.
(5)
(c)
It is often argued that the solution to the worlds resource management problems is
population control. To what extent do you agree? Justify your views.
(8)
Expression of ideas
(3)
(Total 20 marks)
11
7.
(a)
Define the following terms.

(i)
Negative feedback
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Positive feedback
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(b)
Suggest why most ecosystems are negative feedback systems.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
12
The diagram below represents a coal fired power station.
sm oke
.... ......... ....
coal
w a rm w a te r
[Source: Adapted from D D Kemp, Global Environment Issues, A Climatological Approach, (Taylor & Francis,1994)
p. 7. Reproduced by permission of Cengage Learning]
(c)
Complete the diagram above by naming the missing input and the two missing outputs.
(2)
(Total 5 marks)
8.
(a)
Define the term sustainability.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
13
(b)
Identify the equation that is used to calculate sustainable yield (SY) by underlining the
relevant equation.
total biomass
total biomass
at time t 1
at time t
energy
energy
SY =
total biomass
total biomass
at time t
at time t
energy
energy
SY =
total biomass
total biomass
at time t
at time t
energy
energy
SY =
(1)
(c)
Outline two factors that may undermine the ability of a country to maintain or develop a
policy of sustainable development.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(d)
(i)
Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable (natural capital) resources.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
14
(ii)
Complete the table below by classifying the following resources as renewable or

non-renewable.
coal, gas, groundwater, wind, oil, wood, solar radiation, natural ore, food crops,
soil
Renewable / replenishable
Non-renewable
(2)
(Total 10 marks)
15
9.
A farmer is considering planting maize, wheat or ryegrass in a 30 hectare field. Table 1 gives
values for the amount of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) removed from the soil by maize,
wheat and ryegrass. Table 2 shows the balance between the inputs and outputs of nitrogen
within the 30 hectare field.
Table 1 Nitrogen, phosphorus and dry matter production for three cereal crops.
3
Dry Matter / 10 kg ha
N / kg ha
P / kg ha
Wheat
10
135
24
Maize
10
150
30
Ryegrass
160
30
Table 2 Nitrogen inputs and outputs within the 30 hectare field.

N / kg ha
Inputs
fertilizer
189
N dissolved in rainfall or blown in
50
N held within organic matter in soil
59
TOTAL
Outputs
crop
(from table 1)
N held within organic matter in soil
59
drainage losses
70
other losses
15
TOTAL
[MAFF data Nitrogen inputs and outputs within the 30 hectare field from A Wild, Soils and the Environment, (1993).
Cambridge University Press]
(a)
(i)
Using the data in tables 1 and 2, calculate the net soil nitrogen balance if
maize was planted ............................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
ryegrass was planted .........................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
16
(2)
(ii)
Given that the net nitrogen soil balance for wheat is 19 kg ha , identify the crop
which produces the greatest nitrogen stress within the soil.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(b)
(i)
Calculate the total amount of nitrogen lost from the field via drainage.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
15 kg ha of nitrogen is described as other losses in table 2. Suggest two other

ways in which nitrogen may be lost.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
Suggest what steps the farmer may take to avoid nitrogen loss within the soil.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
17
(d)
(i)
Explain the impact on an aquatic ecosystem of the introduction of large amounts of

nitrogen and phosphate.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(ii)
Suggest how the above problem could be managed.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
18
(e)
The productivity of crops such as wheat, maize and ryegrass will depend in part on the
type of soil in which they are grown. Describe the advantages of loam soils for farming in
terms of their structure and properties.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 20 marks)
10.
(a)
Explain how a named organism can be used as an indirect measure of pollution levels
within the environment.
(4)
(b)
Describe the main stages in an environmental impact assessment (EIA).

(7)
(c)
Justify the importance of ecological monitoring and research for society.

(6)
Expression of ideas (3)
(Total 20 marks)
11.
(a)
Discuss the causes and timing of past extinction episodes within the fossil record.
(4)
(b)
Describe the case histories of one species that is endangered and one species that was
endangered but has now been successfully removed from the endangered list.
(7)
(c)
Evaluate the strengths and limitations of zoos in conserving endangered species and
justify your personal viewpoint.
(6)
(Total 20 marks)
19
12.
(a)
Discuss the value of age-sex pyramids in analysing population change.

(6)
(b)
Outline the concept of an ecological footprint and discuss the relationship between socioeconomic level and footprint size. Refer to examples in your answer.
(5)
(c)
As the human population increases there is concern that we may ultimately out-grow our
resource base. Evaluate the arguments for and against population control.
(6)
(Total 20 marks)
13.
(a)
With reference to a named case study, describe how water resources are being used
unsustainably.
(6)
(b)
Suggest the possible impact of global warming on global water resources.

(5)
(c)
A variety of strategies exist for managing water pollution, such as

monitoring quality
setting and imposing standards
water purification.
Discuss the human factors that affect the success of such strategies.
(6)
(Total 20 marks)
14.
The data in Figures 1 and 2 show differences in nutrition between more economically developed
countries (MEDCs) and less economically developed countries (LEDCs).
Figure 1
Item
Energy intake / calories per person per day
LEDCs
MEDCs
2210
3340
Total protein / g per person per day
63
90
Animal protein / g per person per day
10
40
Population (U .N . estimates for 1985)
3487 million
1100 million
20
Figure 2
Consumption of animal protein / g per person per day
New Zealand
74.8
Uruguay
61.9
United Kingdom
53.4
Austria
47.5
Israel
36.3
Chile
29.2
Spain
23.4
Mexico
23.4
Japan
16.9
Egypt
12.2
Guatemala
8.5
Pakistan
7.7
India
5.9
[Source: J H Lowry, World Population and Food Supply, (Edward Arnold, 1986) p. 24.
Reproduced by permission of Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.]
(a)
(i)
Using the data in Figure 1, calculate the percentage of total protein that animal
protein represents for MEDCs and LEDCs.
MEDCs .............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
LEDCs ..............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
21
(ii)
A healthy human diet will include at least 70 g of protein and 2500 calories of
energy per day. Use this information and the data in Figures 1 and 2 to describe the
differences in the diets of MEDCs and LEDCs.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(iii)
Suggest reasons for the differences you have identified in (a) (ii).
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
22
(b)
Figure 3 shows the nutrient cycles for a temperate deciduous woodland and for an area
nearby where the woodland has been cleared for mixed farming.
Figure 3
T e m p e r a te d e c id u o u s w o o d la n d
M ix e d fa r m in g
In p u t d is s o lv e d in ra in
H a rv e s tin g c ro p s ,
liv e s to c k m a n u re
L e a f fa ll,
tis s u e
decay
R u n o ff
B
L
M in e ra lis a tio n ,
h u m ific a tio n ,
a n d d e g ra d a tio n
U p ta k e b y p la n ts
L egum es
F e rtiliz e rs
S
W e a th e rin g o f ro c k s
K
B
L
S
ey:
b io m a s s
litte r
s o il
[Source: Nagle and Spencer, Diagram showing nutrient cycles for a temperate deciduous woodland and mixed farming from
Advanced Geography Through Diagrams, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997). By permission of Oxford University
Press]
(i)
Explain what is meant by the term biomass in Figure 3.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Identify the main differences between the two nutrient cycles in Figure 3.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
23
(iii)
Explain how farmers replace nutrients lost due to harvesting of biomass.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 14 marks)
15.
The figure below shows the cost of generating electricity from different sources.
Energy source
Cost/pence per
kilowatt hour
at 1991 prices
Coal
low 3.5, high 4.0
Gas
low 2.3, high 2.8
Nuclear
low 5.0, high 7.5
Wind onshore
low 2.9, high 5.2
Wind offshore
approx. 8.0
Hydro-power
6.0
Waste to energy
6.5
Landfill gas
5.7
Note: Both nuclear power and renewable energy

receive a discount on price which is paid for
by the NFFO.
Electricity legislation passed in 1989 in the UK introduced the non fossil fuel obligation
(NFFO), which is partly paid for by fuel bills. It is designed to ensure that electricity companies
generate a certain percentage of electricity through non-fossil fuel sources, part of which must
be from renewable sources, although the majority comes from nuclear power.
[Kevin Byrne, Environmental Science, (Nelson Thornes Ltd., 1997) p. 167.
Reproduced by permission of Nelson Thornes Ltd.]
24
(a)
(i)
Identify which energy type provides the cheapest electricity and which provides the
most expensive.
Cheapest ............................................................................................................
Most expensive .................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Suggest reasons for your answers to (a) (i).

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
Explain how energy can be obtained from waste.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
(i)
Predict how the costs of production for fossil fuels might be different 50 years from
now.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Justify your prediction in (c) (i).

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
25
(d)
Outline some of the advantages and disadvantages of hydro-power (hydroelectric power).

Advantages ..................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
Disadvantages ..............................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(4)
(e)
Explain the link between increasing use of renewable energy sources and the ecological
footprint of a population.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 14 marks)
26
16.
The diagram below shows some of the environmental problems caused by a demand for greater
agricultural production.
re d u c tio n o f lo n g -te rm
p ro d u c tiv ity
in c re a s e d s o il
e ro s io n
d a n g e r to
h u m a n h e a lth
lo s s o f s p e c ie s
d iv e rs ity
e u tro p h ic a tio n
h ig h n itra te
c o n c e n tra tio n s in
d rin k in g w a te r
re sid u e s o n
fo o d
lo s s o f
h e d g e g ro w s
a n d w a lls
dam age
to S S S Is *
h a rm to n o n ta rg e t s p e c ie s
o rg a n ic p o llu tio n
o f fre s h w a te r
in c re a s in g u s e
o f p e s tic id e s
in c re a s in g u s e
o f fe rtiliz e r
s o il
c o m p a c tio n
n a rro w in g o f
g e n e tic b a s e
lo s s o f s p e c ie s
d iv e rs ity
m o n o c u ltu re s
in d o o r re a rin g
o f a n im a ls
a n im a l a n d p la n t
b re e d in g
m e c h a n is a tio n
d e m a n d fo r g re a te r p ro d u c tio n
* S ite s o f S p e c ia l S c ie n tific I n te r e s t
[Source: Kevin Byrne, Environmental Science, (Nelson Thornes Ltd., 1997) p. 167.
(a)
Explain why there has been a demand for greater food production in many societies
around the world.
(4)
(b)
With reference to two specific problems from the diagram above, explain the
environmental consequences of increasing agricultural production.
(8)
(c)
Suggest ways in which agricultural productivity can be increased without detrimental

effects on the environment.
(5)
(Total 20 marks)
27
17.
Protecting the environment is a luxury that only the most economically developed countries of
the world can afford.
(a)
State whether an ecocentrist or a technocentrist is more likely to agree with the statement
above. Justify your answer.
(2)
(b)
Discuss the arguments for and against the statement above. In your answer you should
refer to examples from both more economically developed and less economically
developed countries.
(10)
(c)
For an environmental issue you have studied, describe the roles of different groups in the
management of this issue. In your answer you could consider local, national and
international groups.
(5)
(Total 20 marks)
18.
because of human activities, habitats are disappearing faster than they can be studied, and
simple stock-taking of threatened habitats is now an urgent task. It isnt rational to use a
treasure-chest for firewood until youve checked inside for treasure, yet this is what is
happening to the Earths largely uncatalogued biological treasure-houses. Foremost among these
are the tropical rainforests. (Silvertown 1990)
(a)
Outline the relative importance of tropical rainforests in contributing to global

biodiversity, and explain why they have developed such high rates of biodiversity.
(4)
(b)
With reference to a named area of biological significance you have studied, explain how
it has been or is being degraded by human activities.
(8)
(c)
Silvertown describes biodiversity as treasure. Discuss the ways in which biodiversity

can be seen as a valuable resource to people.
(5)
(Total 20 marks)
28
19.
(a)
(i)
Outline the concept of an ecological footprint as applied to a country.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
The table below shows the breakdown of the ecological footprint (in hectares) for
an average Canadian.
Energy
Built
environment
Agricultural
land
Forest
Total
Food
0.4
0.0
0.9
0.0
1.3
Housing
0.5
0.1
0.0
1.0
1.6
Transport
1.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
1.1
Consumer
goods
0.6
0.0
0.2
0.2
1.0
Resources
in services
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.4
Total
2.9
0.2
1.1
1.2
5.4
[Source: Sustainable Consumption and Production, www.iisd.ca/linkages/consume/mwfoot.html]
Calculate the percentage of the ecological footprint required for the combined total
of agricultural land and forest.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
29
(iii)
Peru, a less economically developed country (LEDC), has an energy component of

16.0 % within its ecological footprint, whereas Canada has an energy component of
53.7 %. Suggest reasons for this difference.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
Draw the outline of an age/sex pyramid for (1)

(i)
a less economically developed country (LEDC).
(1)
(ii)
a more economically developed country (MEDC).
(1)
(c)
(i)
State two factors that may reduce birth rate.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
30
(ii)
State two factors that may reduce death rate.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
Outline the difference between LEDCs and MEDCs in terms of dietary

composition and explain what impact this has on ecological footprint size.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 11 marks)
20.
(a)
Distinguish between the terms renewable, replenishable and non-renewable natural

capital, giving an example of each.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
31
(b)
Define the term sustainability.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(c)
Explain, using an example, how the status of a resource may change over time.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(d)
The table below gives data for recruitment and growth, and harvesting of salmon (Salmo
salar) over a ten-year period.
Year
Recruitment and
growth / tonnes
Harvesting / tonnes
Yield / tonnes
23400
23250
150
23425
23300
24450
23400
1050
24560
23500
1060
22345
23400
1055
24356
144
23450
25000
1500
22900
25125
2225
21000
24600
3600
10
21210
24300
3090
32
(i)
Calculate the missing values for year 2 and year 6.

Year 2 ...............................................................................................................
Year 6 ................................................................................................................
(1)
The yield data from the table above is shown in the following graph.
2000
1000
0
Y ie ld / to n n e s 1 0 0 0
10
2000
3000
4000
Year
(ii)
Identify the year in which harvesting first becomes unsustainable.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
Predict what will happen if the apparent trend shown in the graph continues.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
33
(iv)
Outline two factors that cause humans to use resources unsustainably.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 12 marks)
21.
(a)
(i)
State the first law of thermodynamics.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Calculate the amount of energy output in the model below.
In p u t
1000 kJ
e n e rg y
1 0 % lo s s to
a tm o s p h e re
1 5 % s to re d
a fte r lo s s to
a tm o s p h e re
O U TPU T = ?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
34
(b)
The diagram below represents a simplified hydrological cycle.
ATM O SPH ERE
2.
3.
1.
G RO U N D
(i)
4.
Identify the processes corresponding to the arrows labelled 1 to 4 in the diagram.

1.
................................................................
2.
................................................................
3.
................................................................
4.
................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Suggest one weakness in the model above.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
35
The graph below shows the estimated world water withdrawals from 1960 to 2000.
4
3
W a te r w ith d ra w a ls /
1 0 3 k m 3 y r1
2
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Year
[J Loh, The Living Planet Report, [2002] WWF (panda.org). Some rights reserved.]
(iii)
Calculate the percentage increase in world water withdrawals from 1960 to 2000.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
36
(iv)
Suggest three reasons for the increase in water withdrawals during the period 1960
to 2000.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 11 marks)
22.
(a)
(i)
Outline the process of eutrophication.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
State one method of preventing eutrophication.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
State one method of dealing with eutrophication after it has occurred.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
37
The following graphs show the gross domestic product (GDP) and the phosphate fertilizer
use for countries bordering the Baltic Sea. (GDP is the market value of all goods and
services produced in a year. It is used as an indicator of the size of an economy.)
Graph A: GDP per capita between 1990 and 1999 for countries bordering the Baltic Sea
G D P p e r c a p ita / 1 0
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
Year
T o ta l o f B e la ru s , E s to n ia , L a tv ia a n d L ith u a n ia
T o ta l o f F in la n d , D e n m a rk a n d S w e d e n
Graph B: Phosphate fertilizer use in countries bordering the Baltic Sea between 1970
and 1998
P h o s p h a te
fe rtiliz e r u s e /
1 0 3 to n n e s
1200
800
400
0
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
1998
Year
T o ta l o f D e n m a rk , F in la n d a n d S w e d e n
T o ta l o f B e la ru s , E s to n ia , L a tv ia a n d L ith u a n ia
[Phosphate fertilizer graph compiled using FAOSTAT data.
Reproduced by permission of the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations]
38
(iv)
Suggest two strategies that may have been implemented to reduce use of phosphate
fertilizers by Denmark, Finland and Sweden.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(v)
Suggest why the use of phosphate fertilizers has increased in Belarus, Estonia,
Latvia and Lithuania.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
Simpsons diversity index states that: D =
N ( N 1)
n( n 1)
where N = the total number of individuals of all species found and n = the number of
individuals of a particular species.
A garden pond contains the following organisms.
Number of individuals
gold fish
24
carp
frogs
water boatmen
1500
water snail
1200
water flea
2500
39
(i)
Using the Simpson diversity index formula above, calculate the diversity of this
pond.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(ii)
Run-off from an adjacent agricultural field has been entering the garden pond.
Outline the possible impact on the ponds biota.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
(i)
Suggest a method for recycling organic waste.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
40
(ii)
Explain why the method identified in (i) may be difficult to implement.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 16 marks)
23.
(a)
Describe the role of greenhouse gases in maintaining mean global temperature.

(4)
(b)
Discuss the impact of global warming. Consider the potential effect on biomes, global
agriculture and human society.
(7)
(c)
Predictive models of climate change may give very different results. Explain this
statement with reference to the limitations of models and the contrasting arguments about
global warming.
(6)
(Total 20 marks)
24.
(a)
Describe the process of soil degradation and explain the direct and indirect consequences
to the environment.
(4)
(b)
Explain, using a named farming system, how

(7)
(i)
a technocentric approach can aid soil conservation.

(3)
(ii)
an ecocentric approach can aid soil conservation.

(Total 17 marks)
41
25.
(a)
Compare two different food production systems. Your answer should be based on named
examples. Consider resource inputs, resource outputs and technology.
(6)
(b)
Outline the impact of the two systems identified in (a) on the surrounding environment.
(5)
(c)
(i)
Suggest reasons why human food resource needs will change over the next 100
years and how this change may be achieved.
(4)
(ii)
Outline what impact a changing demand for food resources may have on the
environment.
(2)
(Total 20 marks)
26.
A group of students investigating primary productivity selected a relatively uniform field of

2
grass to study. Three 0.25 m plots were labelled A, B and C. All the vegetation (including
roots) was removed from plot A. Plot B was covered in black opaque plastic. Plot C was left
untouched. One week later the students returned to the site and removed all vegetation
(including roots) from plots B and C. All samples were cleaned to remove soil and rocks.
(a)
Outline a method for determining the dry weight of the biomass of plot A.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
The following data were obtained from the investigation.

Plot
Mass of vegetation / g dry weight
35.2
33.1
39.0
42
(b)
(i)
Show that net primary productivity (NPP) and respiration (R) for this site for the
2
2
duration of the study period are 15.2 g m and 8.4 g m respectively.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Assuming that NPP and respiration stay constant throughout the year, calculate
annual NPP and annual respiration.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
Using the data from part (ii), calculate annual gross primary productivity (GPP) for
this site, giving your answer to the nearest hundred grams.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
43
(iv)
Suggest two reasons why NPP and respiration may not be constant throughout the
year.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(v)
Assuming that 10 % of NPP in any given trophic level is available to the next level,
2 1
calculate the energy available to consumers from the study site in g m yr . Give
your answer to two significant figures.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(vi)
Explain the consequences of the assumption in part (v) for feeding the growing
human population.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 12 marks)
44
27.
(a)
A tree can be thought of as a system. Draw and label a systems diagram of a tree that
shows inputs, outputs and storages of matter and energy.
(3)
(b)
State two functions of producers in an ecosystem.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
For a named ecosystem, draw a food chain with named species showing three
appropriately labelled trophic levels.
(3)
(d)
Outline three reasons for the relative value of tropical rainforests in contributing to global
biodiversity.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
45
(e)
Explain the role of decomposers in an ecosystem.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(f)
Suggest what effect a significant and prolonged decrease in the pH of rainfall would have
on primary productivity in a terrestrial ecosystem. Explain your answer.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 16 marks)
46
The graph below shows the interdependence of population size of two species of mites.
Eotetranychus sexmaculatus serves as the food supply for Typholodromus occidentalis.
50
E . s e x m a c u la tu s
2500
E . s e x m a c u la tu s
(p re y )
T . o c c id e n ta lis
(p re d a to r)
2000
40
1500
30
1000
20
500
10
T . o c c id e n ta lis
28.
0
5
10
15
20
J u ly
25
30
10
15
20
25
A u gu st
30
10
15
20
25
S e p te m b e r
30
10
15
20
25
O c to b e r
30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25
N ovem ber
D ecem ber
Ja n u a ry
F e b ru a ry
[Source: C B Huffaker, (1958), Hilgardia, Volume 27, pages 343383.

Reprinted by permission of University of California Press.]
(a)
Predict when the next population maximum of T. occidentalis will occur. Show your
working.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
Determine the numbers of both organisms on September 30.

T. occidentalis: ............................................................................................................
E. sexmaculatus: ......................................................... . ..............................................
(1)
(c)
(i)
Identify the five day period for which the rate of increase of E. sexmaculatus is at
its maximum.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
47
(ii)
Determine when the difference in numbers between both populations is at a

maximum.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(d)
(i)
Calculate the time lag between the maximums of both species in the period from
October 5 through November 5.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Suggest a reason for this time lag.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(e)
(i)
Describe the role that negative feedback might play in this species interaction.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
48
(ii)
Explain why the global human population is less prone to negative feedback
control than other organisms.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(f)
Outline two examples of feedback in global warming.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 14 marks)
49
29.
The data table below shows the nitrogen content of a temperate forest and a tropical forest.
Table 1
2
Nitrogen / gm
Component
Temperate forest
Tropical forest
Leaves
12.4
52.6
Wood*
18.5
41.2
Roots
18.4
28.2
Surface litter
40.9
3.9
Soil**
730.9
85.3
Total
821.1
211.2
* living wood only

** does not include roots
[Source: Adapted from E P Odum, Fundamentals of Ecology, (1971), Saunders College Publishing, page 375]
(a)
(i)
Calculate the total nitrogen content in biomass (excluding surface litter) for
temperate and tropical forests.
Temperate forest: ..............................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
Tropical forest: .................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Calculate the percentage of total nitrogen present in biomass (excluding surface

litter) for temperate and tropical forests. Give your answer to the nearest 0.1%.
Temperate forest: ..............................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
Tropical forest: .................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
50
(b)
Determine which of the two biomes contains a proportionally larger amount of nitrogen
in its soil. Support your answer with appropriate calculations.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
Suggest a possible explanation for the difference in nitrogen content in surface litter
between the two biomes.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(d)
Using table 1, list the following ecosystem components, in terms of their importance as
nitrogen storages, in ascending order: biomass, surface litter, soil.
Temperate forest:
Tropical forest:
1. ............................................................
least important
2. ............................................................
3. ............................................................
most important
1. ............................................................
least important
2. ............................................................
3. ............................................................
most important
(1)
51
(e)
In terms of the impact on nitrogen storage, deduce which ecosystem would suffer more
from clear-cut forestry practices (complete removal of all tree cover). Explain your
answer.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(f)
Using the data in table 1, and your knowledge of biotic and abiotic conditions in tropical
and temperate forests, explain which of the two biomes would be a better choice for
growing crops.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(g)
Outline the impact of agriculture on biodiversity.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
52
Table 2: Population and economic data for Malaysia

Year
Population / millions
GNP per capita US$
1980
13.10
1815
1985
15.21
2100
1992
17.98
3062
1993
18.41
3312
1994
18.85
3655
1995
19.28
4310
1996
19.72
4795
1997
20.49
4563
Gross National Product (GNP) per capita is the value of a countrys final output of goods and
services in a year, divided by its population. It gives an indication of a countrys economic
strength.
Graph 1: Changes in forested land in Malaysia (19601997)

10000
100
90
9000
A re a o f fo re s te d
la n d / h a
80
a re a o f fo re s te d la n d
8000
70
P ro p o rtio n o f la n d
fo re s te d / %
7000
60
6000
p ro p o rtio n o f la n d fo re s te d
50
5000
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
40
1997
Year
[Source: Adapted from A Kidd, Managing Ecosystems, (1999), Hodder and Stoughton, page 41, and The World Bank,
http://www.worldbank.org/data/gdf/PDF/mys.pdf]
53
(h)
(i)
Using the data above, state the relationship between population and forested area in
Malaysia.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Using the data above, suggest a reason for the decrease in the area of forested land.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
Explain how the reduction of forested area contributes to global warming.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(iv)
Outline the effect of increased mean global temperature on biomes.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 20 marks)
54
30.
The pie charts below show the relative contributions of different sources of commercial energy
for less economically developed countries (LEDCs) and more economically developed
countries (MEDCs).
Commercial Energy Use by Source in LEDCs
Commercial Energy Use by Source in MEDCs

b io m a s s 3 %
o il 2 6 %
b io m a s s 3 5 %
o il 3 7 %
coal 25 %
n u c le a r p o w e r
1 %
n a tu ra l g a s 7 %
h y d ro p o w e r,
g e o th e rm a l &
s o la r 6 %
coal 25 %
n u c le a r p o w e r 5 %
n a tu ra l g a s 2 3 %
h y d ro p o w e r,
g e o th e rm a l &
s o la r 7 %
[MILLER, Living in the Environment, 15E. 2007 Brooks/Cole, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc.
Reproduced by permission. www.cengage.com/permissions]
(a)
State and explain the differences shown in the two pie charts.
(5)
(b)
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of fossil fuels and solar energy with respect to
efficiency and sustainability.
(6)
(c)
Discuss the Cornucopian view of the environmental challenges posed by the extensive
use of fossil fuels.
(6)
(Total 20 marks)
55
31.
A company wants to build an aluminium smelting facility near Puerto Aysen (population
14 000) in Chile. The total cost of the project is estimated at US$ 2.8 billion and will employ
about 8 000 people during construction. Average annual precipitation is approximately 3 000
mm and the area has enormous hydroelectric power potential. (The proposed project includes
three hydroelectric power plants.) 95 km of access roads will also be built. 1 100 000 tonnes per
year of goods (primarily aluminium ore from Jamaica, Brazil or Australia) will be imported for
the annual production of 440 000 tonnes of aluminium. The waste products (approximately
660 000 tonnes per year) will remain in Chile. An environmental impact assessment (EIA) is
soon to be submitted for this project, including a baseline study.
(a)
State what is meant by a baseline study and outline methods for measuring two biotic and
two abiotic parameters relevant to this project.
(6)
(b)
The investment of capital in this area will provide employment and higher wages for the
local inhabitants. The project includes the building of schools, health centres and other
community projects. Suggest what impact this will have on the ecological footprint of the
people in this area. Explain your answer.
(6)
(c)
Explain how reuse, recycling and re-manufacturing on a national scale could reduce the
demand for natural capital, such as aluminium. Include references to energy and material
use in your answer.
(5)
(Total 20 marks)
Figure 1 shows the Earths human population increase over time and Figure 2 shows the number
of species which became extinct in each 50 year period since 1600.
Figure 1
Figure 2
60
2 .5
50
M a m m a ls
40
B ird s
2
1 .5
1
0 .5
0
N u m b e r o f e x tin c t
s p e c ie s
N um ber of hum ans

(b illio n = th o u s a n d m illio n )
32.
30
20
10
0
[Source: Goudie, A (1993) The Human Impact on the Natural Environment, Blackwell, p.125]
56
(a)
(i)
Estimate the date at which the human population reached 2 billion.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Describe the pattern of growth in Figure 1.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
State how the natural increase rate for human populations is calculated.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
(i)
Determine how many species of mammals and birds became extinct from 1900 to
1950.
Mammals ..........................................................................................................
Birds ..................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Compare the rates of extinction between birds and mammals since 1650.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
57
(iii)
Outline the criteria used to classify a species as extinct, according to the Red Data
books.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
State a probable relationship between the data in Figures 1 and 2, and suggest reasons for
your answer.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 13 marks)
58
33.
The data in table 1 show the ecological footprints for people in various countries of the world. A
five hectare footprint would mean that five hectares of biologically productive space (including
land and sea) are in constant production to support the average individual of that country.
Available capacity is the total amount of biologically productive space for each country. If the
footprint exceeds the biologically productive area of the country, the country has an ecological
deficit.
Table 1
Population in 1997
Ecological
footprint /
hectares person
Available capacity /
1
hectares person
Ecological
difference (deficit
if negative) /
hectares person
Australia
18 550 000
9.0
14.0
5.0
Ethiopia
58 414 000
0.7
0.5
0.3
Germany
81 845 000
5.3
1.9
3.4
India
790 230 000
0.8
0.5
0.3
Indonesia
203 631 000
1.4
2.6
1.2
Japan
125 672 000
4.3
0.9
4 375 000
6.2
6.3
0.1
146 381 000
6.0
3.7
2.3
2 899 000
7.2
0.1
7.1
6.7
3.6
Norway
Russian Federation
Singapore
United States
268 189 000
United Kingdom
58 587 000
5.2
1.7
3.5
Venezuela
22 777 000
3.8
2.7
1.1
WORLD
5 892 480 000
2.8
2.1
0.7
[Source: The Earth Council, Ranking the Ecological Impact of Nations,

http://www.ecouncil.ac.cr/rio/focus/report/english/footprint/ranking.htm]
(a)
(i)
Calculate the ecological deficit for Japan.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
59
(ii)
Calculate the ecological footprint of a person in the United States.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
If the Earths resources were equally shared, there would be a total of 2.1 hectares
of space available for each person. State how many countries in table 1 have an
available capacity greater than 2.1 hectares.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iv)
Suggest why Indonesia is not in ecological deficit despite the fact that its
population is so large.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
60
(b)
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a measure of the economic wealth of a country divided
by the number of people in that country. Table 2 shows the GDP for various countries.
Table 2
Country
GDP per person in 1999 / US$
Australia
21 300
Ethiopia
560
Germany
22 100
India
1720
Indonesia
2830
Japan
23 100
Norway
24 700
Russian Federation
4000
Singapore
23 300
United States
31 500
United Kingdom
21 200
Venezuela
8 500
[Source: based on data from the 1999 CIA World Factbook,
http://www.photius.com/wfb1999/rankings/gdp_per_capita_0.html]
61
(i)
Complete table 3, using the data from tables 1 and 2 to rank the countries according
to the size of their ecological footprints and GDP.
Table 3
Rank
Size of ecological footprint

(country with largest footprint first)
1
2
GDP
(country with highest GDP first)
United States
Australia
Norway
Singapore
4
5
Russian Federation
Germany
United Kingdom
8
9
10
11
12
Indonesia
India
Ethiopia
(2)
(ii)
State what relationship (if any) your ranking in table 3 shows between ecological
footprint and GDP.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
Explain how it is possible for some countries, such as Singapore, to have such a
high GDP despite the fact that they have so little biologically productive space.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
62
(c)
(i)
Using data from table 1 only, state whether or not the current global use of
resources is sustainable. Justify your answer.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Describe two ways in which a country might be able to descrease its ecological
footprint through technological development.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4)
63
(iii)
Compare the attitudes of an ecocentrist and a technocentrist towards ecological

deficit.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 20 marks)
34.
...we can no longer afford to ignore the dependency of the economy and social progress on the
environmental resource base. It is the content of economic growth, with natural resources
factored in, that counts in the long term, not just the yield in products and currency. A country
that levels its forest, drains its aquifers, and washes its topsoil downriver without measuring the
cost is a country traveling blind. Edward Wilson (2002)
(a)
With reference to the statement above, outline what is meant by the terms natural
capital, natural income and sustainability.
(5)
(b)
Describe and explain how societies are using water and soil resources unsustainably.
(13)
(Total 20 marks)
64
35.
Figures 1 and 2 represent the food webs for two ecosystems.

Figure 1. Terrestrial Grassland
S u n lig h t
G ra ss
a u to tro p h
In o rg a n ic
m a te ria l
D ecay
a n d m in e ra liz a tio n
H e rb iv o re
h e te ro tro p h
D e a th
C a rn iv o re
h e te ro tro p h
65
Figure 2. Marine Food Web

H um an
B a le e n w h a le
C ra b e a te r
seal
S p e rm w h a le
S m a ll-to o th e d
w h a le
L e o p a rd se a l
E le p h a n t
seal
S e a b ird
F is h
S q u id
C a rn iv o ro u s p la n k to n
K rill
H e rb iv o ro u s
p la n k to n
P h y to p la n k to n
[Source: Tudge, C (1991) Global Ecology, The Natural History Museum, pp. 112113]
(a)
(i)
State, giving two reasons, which of the food webs, Figure 1 or Figure 2, is likely to
be more stable.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
66
(ii)
Deduce what would happen to the ecosystem in Figure 1 if rabbits were removed.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(iii)
Predict two changes that may occur if foxes were removed from the food web in
Figure 1.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
Figure 3. Antarctic Marine Food Web
B a le e n w h a le s
K rill
S e a ls
S q u id
F is h
P e n g u in s
[Source: Trudge C (1991) Global Ecology, The Natural History Museum, pp. 113]
67
(b)
In Figure 3, the size of the circle represents the relative biomass of each animal species
within the food web.
Identify which of the diagrams in Figure 4 below best illustrates what would happen to
the food web balance in Figure 3,
(i)
if humans hunted for seals and fish.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
if humans harvested krill.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)
68
Figure 4.
D ia g ra m A
D ia g ra m B
D ia g ra m C
69
(c)
Current production may not be sustainable under present circumstances.

[FAO cited in World Fisheries Beyond Sustainability (2002)]
(i)
Define the term sustainable.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Suggest what measures could be taken to ensure that krill are harvested sustainably.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 14 marks)
70
36.
The table below shows the productivity of different farming systems.

Table 1
System
Migratory pastoralist, Kenya
0.025
0.01
0.004
Shifting cultivation, Papua New Guinea
1.5
0.5
0.3
Cattle, UK
3.5
0.7
0.6
Wheat, UK
97
20
17
Maize, USA
104
18
18
A = harvested food energy (GJ ha yr ), expressed as

B = food energy used per person in the area (GJ ha
total food energy

land area
1
yr )
C = if food energy use per person were equivalent to that used by an average American in the
1990s
[Source: adapted from Primack, R B (1993), Essentials of Conservation Biology, OUP, pp. 111]
(a)
(i)
State which farming system produces the greatest amount of food energy.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Suggest why the farming system you identified in (a) (i) has such a high
productivity.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
71
(iii)
In table 2 below, list the farming systems (from table 1) as either low input or high
input systems.
(2)
Table 2
Low Input Systems
(b)
(i)
High Input Systems
State how MEDCs (more economically developed countries) and LEDCs (less
economically developed countries) differ in terms of their dietary composition.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Explain the differences between the ecological footprint of a LEDC and a MEDC.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4)
72
(iii)
Suggest how intensive maize production may cause damage to the environment.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(iv)
Suggest how migratory pastoralists may cause damage to the environment.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 15 marks)
37.
Four main factors affect the erosion of soil: crop type, climate, soil type and topography
(landscape shape). The figure below shows the interactions between these factors.
Soil Erosion Model
A
C ro p
B
C lim a te
C
S o il T y p e
D
To p o g ra p h y
In fu e n c e s s tru c tu re
a n d c o h e s io n o f s o il. A ls o
p ro te c ts s o il s u rfa c e .
R a in fa ll m a g n itu d e a n d
fre q u e n c y.
C la y, s a n d , s ilt a n d lo a m a ll
h a v e d iffe re n t q u a litie s .
S lo p e a n g le a n d le n g th
a ffe c t s o il e ro s io n ra te .
S o il lo s s
[T ORiordan, Environmental Science for Environmental Management, 1995, p. 233.

Reproduced by permission of Pearson Education]
73
(a)
Suggest how humans may have an impact on soil loss with reference to factors A, C and
D in the figure above.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(b)
(i)
Outline the cause of global warming.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
74
(ii)
Explain how global warming may affect soils.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4)
(c)
(i)
Define the term open system, and state an ecological example of such a system.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Outline the Gaia hypothesis.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
75
(iii)
Suggest one weakness in the model shown in the figure above.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 15 marks)
38.
(a)
Outline the factors which have led to recent animal extinctions. Illustrate your answer
with examples.
(6)
(b)
State what evidence exists for past mass extinctions, and outline possible causes.
(4)
(c)
Outline the arguments for conserving species, and evaluate captive breeding as a
conservation strategy.
(8)
(Total 20 marks)
39.
The ecological footprint rests on a restrictive understanding of sustainability and it makes use
of questionable assumptions the most serious being that we should raise forests in order to
solve the problem of carbon dioxide emissions.
[Danish Environmental Assessment Institute (2002) Assessing the Ecological Footprint: A Look
at the WWFs Living Planet Report]
(a)
Explain the concept of the ecological footprint and evaluate the usefulness of the concept
in global conservation.
(7)
(b)
Explain how societies can reduce their ecological footprint through technological
advancement.
(6)
(c)
Environmental philosophies can be classified as ecocentric (nature centred) and

technocentric (technology centred). Evaluate which environmental philosophy you think
is best suited to achieving long term sustainability.
(5)
(Total 20 marks)
76
40.
Land belongs to one large family, few of whom are alive, many of whom are dead, countless of
whom are yet unborn.
[Dr R S Mogoba on African land tenure, 1992]
(a)
Explain the causes of exponential human population growth in the last 2000 years.
(4)
(b)
Discuss the resource implications of this population growth with reference to the
statement above.
(7)
(c)
Outline the ways in which human population growth can be reduced, and discuss the
obstacles that must be overcome.
(7)
(Total 20 marks)
77
41.
Figure 1 shows a farming system and Figure 2 outlines the activities for the farm in areas A, B
and C over a year.
Figure 1
fru it tre e s :
m a n g o e s , ja c k fru it,
c o c o n u t p a lm a n d b e te l n u t
s e e d b e d s fo r to b a c c o
a n d ric e
k itc h e n g a rd e n :
v e g e ta b le s , s p ic e s ,
sugar cane
A rea A
lig h te r s o il b e tte r
d ra in e d a b o v e
fo o d in g
w o rk in g a n im a ls , m a in ly
c a ttle , u s e fo o d in w e t
s e a s o n ro u n d v illa g e , b u t
g ra z e s tu b b le a fte r h a rv e s t
A rea B
o p e n fe ld s
A rea C
p o o rly d ra in e d
la n d lia b le to
fo o d in g
f a m i l y l a b o u r, s e a s o n a l
ro ta tio n o f c ro p s
h e a v ie s t, p lo u g h e d la n d
fo o d e d a n d ric e p a d d ie s .
B a s ic irrig a tio n te c h n o lo g y
u s e d in d ry s e a s o n .
Figure 2
M o n th
M a rc h
S ea so n
P re m o n so o n
A p ril
M ay
S e p te m b e r
W et seaso n
M a rc h
D ry se aso n
A rea A
c a ttle in y a rd , m a n g o e s ,
v e g e ta b le s
re p a irin g a n d th a tc h in g , g re e n
c o c o n u ts , b e te l n u ts
A rea B
ju te
w h e a t, to b a c c o , m u s ta rd
A rea C
g ra z in g , ric e (fo o d in g )
g ra z in g
[Source: Adapted from M Carr, Patterns, Process and Change in Human Geography, Macmillan, (1987), page 142]
78
(a)
State, giving two reasons, whether this system is more typical of farming in a more
economically developed country (MEDC) or a less economically developed country
(LEDC).
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
Complete the systems diagram below to show three inputs, processes and outputs for the
farming system shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2.
In p u ts
P ro c e sse s
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FA R M
O u tp u ts
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(3)
79
(c)
With reference to Figure 1 and Figure 2, describe two ways in which the farming system
has been developed in response to variations in the local environment.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
Figure 3 below shows nutrient cycling in a terraced paddy.

irrig a tio n
canal
lo w e r ric e
paddy
ric e p a d d y
n itro g e n fx a tio n b y
d e c a y o f ric e
b lu e -g re e n a lg a e
s tu b b le re le a s e s
n u trie n ts
te rra c e
ric e
w a te r
d e a d o rg a n ic
m a te ria l
ra p id b re a k d o w n
slo w b re a k d o w n
N O
little s o il
e ro s io n
o x id is e d z o n e
re d u c e d z o n e (little O 2)
little le a c h in g
80
(d)
With reference to Figure 3 define

(i)
leaching.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
nitrogen fixation.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(e)
With reference to Figure 3 explain the following.

(i)
There is very little soil erosion in this farming system.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
The dead organic material breaks down more rapidly in the oxidized zone.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 11 marks)
81
42.
Figure 1 below shows how the suns energy flows along a food chain and Figure 2 shows one
way in which solar energy can be converted into electricity.
Figure 1
F o o d c h a in
C a lo rie s /tim e
10
Sun
10
P la n ts
10
10
10
P re d a to rs
H e rb iv o re s
Figure 2
E le c tric e n e rg y c h a in
C a lo rie s /tim e
106
Sun
104
P la n ts
500
F o s s iliz a tio n
125
E le c tr ic ity
P o w e r s ta tio n
[Source: Adapted from E P Odum, Ecology, A Bridge Between Science and Society, (Sinauer Associates Inc, 1996)
page 89. E P Odum. Reproduced by permission of the estate of E P Odum.]
(a)
Describe and explain what is happening to energy along the food chain in Figure 1.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
82
(b)
Describe the process by which the suns energy is used by plants.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
State two energy sources that could be used in the power station in Figure 2.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(d)
Explain how the power station in Figure 2 may contribute to a named environmental
problem.
Environmental problem: .............................................................................................
Explanation: ................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
83
Figure 3 below shows the world distribution of primary production in different biomes.
P rim a ry P ro d u c tio n in 1 0 3 k J m
y e a r1
L e s s th a n 2 .0
2 .0 1 2
1240
40100
2 .0 1 2
L e s s th a n 4 0
D e s e rts
G ra s s la n d s
D e e p la k e s
M o u n ta in fo re s ts
U n s u b s id iz e d
a g ric u ltu re
M o is t fo re s ts
a n d se c o n d a ry
c o m m u n itie s
S h a llo w la k e s
M o is t g r a s s la n d s
A v e ra g e
a g ric u ltu re
C o n tin e n ta l
s h e lf w a te rs
D eep oceans
S o m e e s tu a rie s ,
s p rin g s , c o ra l
re e fs , te rre s tria l
c o m m u n itie s o n
a llu iv ia l p la in s .
F u e l-s u b s id iz e d
a g ric u ltu re
[Source: Adapted from E P Odum, Ecology, A Bridge Between Science and Society, (Sinauer Associates Inc, 1996)
page 89. E P Odum. Reproduced by permission of the estate of E P Odum.]
(e)
State which of the zones A to F is responsible for the largest proportion of primary
production.
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(f)
Distinguish between primary productivity and secondary productivity.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
84
(g)
With reference to Figure 3, explain two reasons why some biomes are more productive
than others.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 12 marks)
43.
The figure below shows a projection for future human population growth and the relative
contributions of unwanted fertility, desire for large family size and population momentum to this
growth.
12
C a u s e s o f p o p u la tio n g ro w th
1 0 .2
10
( 1 ) U n w a n te d fe rtility
8 .3
8
P o p u la tio n s iz e
( in b illio n s )
( 2 ) D e s ire f o r la rg e f a m ily s iz e
7 .3
1995
(3 ) P o p u la tio n m o m e n tu m
4 .5
0
1900
1950
2000
2050
2100
Year
[From J Bongaarts (1994), "Population Policy Options in the Developing World", Science, Vol. 263, pp 771-776.
Reprinted with permission from AAAS.]
85
(a)
With reference to the figure above,

(i)
state the total expected population size for the year 2050.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
identify which of the three factors are expected to account for the highest
proportion of the increase in total population growth between 1995 and 2100?
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
calculate the potential percentage decrease in population for the year 2100 if
efficient birth control had been practised since 1995.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(b)
Explain the reasons for either unwanted fertility or desire for large family size in a
named country.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
86
(c)
Suggest two factors which may limit total population growth in the future.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 8 marks)
44.
Figure 1 and Figure 2 below are cartoons which each express an environmental message.
Figure 1
[Source: Cummings, Winnipeg Free Press, CartoonArts International]
87
(a)
Suggest what message the cartoonist is trying to depict about attitudes to environmental
problems in Figure 1.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
Figure 2
[Source: DeAngelis, Rome, Italy, CartoonArts International]
88
(b)
Figure 2 is a cartoon which suggests that a conflict exists between resource use and the
needs of indigenous people. Explain why such a conflict might exist in tropical
rainforests.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 5 marks)
89
45.
Figure 1 Fact File on Glen Canyon

Initial cost: $300 million (in 1963)
Ongoing costs: estimated between $11 and $29 million
Height: 216 m
Completed: 1963
Amount of Glen Canyon flooded by Lake Powell: 299 km
Economic benefits:
The Colorado River provides water for more than 30 million people and without Glen
Canyon Dam a lot of this water would be wasted.
Glen Canyon Dam allows the southwest of the United States to be developed and populated
far more than the pre-dam conditions.
85 % of the water is used for irrigation for agricultural production enabling arid regions to
become fertile agricultural lands and economically viable.
Because of the high productivity of these areas, many people in the United States are
provided with fruits and vegetables all year round.
The Glen Canyon Dam power station represents a cheap source of hydroelectric power for
much of the southwestern United States and for parts of Mexico, including many poor rural
and Native American communities.
The water supply enabled development of the town of Page, Arizona, which currently has
over 8,200 residents.
4 million visiting tourists (often en route to the Grand Canyon and Monument Valley) bring
in $2.5 million each year.
Many jobs depend on the tourist industry. The largest employers are the National Park
Service and the Navajo Generating Station.
Lake Powell itself provides fishing, boating, water-sports and camping to tourists each year.
Downstream, recreational fisheries have been improved. Non-native trout have done
especially well, further attracting tourists to one of the finest trout fishing sites in the
southwest.
Altered flows provide excellent rapids and runs for rafters and kayakers each year.
[Source: Adapted from the article Large Dams in the Western United States, produced by Environmental Science
students at Kenyon College in 1989, www2.kenyon.edu/Projects/Dams/index.html]
90
Figure 2 Map of the Lower Colorado River
[In public domain, US Gov: http://www.saltonsea.water.ca.gov ]
91
Figure 3 Photograph of Glen Canyon Dam, Lake Powell is behind
[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glen_Canyon_Dam.jpg]
92
Figure 4 The Advantages of Hydroelectric Power (HEP)

Adapted from a website produced by the National Hydropower Association (US).
A major source of energy
The United States is the second largest producer of hydroelectric power (HEP) in the
world.
HEP contributes 812 % of the United States electrical generation.
Globally, one-fifth of electricity is generated from HEP.
Clean and renewable a sound environmental choice
93 % of Americans believe HEP is important for meeting future electricity needs.
HEP is a renewable source of electricity. HEP accounts for 80 % of the United States total
renewable electricity generation making it the leading renewable energy source.
In 1999, HEP avoided the release of an additional 77 million metric tons of carbon
equivalent into the atmosphere. This is equivalent to the annual exhaust of half of the cars
on United States roads.
HEP projects can enhance wetlands and support healthy fisheries. Wildlife preserves can
be created around reservoirs, which can provide stable habitats for endangered or
threatened species.
Reliable, efficient, secure and fun!
Todays HEP turbines are capable of converting 90 % of available energy into electricity that is more efficient than any other form of generation.
HEPs operational flexibility its unique ability to change output quickly is highly
valued and will become even more so in a competitive market. Its unique voltage control,
load-following and peaking capabilities help maintain the stability of the electric grid
ensuring economic growth and a high quality of life.
HEP adds to national security. Water from rivers is a purely domestic resource that is not
subject to disruptions from foreign suppliers, production strikes or transportation issues.
There were a total of 81 million recreation user days provided by licensed HEP projects in
1996. Boating, skiing, camping, picnic areas and boat launch facilities are all supported by
HEP.
[Source: Adapted from: United States National Hydropower Association www.hydro.org, Idaho National Laboratory]
93
Figure 5 Historical water discharge and suspended sediment discharge trends as a

result of the construction of dams along the Colorado River (including Glen Canyon Dam)
40
(a ) W a te r d is c h a rg e
b illio n s o f m
30
20
10
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
y e ars
400
(b ) S u s p e n d e d s e d im e n t d is c h a rg e
b illio n s o f k g
300
200
100
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
y e ars
[Source: The United States Geological Survey in Schwarz et al. (1991), published in Goudie, The Human Impact on
the Natural Environment, Blackwell, 1993, page 182]
94
Figure 6 The Chief Environmental Impacts of Dams

Impacts due to existence of dam and reservoir:
1.
Reservoir in place of a river valley (loss of habitat).
2.
Changes in downstream morphology of riverbed, delta, coastline due to altered sediment

load (increased erosion).
3.
Changes in downstream water quality: effects on river temperature, nutrient load,

turbidity, dissolved gases, concentration of heavy metals and minerals.
4.
Reduction of biodiversity due to blocking of migration of fish (e.g. salmon) and because
of above changes.
Impacts due to pattern of dam operation:

1.
Changes in downstream hydrology:

(a) change in total flows;
(b) change in seasonal flows (e.g. spring flood becomes winter flood);
(c) short-term fluctuations in flows (sometimes hourly);
(d) change in extreme high flow and low flow.
2.
Changes in downstream morphology caused by altered flow pattern.
3.
Changes in downstream water quality caused by altered flow pattern.
4.
Reduction in riverine/floodplain habitat diversity, especially because of elimination of

floods.
[P McCully (1996), Silenced Rivers, The Ecology and Politics of Large Dams, London, Zed Books]
95
R iv e r O tte r a n d M u s k ra t a re n o w a b s e n t fro m th e
G ra n d C a n y o n .
S q u a w fis h , R o u n d ta il C h u b a n d s e v e ra l o th e r s p e c ie s
h a v e d is a p p e a re d .
M a n y b ir d s ( e .g . W e s te r n W illo w F ly c a tc h e r ) , liz a r d s
a n d in v e rte b ra te s h a v e b e e n lo s t fro m th e s y s te m .
N o n -in d ig e n o u s , g e n e ra lis t, p la n t a n d a n im a l s p e c ie s
a re in v a d in g in c lu d in g fis h : s e v e ra l e x o tic tro u t
s p e c ie s , B lu e g ill, S u n fis h a n d C h a n n e l C a tfis h a re n o w
p re s e n t in th e s y s te m .
T h e tru n c a tio n o f th e h a b ita t c o rrid o r b e tw e e n th e
H o o v e r a n d G ra n d C a n y o n D a m h a s in te rru p te d
m ig ra tio n ro u te s a n d is le a d in g to g e n e tic is o la tio n o f
c e rta in in d ig e n o u s s p e c ie s .
D u e to th e c o n s ta n t c o ld te m p e ra tu re o f th e riv e r
d o w n s tre a m B lu e G re e n A lg a e a n d C la d o p h o ra
h a v e re p la c e d th e n a tu ra l w a rm w a te r fo o d w e b .
T h e te m p e ra tu re v a ria tio n w o u ld p re v io u s ly trig g e r
n a tiv e fis h re p ro d u c tio n a n d m a in ta in n a tiv e in s e c t
p o p u la tio n s .
T h e C o lo ra d o R iv e r ru n s th ro u g h M e x ic o a n d its d e lta
a re a w a s c la s s ifie d a s a n In te rn a tio n a l B io s p h e re in
1 9 9 2 . S in c e th e G le n C a n y o n D a m w a s b u ilt w a te r
ra re ly re a c h e s th e d e lta a re a .
B io lo g ic a l H a b ita ts
G ra n d C a n y o n
and
G le n C a n y o n D a m s
In d ig e n o u s H a v a s u p i p e o p le in h a b it th e G ra n d C a n y o n b a s in .
N a v a jo a n d H u a la p a i p e o p le p o s s e s s la n d in th e G ra n d C a n y o n .
H o p i a n d Z u n i h a v e s a c re d rite s in th e G ra n d C a n y o n .
T h e p re s e n c e o f th e d a m s h a v e m a d e in d ig e n o u s p e o p le d e p e n d e n t
o n its w a te r; a tra it n o t p re v io u s ly a p p a re n t in th e ir c u ltu re .
R iv e r e ro s io n is c a u s in g th e d e s tru c tio n o f a rc h a e o lo g ic a l s ite s .
P e o p le a n d C u ltu r e
T h e G r a n d C a n y o n is 4 4 6 k m lo n g , 1 .5 k m d e e p a n d 3 0 k m w id e .
S h a p e d b y th e C o lo ra d o R iv e r th e G ra n d C a n y o n w a s d e c la re d a
w o rld h e rita g e s ite in 1 9 1 9 .
H o o v e r D a m w a s c re a te d in 1 9 4 1 flo o d in g th e lo w e r 2 0 % o f th e
G ra n d C a n y o n .
G le n C a n y o n D a m w a s c o m p le te d in 1 9 6 3 , 2 4 k m s u p s tre a m fro m
th e H o o v e r D a m .
N o fo rm a l e n v iro n m e n ta l im p a c t s tu d y w a s c a rrie d o u t o n e ith e r
o f th e d a m s .
G le n C a n y o n D a m n o w tra p s 9 5 % o f th e s e d im e n ts c a rrie d b y th e
C o l o r a d o R i v e r.
D o w n s tre a m , s o il a n d riv e r fe rtility is c o m p ro m is e d b y a la c k o f
o rg a n ic e n ric h m e n t fro m s e d im e n t d e p o s itio n .
R iv e r b e a c h a n d b a r e ro s io n is n o w a p ro b le m d o w n s tre a m .
W a te r te m p e ra tu re d o w n s tre a m is a c o n s ta n t 8 C b e c a u s e w a te r is
e x tra c te d fro m th e d a m s a t a d e p th o f 6 0 m th is w a te r is c o ld , n o t
h a v in g b e e n h e a te d b y th e s u n a s s u rfa c e w a te r w o u ld b e .
P rio r to d a m m in g w a te r te m p e ra tu re ra n g e d fro m 3 C to 2 7 C .
R e g u la te d flo w s c u rre n tly k e e p th e C o lo ra d o R iv e r in G ra n d
C a n y o n flu c tu a tin g b e tw e e n 2 2 8 5 7 0 c u b ic m e te rs p e r s e c o n d
( m 3 s 1 ) . B e f o r e t h e G l e n C a n y o n D a m , f l o w s f l u c t u a t e d b e t w e e n
8 6 2 5 7 1 m 3 s 1 .
P h y s ic a l P r o p e r tie s
Figure 7 Dam Impacts
96
Figure 8 What is a good dam? A checklist

The following is an edited list of suggestions from International Dams Newsletter, 1986.
1.
No dam should be built until an adequate assessment of its likely environmental effects
has been undertaken and made available to the public.
2.
Water-development projects should only be undertaken if they can be shown to benefit

large sectors of the population instead of the urban elite.
3.
Schemes should favour labour-intensive rather than capital-intensive economic

activities.
4.
They should produce food crops for feeding the local population rather than for export.
5.
They should not compromise public health and safety.
6.
They should not adversely affect national parks, heritage sites, areas of scientific and
educational importance, tropical rainforests or areas inhabited by species threatened with
extinction.
7.
They must be viable for a minimum of 100 years. They should only be built where it can
be guaranteed they will not silt up.
8.
They should not be built if their associated irrigation schemes are likely to lead to the
salinisation of agricultural land.
9.
The funding should be based on sustainable long-term resource enhancement rather than
short-term resource exploitation.
10. They should not involve displacing indigenous people from their homelands and
endangering their culture, unless compensation is provided and they are better off than
before the project.
11. There must be no potential significant engineering or safety problems.
12. They should not be built where they are likely to inflict significant damage to estuarine
or ocean fisheries.
13. They should not be built if they are likely to significantly harm the environment of a
neighbouring country without its full consent.
[Source: Edited from International Dams Newsletter, 1986. Permission granted by International Rivers]
97
46.
(a)
Describe the purpose of an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
At the time of construction of Glen Canyon Dam no EIA was undertaken. Outline, giving
reasons, three variables which should have been measured as part of a baseline study
prior to starting construction.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
98
(c)
With reference to Figure 5 and other resources in the booklet describe and explain how
water discharge and suspended sediment discharge changed as a result of the construction
of dams along the Colorado River.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(5)
(d)
Use the resource booklet to complete the table below to show how abiotic conditions
have changed as a result of the construction of Glen Canyon Dam
Abiotic factor in the
Colorado river
Increased or decreased
after construction of
Glen Canyon Dam
Size of the beach and sand bar habitats
decreased
Reason for change

Replenishing sediment
held back behind dam
Riverine habitat diversity

Water temperature range
Nutrient content of water in river
(3)
99
(e)
Identify a non-native species now present within the Colorado River because of the
construction of Glen Canyon Dam, and suggest possible impacts this might have on
native species.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(f)
Discuss, using evidence from the resource booklet, why the decision to construct dams
along the Colorado River could be described as a technocentric approach to resource
management.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
100
(g)
With reference to the checklist for good dams in Figure 8 and the information from the
resource booklet, justify to what extent you consider Glen Canyon Dam to be a good
dam.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(6)
(Total 25 marks)
101
47.
(a)
Evaluate the role of socio-cultural factors in the development of different food production
systems.
(8)
(b)
Compare the attitudes towards the natural environment of two named contrasting
societies, and discuss the consequences of these attitudes to the way in which natural
resources are used.
(10)
(Total 20 marks)
48.
(a)
Compare and evaluate the role of global and local approaches to environmental problem
solving. Support your answer with examples.
(8)
(b)
Justify the importance of the scientific study of small-scale local ecosystems in

environmental problem solving. Support your answer with examples.
(6)
(Total 16 marks)
49.
(a)
Describe some of the contrasting responses to the issue of global warming.

(5)
(b)
Outline the reasons why people have such different opinions on the issue of global
warming.
(5)
(c)
Describe what is meant by carrying capacity and evaluate the role that technology could
play in ensuring that the earths carrying capacity is not exceeded by human populations.
(8)
(Total 20 marks)
102
50.
Figure 1 below shows the estimated percentage weight for waste by sector for the United
Kingdom in 2001.
Figure 1
13 %
in d u s tria l
20 %
a g ric u ltu re
24 %
d e m o litio n a n d c o n s tru c tio n
21 %
m in in g a n d q u a rry in g
6 %
c o m m e rc ia l
7 %
h o u s e h o ld
1 %
s e w a g e s lu d g e
8 %
d re d g e d m a te ria l
[Source: DEFRA, National Statistics, 2003]
(a)
Suggest what type of material accounts for most agricultural waste.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
103
(b)
The total waste for the United Kingdom in 2001 was estimated at 430 million tonnes.
Calculate the weight of waste (to the nearest million tonne) for agriculture and industrial
combined.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
Figure 2 below shows changing trends in recycling from 1984 to 2002 in kilograms per person
per year.
Figure 2
1984
1992
2000
2001
2002
Waste not recycled
394
417
455
455
455
Waste recycled/composted
11
52
58
65
Total Waste
397
428
507
513
520
[Source: DEFRA, National Statistics, 2003]
(c)
(i)
In which year was the greatest percentage of waste recycled?

...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
What was the percentage of waste recycled in the year you have named in (c) (i)?
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
104
(d)
Suggest two reasons why attitudes to recycling may have changed between 1984 and
2002 in more economically developed countries (MEDCs).
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(e)
Identify a negative environmental trend from the data in Figure 2.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 8 marks)
105
The figure below shows data for farming labour and tractor use in an economically developed
country.
5 .0
900
tra c to rs
4 .5
4 .0
800
700
3 .5
600
3 .0
500
2 .5
400
2 .0
F arm w o rk e rs / 1 0 0 0
T ra c to rs / 1 0 0 0 0 0
51.
300
1 .5
fa rm in g la b o u r
1 .0
200
100
0 .5
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
Year
[Source: Kevin Byrne, Environmental Science, (Nelson Thornes Ltd., 1997) p. 188.
(a)
Suggest what the figure above implies about changes that have taken place in agriculture.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
106
(b)
Outline two strategies for increasing agricultural production in less economically

developed countries (LEDCs).
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
Outline an environmental impact of a named agricultural system that you have studied.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(d)
Discuss how the status of soil as a natural resource has changed over time.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 7 marks)
107
52.
Figure 1(a) Location map of Mallorca relative to the Spanish mainland
B a rc e lo n a
M a d rid
L is b o n
B a le a ric Is la n d s
M a llo rc a
S PA I N
Figure 1(b) Mallorca with Albufera marsh marked
T h e A lb u fe ra m a rs h
(a n in te rn a tio n a lly im p o rta n t w e tla n d re s e rv e )
P o lle n a
P o rt d A lc d ia
In c a
Va lld e m o s s a
A rt
A lo r
M A LLO R CA
B u n y o la
S a n ta M a ria
PA L M A
A n d ra tx
S a n ta P o n a
V ila fra n c a
C a m p o s d e l P u e rto
M anacor
P u e rto C ris to
F e la n tix
C a la d O r
S a n ta n y l
108
Figure 2 Mallorca background literature

BACKGROUND
Mallorca is one of a string of islands (the Balearic Islands) representing the most easterly
corner of Spain. The island chain represents approximately 1 % of Spain and is situated in the
western Mediterranean. The other islands, Menorca, Ibiza, Formentera and Cabrera along
with Mallorca form a chain some 200 km long.
Mallorca is dominated by three main geomorphic units, northern calcareous uplands, a central
lowland plain and moderately high southern uplands. The rock is Jurassic and Cretaceous in
age and composed of marine limestone and inter-tidal deposits.
The islands are presently separated from the Spanish mainland but over geological time have
been both attached to the Spanish mainland and to each other during periods of low sea level.
CLIMATE
Mallorca has a Mediterranean climate characterized by moderate monthly temperatures with a
mean around 16C. Winter is dominated by northerly winds and summer winds
predominantly coming from the east and southeast. Mallorca is exposed on its eastern margin
to a cold dry wind known as the Tramuntana.
Mean annual precipitation is approximately 600 mm, concentrated mainly in late summer and
autumn. October is a particularly wet month. Rainfall is strongly related to topography:
Mountainous areas may have rainfall in excess of 1400 mm per year whereas lowland coastal
margins may have less than 200 mm. Summer rainfall is almost non-existent. Cyclones
occasionally deliver over 200 mm of rain in twenty-four hours leading to flash floods. In
general Mallorcan weather patterns appear to be becoming dryer and warmer.
HABITATS
Mallorca has a distinctive biogeography controlled by underlying calcareous geology and the
nature of the climate. The area has fewer species and lower biodiversity (than mainland
Spain) but has a greater number of endemic species. Holm Oak (Quercus ilex) covers 22 % of
the island and Alopa Pine (Pinus halep) covers a further 28 % of the land area. Scrubland
represents approximately 13 % of total land cover. Wetland areas are dominated by
Phragmites australis or Juncus maritimus, depending on the quantity of water and
background salinity.
Cultivated land represents approximately 50 % of the total land area. Urban and tourist driven
development continues to invade more and more habitats.
109
Figure 3 Background to the Albufera marsh

The Albufera marsh is an internationally important reserve. It represents the largest and most
important wetland area in the Balearics. The marsh is contained behind an extensive costal
dune system. The marsh and dunes cover an area of some 1708 hectares. The site represents
the greatest biodiversity in the Balearics. The water feeding the marsh is derived from
seasonal rainwater and underground springs.
The marsh formed around 10 000 years BP (before present) during the Holocene. The sand
dune system fronting the marsh was formed as a result of rising post glacial sea levels.
The biology of the site is dominated by phragmites reed and saw sedge. Flooded areas are
dominated by pondweed, fennel and hornwort. More brackish (salty water) areas support rush
and glasswort.
The dominant tree species in the marsh are poplar and elm.
There are twenty-nine species of fish, mostly marine. There are eel and several species of
mullet.
The marsh also holds water snake, terrapin and frog.
There are some two hundred species of birds with numbers climbing above 10 000 over
winter.
Birds include waders, ducks, passerines and raptors.
The Albufera marsh became a national reserve in 1988, making it the first nationally
protected area in the Balearics. The underlying ethos of the reserve is:
the conservation and restoration of the reserves natural and cultural value
empowerment of educational and scientific research activities
contact between man and nature
a venue for rest and relaxation.
In 1989 the Albufera de Mallorca was registered as an internationally important wetland site
with special reference for birds under the Ramsar Convention.
The site is now viewed locally and nationally with pride by the Mallorcan people. Local
people and pressure groups from outside Mallorca have protected and continue to protect the
site from development.
110
Figure 4 Map of Albufera marsh and sand dunes
p o w e r s ta tio n
a g ric u ltu ra l la n d
s ite 4
fre s h w a te r
m a rsh
s a ltw a te r m a rs h
s ite 2
s ite 3
S ite 5
m a tu re
sand d u n e
s ite 1
B a y d e A lc d ia
Key:
fre s h w a te r m a rs h e c o s y s te m
s a ltw a te r m a rs h e c o s y s te m
S ite 1 m a tu re s a n d d u n e
S ite 2 fre s h w a te r m a rs h
S ite 3 s a ltw a te r m a rs h
s a n d d u n e e c o s y s te m
S ite 4 a g ric u ltu ra l la n d
riv e r
S ite 5 d e v e lo p e d s a n d d u n e
ro a d
H o te l
b u ild in g
a g ric u ltu ra l la n d
111
Figure 5 Generalized Mallorcan rainfall statistics

120
100
80
R a in fa ll / m m
60
40
20
0
Jan
Feb
M ar
A pr
M ay
Ju n
J u ly
M o n th
A ug
Sept
O ct
N ov
D ec
112
[Sources 6(a) and 6(b): King TJ (1989) Ecology. Second Edition. Thomas Nelson & Sons.]
113
Figure 7(a) Banded snail shell morphology types from saltwater marsh and sand dunes
300
K ey:
sand d u n e
s a ltw a te r m a rs h
250
200
F re q u e n c y
150
100
50
no bands
so m e b and s
m o d e ra te b a n d s
m u ltip le b a n d s
Ty p es
Figure 7(b) Images of banded snails and non-banded snails
banded
non-banded
114
Figure 8 Wetland management

Wetland management is necessary for populations of water birds, fish, amphibians,
aquatic plants and a host of other species. Yet parks become direct competitors for water
resources with irrigation projects, flood control schemes and hydroelectric dams.
The Ramsar Convention on wetlands was established in 1971 to halt the continued
destruction of wetlands; to recognize the ecological, scientific, economic, cultural and
recreational value of wetlands.
The Ramsar Convention includes sites covered by national legislation and assists in
their protection by giving them international status.
Richard B Primack (1993)
Essential in Canservation Biology
53.
(a)
With reference to the resource booklet suggest why biodiversity within the Albufera
marsh is so high.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
115
(b)
With reference to the resource booklet, outline four threats to the wildlife or habitats
within the Albufera marsh.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
(i)
With reference to Figure 4, describe how you might expect plant species at site 1
and site 5 to differ.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Suggest reasons for the differences you have described in (c)(i).

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
116
(d)
With reference to Figure 4 suggest, giving a reason, what results you might expect to find
if Simpsons Diversity Index was applied to insect data collected from site 2 and site 4.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(e)
The Albufera marsh represents an important reserve in the Mediterranean. Discuss the
criteria used to design reserves. Support your answer with evidence from Albufera and
other case studies you have studied.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(4)
117
(f)
With reference to the resource booklet deduce how the Albufera marshs future, as an
important wetland environment, has benefited from national and international
organizations.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(g)
(i)
With reference to the resource booklet deduce how the management of the
Albufera marsh represents a holistic view of conservation and ecosystem
management.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Explain why a holistic approach to ecosystem management is so important.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
118
(h)
What biological process does the data in Figure 7(a) suggest has taken place due to the
presence of the main road dividing the ecosystems at the marsh.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(i)
Suggest what impact increased tourism may have on the Albufera marsh.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 25 marks)
119
54.
loss of biodiversity threatens human well being
[Source: Hamdallah Zedan, Secretary of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2003]
(a)
Explain how human well being is threatened by the loss of biodiversity.

(6)
(b)
Evaluate the role of local support, government agencies and research in the protection of
a named protected area you have studied.
(6)
(c)
Evaluate species based conservation as an approach for preserving biodiversity and

suggest why trophy hunting (i.e. hunting animals for sport) may represent an acceptable
method of achieving this goal.
(6)
(Total 20 marks)
120
55.
Lake pollution and eutrophication are problems affecting all countries. Domestic sewage and
industrial effluents mainly cause pollution, but non-point pollution from surrounding land
areas and inappropriate fishing practices are increasingly significant contributing factors at
present.
[Source: UNEP, Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, 2005]
(a)
Describe the concept of eutrophication and the role played by sewage, agricultural run-off
and fisheries in the development of eutrophication in a freshwater environment.
(6)
(b)
Evaluate methods of controlling eutrophication in a freshwater lake. In your answer you

should address sewage and industrial waste, non-point source agricultural inputs and
inappropriate fish management.
(6)
(c)
Compare the efficiency of terrestrial and aquatic food production systems.

(6)
(Total 20 marks)
121
56.
(a)
Explain the increasing global demand for water and discuss the problems this causes for
managing water resources sustainably. Support your answer with reference to examples.
(5)
(b)
Describe the concept of an ecological footprint and evaluate its role as a model for
assessing the demands of humans on their environment.
(5)
(c)
Compare the approaches of technocentric and ecocentric resource managers to the issue
of an increasing demand for water resources.
(8)
(Total 20 marks)
57.
Sustainable tourism depends on:
(a) meeting the needs of the host population in terms of improved standards of
living in the short and long term
(b) satisfying the demands of increasing tourist numbers
(c) safeguarding the environment to achieve the two foregoing aims.
[Source: Cater and Goodall, Environmental Issues in the 1990s, edited Mannion and Bowlby, publishers John Wiley
and Sons Ltd, (June 1992)]
(a)
With reference to the statement above, and examples of ecosystems you have studied,
explain why safeguarding ecosystems is so important for sustainable tourism.
(8)
(b)
Predict and justify what impact global warming may have on tourism trends in the future.
(5)
(c)
Discuss the concept of sustainable development, and explain why it is a problematic term.
(5)
(Total 20 marks)
122
58.
Renewable energy alternatives, how the energy is produced and their limitations:
Alternative
renewable
energy source
How the energy is produced
Tidal Power
Major limitation
.......................................................
Energy is produced by using the
ebbing and/or flooding tide to turn
turbines and produce electricity.
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
Wind Power
Biofuel
Wind turbines are driven by

available wind energy. The wind
energy is turned into electrical
energy via a generator. The
electrical energy is supplied to an
electrical grid to do work.
Dependent on the wind; no wind

equals no energy.
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
Produces emissions and requires

large areas to grow biofuel crop.
.......................................................
.......................................................
(a)
State one other form of alternative renewable energy source not listed above.
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(b)
Complete the table above for tidal power and biofuel.

(2)
123
(c)
Most MEDCs are still dependent on non-renewable forms of energy. Suggest reasons why
MEDCs have not adopted renewable energy sources.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(d)
With reference to a named food production system you have studied, describe two ways
in which food supply per unit area can be increased.
Named food production system: .................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
124
(e)
State the difference between carrying capacity and ecological footprint.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 11 marks)
59.
Introduction
The Asian tsunami* on 26 December 2004 was caused by an undersea earthquake and had a
devastating impact across the Indian Ocean, causing unprecedented human, economic and
environmental damage to those countries in its path.
The Maldives are a chain of 200 inhabited islands, with a maximum land height above sea
level of just 4 metres. The country suffered relatively small human losses, but per capita
has sustained the largest economic damage of any country. More than 70 islands were
directly affected.
* tsunami: a giant wave caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or undersea landslides associated with active plate
margins
125
Figure 1 Freshwater supply in the Maldives

Freshwater lens formation on islands
A proportion of the freshwater falling as rain on an island infiltrates into the sandy soils
and accumulates as fresh groundwater. The freshwater, being less dense than saline
seawater, floats on the saline groundwater that infiltrates the island laterally at depth from
the sea. Because of density differences, a freshwater lens develops, which in general is
thickest at the centre of the island, where groundwater levels are highest (compared to
mean sea level). The typical ratio between the height of freshwater above mean sea level
compared to the depth of freshwater below mean sea level is of the order of 1:20.
Groundwater levels above mean sea level on small islands may be 0.10 metres to 0.50
metres above sea level, resulting in a freshwater lens depth of 2 metres to 10 metres thick.
In the Maldives 99 % of local households use rainwater as their drinking supply and
groundwater for other uses. When rainwater dries up, they use groundwater for
everything. The tsunami flooded many islands with seawater which contaminated
groundwater supplies. Sewage also leaks into groundwater supplies.
Figure 2 Hydrological model of coral islands

e v a p o tra n s p ira tio n
m e a n s e a le v e l
ra in fa ll
w e ll
la g o o n
ocean
fre s h w a te r
(g ro u n d w a te r)
s e a w a te r
(s a lin e g ro u n d w a te r)
c o ral
ro c k
126
Figure 3 Desalination prospects for the Maldives

There is a common misconception that, for small marine islands, desalination (the
removal of salt from seawater) is an ideal source of freshwater. The experience throughout
the small island regions of the world is that with a few exceptions, Male (the capital
island) being one of them, the operation of desalination plants is in fact unsustainable.
3
Desalination is expensive (up to US $8/m in Male) and likely to be higher on the outer
islands; it requires advanced technical training not commonly available in the outer
islands, it needs good cost-recovery to support complex spare part maintenance and it
requires the import and storage of diesel fuels. Some or all of these factors that are
required to sustain desalination are absent in small islands.
Outside of Male, resorts routinely use desalination plants. This is because tourists use
large volumes of water and rainwater cannot meet demand. The small size of the islands
means there is no groundwater available. The money generated by the resorts ensures
engineers can adequately service the desalination plant, without which the resorts would
close.
Figure 4 Well water quality in three Maldivian islands after the 2004 tsunami and the WHO
(World Health Organisation) recommended maximum background levels
Island
Nitrate/mg l
Ammonia/mg l
Phosphate/mg l
Chloride/mg l
Kulhuduffushi
29.2
2.4
0.5
529
Filladhoo
32.9
6.8
0.9
1200
Dhidhdhoo
43.8
0.7
0.3
402
WHO guidelines
50.0
1.50
Background < 0.1
250
127
Figure 5 Climate of the Maldives

M o n th ly a v e ra g e ra in fa ll a n d s u n s h in e
300
250
250
200
200
S u n s h in e / h o u rs
150
150
100
100
50
50
0
R a in fa ll / m m
J A
M o n th s
K ey :
ra in fa ll
s u n s h in e
Figure 6 Climate change and sea level rise in the Maldives

The islands of the Maldives rise, on average, up to 4 metres above sea level. In 1987 and
1991, storm surges flooded a large number of islands, including one-third of the capital
where one-quarter of the countrys population lives. Unusually high waves forced the
international airport to close, causing great damage to tourism and constraining
emergency relief operations. Recent surveys have shown that almost one-third of the 200
inhabited islands were faced with serious beach erosion problems.
Sea level rise is not a fashionable scientific hypothesis but a fact. Already in this century,
the seas have risen between 10 cm and 25 cm. The prevailing scientific consensus holds
that human action, affecting the world climate, will cause the seas to rise more rapidly in
the future.
Countries need to pursue immediate measures by relocating their populations away from
areas of risk and taking protective measures to prevent flooding. For small island
countries relocation is not possible and because defences against flooding are
prohibitively expensive to construct, considerable external assistance would be needed.
128
Figure 7 Trends in island tourism, adapted from www.ourplanet.com

Tourism is expected to go on growing by approximately 5 % per year. World Tourism
Organization (WTO) projections suggest that international arrivals will rise to 800 million
in 2007 and one billion in 2010. The vast majority of tourists will continue to come from
the developed world, but economic expansion and per capita income growth in
developing countries such as Brazil, China and India will, over the long term, add to
the upward trend. This outlook makes tourism one of the most economically strong
sectors of the global economy.
In order to enhance the long-term viability of the tourist sector, many small island
developing countries have embarked on forward-looking strategies to improve efficiency.
Figure 8(a) Outline map of an atoll island, indicating land above sea level airstrip
a irs trip
d e e p w a te r
channel
n a tu re
re se rv e
h o te l
0 k. 5 m
to u ris t b e a c h
Figure 8(b) Cross-section of an atoll island
5 m e tre s
p re s e n t s e a le v e l
129
Figure 9 Countries with chronic water scarcity (below 2740 litre capita
2025 and 2050 compared to a number of other countries
Country
Available water /
1
1
litre capita day
in 2000
day ) in 2000,
Available water /
1
1
litre capita day
in 2025
Available water /
1
1
litre capita day
in 2050
Saudi Arabia
325
166
118
Israel
969
738
644
Somalia
3206
1562
1015
Malawi
4656
2508
1715
UK
3337
3270
3315
India
5670
4291
3724
China
6108
5266
5140
USA
24420
20405
19521
[Source: B Lomborg, The Skeptical Environmentalist, (2001). Reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press]
Figure 10 Percentage of people living with chronic water scarcity

2000
2025
2050
3.7 %
8.6 %
17.8 %
[Source: B Lomborg, The Skeptical Environmentalist, (2001). Reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press]
60.
(a)
What geographical features make the Maldives susceptible to damage from a tsunami?
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
130
(b)
List the three types of freshwater supply the Maldivian population relies on and state
whether each supply is renewable or replenishable.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(c)
Describe the state of Maldivian groundwater after the 2004 tsunami. Suggest sources of
contamination.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(4)
(d)
(i)
Deduce why water resources may become a limiting factor for Maldivian tourism.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
131
(ii)
Outline the trend in global water resources up to 2050.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(e)
Discuss and evaluate three strategies to make tourism more sustainable in the Maldives.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(6)
132
(f)
Tourism is an important economic activity in the Maldives. Construct a model (diagram)

that demonstrates the range of impacts tourism may have both directly and indirectly on
Maldivian ecosystems.
T o u ris m
(4)
133
(g)
State two positive impacts of tourism.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 25 marks)
61.
(a)
For a named example of pollution that you have studied, describe and evaluate the
pollution management strategies that may be used to reduce the impact of the pollutant.
(7)
(b)
Describe and explain the impact of changes in ozone concentration on ecosystems and
organisms.
(6)
(c)
Justify whether you believe that sustainable development is possible on Earth in the long
term.
(5)
(Total 20 marks)
62.
(a)
Distinguish clearly between succession and zonation using named examples and
diagrams.
(6)
(b)
Compare and contrast the production : respiration ratios of a food production system you
have studied and a natural ecosystem with a climax community.
(6)
(c)
Discuss the characteristics of an ecosystem that would allow it to support high

biodiversity and explain what the threats are to this ecosystem.
(6)
(Total 20 marks)
134
63.
M Wackernagel calculates that the Earth has only 1.7 hectares per capita available for human
use. These 1.7 hectares become the ecological benchmark figure for comparing peoples
ecological footprints. Assuming no further ecological degradation, the amount of available
biologically productive space will drop to 1.0 hectare per capita once the world population
reaches its predicted 10 billion by 2040.
[Source: WWF Living Planet Report of 2004]
(a)
Explain how population pyramids data can allow countries to monitor population
changes.
(5)
(b)
Discuss the relationship between population, resource consumption and technological

development, and their influence on carrying capacity and economic growth.
(6)
(c)
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of reducing use, reusing and recycling
resources.
(7)
(Total 20 marks)
64.
The diagram below shows succession in a sand dune ecosystem.

A
135
(a)
(i)
Define the term succession.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
State what variable may be appropriate for the x-axis in the diagram above.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
Outline what will happen to soils as the ecosystem in the diagram above changes
from A to B.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
State what is happening within a system when a decrease in variable P leads to a

decrease in variable Q which in turn leads to a further decrease in variable P.
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 6 marks)
136
65.
Figure 1 shows energy flow through a food chain.

Figure 1
p rim a ry p ro d u c e rs
9 0 0 k c a l m 2 y r1
(a)
(i)
c a ttle
2 5 6 k c a l m 2 y r1
hum an
6 .6 k c a l m 2 y r 1
Calculate the percentage energy loss to humans from the initial input of
2 1
900 kcal m yr .
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Explain why farming systems based on crop production are more energy efficient
than harvesting from the sea.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(iii)
Suggest two ways in which energy may be lost from the system.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
137
(b)
(i)
Suggest three reasons why livestock (cattle, goats, sheep, etc.) form a part of most
farming systems.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(ii)
Figure 2 shows a systems diagram for a farm. Annotate the diagram to show two
inputs and two outputs, and their possible environmental impacts.
Figure 2
IN P U T S
In p u t
Im p a c t
In p u t
Im p a c t
O U TPU TS
O u tp u t
Im p a c t
O u tp u t
Im p a c t
(4)
(Total 13 marks)
138
66.
Figure 1 shows the population pyramids for an MEDC and LEDC in the year 2000 and
Figure 2 shows two ecological footprints.
Figure 1
C o u n try A
m a le
fe m a le
80+
7 5 -7 9
7 0 -7 4
6 5 -6 9
6 0 -6 4
5 5 -5 9
5 0 -5 4
4 5 -4 9
4 0 -4 4
3 5 -3 9
3 0 -3 4
2 5 -2 9
2 0 -2 4
1 5 -1 9
1 0 -1 4
5 -9
0 -4
2 .0
1 .5
1 .0
0 .5
0 .0 0 .0
0 .5
P o p u la tio n / m illio n s
1 .0
1 .5
2 .0
C o u n try B
m a le
fe m a le
100+
9 5 -9 9
9 0 -9 4
8 5 -8 9
8 0 -8 4
7 5 -7 9
7 0 -7 4
6 5 -6 9
6 0 -6 4
5 5 -5 9
5 0 -5 4
4 5 -4 9
4 0 -4 4
3 5 -3 9
3 0 -3 4
2 5 -2 9
2 0 -2 4
1 5 -1 9
1 0 -1 4
5 -9
0 -4
1
0
0
1
P o p u la tio n / m illio n s
[U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base]
Figure 2
Ecological footprint for 2001
Footprint X
1.5 Global hectares per person
Footprint Y
4.3 Global hectares per person
139
(a)
State two differences between the population pyramids shown in Figure 1.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
(i)
With reference to Figure 1 and Figure 2, deduce which footprint belongs to

country A and which footprint belongs to country B.
Country A: ........................................................................................................
Country B: .........................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Justify your answer to (b)(i).

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 4 marks)
67.
The table below shows population change and water consumption for 1971 and 2001 in an
MEDC.
Population/10
Total water consumption

6 3
1
/ 10 m day
(a)
1971
2001
Growth rate per year
48.6
57
0.53 %
42.7
83.3
2.3 %
Compare relative growth rates for population and water consumption between 1971 and
2001.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
140
(b)
Suggest two factors which may explain the difference you have identified in (a).
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 3 marks)
141
Low
L ig h t in te n s ity
Low
A b io tic
H ig h
T e m p e ra tu re
H ig h
Low
D eep -sea
p ra w n
S p e rm w h a le
w h a le
Tuna
(p e la g ic )
Low
Low
H ig h
H ig h
B io t ic
B io m a s s
G u lp e r e e l
G ia n t s q u id
S h a rk
Z o o p la n k to n
A n g le rfs h
Seal
S m a ll
fsh
P h y to p la n k to n
S e a g u ll
B io d iv e rs ity
H ig h
P re ssu re
68.
Figure 1 Biotic and abiotic components of the deep-ocean ecosystem
142
Figure 2 Adaptations to the deep-ocean environment

Examples of adaptations of deep-ocean species:
long arms and ability to be able to sift through mud and detritus for food
bioluminescence (the ability to produce light) used to attract mates, to obtain food, for
camouflage or to confuse predators
nets of tentacles to trap falling detritus for food
angler fish use light-producing bacteria that live on a special fishing rod-like fin that
hangs over the anglers head and wiggles in the water to attract prey
red or purple colouration (in normal light) e.g. deep-ocean prawn because of the absence
of red light at depth these animals are invisible
bodies that are completely filled with water so that an increase in pressure has little effect.
For this reason jellyfish, squid etc. have no difficulty when moving through the water
column.
[Source: adapted from www.mesa.edu.au/seachange/97/deepsea.htm]
Deep-ocean prawn ejecting bioluminescence

[Source: adapted from http://people.cornellcollege.edu/
a-carlson/geo105/whatisbiolum.htm]
Deep-ocean prawn
[NORFANZ: Image has been provided courtesy of the
NORFANZ partners-National Oceans Office, CSIRO,
the NZ Ministry of Fisheries & NIWA.]
143
Figure 3 Diversity hot spots deep-ocean vents

Of great interest to marine scientists was the discovery of communities of animals living
around deep vents on the ocean floor. From these vents pour large quantities of heated
seawater which contain high quantities of hydrogen sulfides and dissolved minerals.
These vents occur where tectonic plates are slowly moving apart. Clouds of bacteria are
found around these vents. The bacteria draw their energy not from the sun as plants do but
from the hydrogen sulfides discharged from the vents. The bacteria in turn provide food
for a range of other animals including shrimp, crabs and worms, which in turn support
species of fish.
Metre-long tube worms in the vents have developed an unusual relationship with the
bacteria around the vents. The tube worms have no mouth and no digestive tract. Instead,
they have bacteria living inside an interior sac. The red hemoglobin in the tube worms
feathery gills can bind to the hydrogen sulfide in the hot vent water and carry it to the
bacteria. The bacteria are able to oxidize the hydrogen sulfide and in doing so, convert
large amounts of carbon dioxide from seawater into organic carbon, which is then
absorbed by the tube worms.
[Source: adapted from www.mbl.edu/email/images/nur04506_sm.jpg]
Deep-ocean vent
Tube worms
[Source: www.mesa.edu.au/seachange/97/deepsea.htm]
144
Figure 4 Nutrient cycling in the deep ocean

The habitat is a predominately dark and cold environment with much lower productivity than
shallower waters. No light penetrates beyond 1000 m and even at depths of 150 m light levels
are reduced to 1 % of those at the surface and are insufficient to support photosynthesis.
Therefore, organic material must be transferred into the deep waters, which occurs in various
ways. Dead phytoplankton sink, and though much is consumed as it settles, sufficient
amounts enter the deep water to sustain much of the biomass there. The constant rain of
organic detritus (remains of organisms from above) can be so thick it is called marine snow.
Many species migrate, feeding in the surface waters and moving down during the day,
avoiding predators. In this way, surface production is cascaded through to deeper layers.
Of relatively minor productive importance is organic material from large carcasses (e.g. dead
whales) sinking to the ocean floor and sulfur-based organic production associated with deepocean vents. The concentration of organic material decreases exponentially with depth.
[Source: www.oceanatlas.com, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations]
[Source: www.oceanatlas.com, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations]
145
Figure 5 Fishing in the deep ocean

Until recently, the great depth of the oceans has made them difficult to exploit as the
existence of more abundant resources in shallower waters have meant that little incentive
existed to fish in the deep oceans.
With the reduction of opportunities for development of inshore fisheries and the
improvement of fishing technology and navigation instruments, deep-ocean fishing
expanded in the 1990s. A well-known example is that of the Orange roughy, a deep-ocean
species found around New Zealand. Specially aimed trawling techniques have been
developed. Maximum sustainable levels of exploitation of Orange roughy may be as low
as 5-10 % of un-fished biomass. Accumulating evidence about stock declines indicates
that Orange roughy are being exploited unsustainably and ongoing yields are likely to be
around 5 % of those initially obtained.
[Source: adapted from www.oceansatlas.org]
Orange roughy
[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hoplostethus_atlanticus_02_Pengo.jpg#file]
C o m m e rc ia l c a tc h e s o f O ra n g e ro u g h y (N e w Z e a la n d )
45 000
40 000
30 000
25 000
20 000
15 000
10 000
5000
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
0
1990
W e ig h t / To n n e s
35 000
Year
[Source: adapted from www.starfish.govt.nz/shared-graphics-for-download/roughy_chart.gif]
146
Figure 6 The deep ocean as a carbon sink
[Source: adapted from IPCC SRLULUCF 2000 and IPCC TAR WGI 2001]
69.
(a)
(i)
Explain why phytoplankton is found mainly near the surface in ocean ecosystems.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
State an abiotic factor responsible for the zonation observed in the deep ocean.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
147
(iii)
With reference to Figure 1, state which trophic level is occupied by the seagull.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(b)
With reference to Figure 2, identify two adaptations of the deep-ocean prawn to life on
the ocean floor.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
(i)
Sun
A simplified energy flow diagram for a tropical forest food chain is shown below.
S tra n g le r fig
F ru it b a t
Snake
H a rp y e a g le
D e c o m p o sers
In the space provided below, sketch a simplified energy flow diagram to show how
energy flows through the food chain at a deep-ocean vent.
(1)
148
(ii)
Suggest which features of deep-ocean food webs make them particularly

vulnerable to disturbance.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(iii)
State one way in which organic matter leaves the deep-ocean ecosystem.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(d)
(i)
With reference to Figure 5, describe and explain the pattern shown in the graph of
catches of Orange roughy during the 1990s.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
149
(ii)
Suggest how the problem of unsustainable fishing practices might be overcome,

from an ecocentric viewpoint and a technocentric viewpoint.
Ecocentric .........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
Technocentric ...................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4)
(e)
(i)
With reference to Figure 6, state the amount of carbon stored in the worlds
oceans.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(ii)
Suggest why scientists are increasingly interested in the role that oceans play as
carbon sinks.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
Describe two reasons why ocean levels are expected to increase as a result of
global warming.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
150
(f)
Suggest why there is relatively little public pressure to conserve deep-ocean ecosystems
and justify the need for them to be conserved.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 23 marks)
70.
(a)
Outline what is meant by a model.

(2)
(b)
Evaluate the models used:
to predict the growth of human populations
to predict climate change
to assess demands human populations make on their environments.

(9)
(c)
With reference to examples, explain the importance of understanding cultural factors

when designing policies to control population growth.
(7)
(Total 20 marks)
151
71.
(a)
Outline the concept of sustainability

(3)
(b)
Evaluate the importance of global summits in shaping attitudes towards sustainability.

Refer to specific summits in your answer.
(5)
(c)
Discuss the factors which affect the choice of contrasting energy sources adopted in two
societies you have studied.
(10)
(Total 20 marks)
72.
(a)
Describe the role of soil in the transfer and transformation of water and nitrogen within
an ecosystem.
(5)
(b)
Compare soil management strategies in a named commercial farming system with those
in a named subsistence farming system.
(8)
(c)
Discuss how viewing soils as systems can help farmers to understand and reduce the
causes of soil degradation.
(5)
(Total 20 marks)
152
73.
Below is a cartoon about global population increase.
B illio n s
of
p e o p le
T im e
[Source: adapted from www.greenberg-art.com/.Toons/.Toons,%20Environ/Populationchart.html]
(a)
Determine the projected human population in 2050.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(b)
Describe the pattern of population growth shown in the diagram above.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
153
(c)
Describe two ways in which food systems might be changed to meet the increased
demand for food in the future.
1 ...................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
2 ...................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(d)
Describe two obstacles facing governments who wish to reduce population increase in
their countries.
1 ...................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
2 ...................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 6 marks)
154
74.
Below is a diagram from UNESCO showing relationships between development, the

environment and health.
Sustainable development spirals
T H E D E S C E N D IN G S P IR A L
In a p p ro p ria te
d e v e lo p m e n t
E n v iro n m e n t
Im p a c ts
H e a lth
U n d e rm in e s
In h ib its
D e v e lo p m e n t
D e g rad e s
T H E A S C E N D IN G S P IR A L
M a k e s p o s s ib le
S u s ta in a b le d e v e lo p m e n t
H e a lth
In c re a se s
Im p ro v e s
S u s ta in s
D e v e lo p m e n t
E n v iro n m e n t
[Source: Sustainable development spirals, United Nations Environment Programme]
155
(a)
State, giving one reason, what kind of system feedback is illustrated by the descending
spiral.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(b)
Discuss the meaning of the term sustainable development with reference to the diagram
above.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the models shown in the diagram above.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 5 marks)
156
75.
The diagram below shows flows through a food production system.

key:
S o la r
F o s s il
e n e rg y
F o o d /fe e d
A g ro c h e m ic a ls
G ree n h o u se
g ases
F e rtiliz e r
p ro d u c tio n
P e s tic id e
p ro d u c tio n
E n e rg y
s u p p ly
P o llu ta n ts
O rg a n ic w a s te s
S o la r
e n e rg y
C o lle c tio n
a n d sto ra g e
G ra in ,
p lu s e s
A ra b le
la n d
F e e d s tu ffs
P ro c e s s in g
and
p a c k a g in g
P ig s ,
p o u ltry
D is tr ib u tio n
G ra s s la n d
R u m in a n ts
O ff- fa rm
p o llu tio n
S to re d
fo ra g e
Sew age
tre a tm e n t
C o n su m e rs
R e ta ilin g
W a ste s
[Source: Dr Dick Morris, Maths, Computing and Technology Faculty, The Open University]
(a)
Explain, with reference to the diagram above, how this food production system may
contribute to global warming.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
157
(b)
Distinguish between the terms pollutant and organic waste.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
Explain how the energy efficiency will differ between the arable components and the
livestock components of the system in the diagram above.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(d)
State, giving two reasons, whether this system is more typical of a food production
system in an LEDC or an MEDC.
1 ...................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
2 ...................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(e)
Outline two factors that currently restrict the large-scale use of renewable energy sources.
1 ...................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
2 ...................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
158
(f)
Explain how burning fossil fuels contributes to the formation of tropospheric ozone.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 12 marks)
76.
Below is an information poster designed to show how individual actions can help to promote
sustainability.
[Dave May, www.customcartoonart.com, Washington State Department of Ecology]
159
(a)
Explain why the poster recommends that manure piles are kept away from streams.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(b)
(i)
Identify, giving reasons, two actions from the poster which will promote species
diversity.
Action 1: ...........................................................................................................
Reason: ..............................................................................................................
Action 2: ...........................................................................................................
Reason: ..............................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Explain why species diversity is considered to be an advantage to an ecosystem.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
Suggest two reasons why grass cuttings and natural fertilizers are recommended as
fertilizers rather than artificial fertilizers in the poster.
1 ...................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
2 ...................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 7 marks)
160
77.
Figure 1 Location map of Madagascar
[ Conservation International Foundation]
Figure 2 Introduction
Madagascar has an astounding total of eight plant families, four bird families, and five
primate families that are endemic, that is they live nowhere else on Earth.
Madagascars more than fifty lemur species are the islands charismatic worldwide
ambassadors for conservation, although, tragically, fifteen more species have been driven to
extinction since humans arrived.
Madagascar broke off from the Gondwanaland super continent more than 160 million years
ago and is an example of species evolution in isolation. Despite close proximity to Africa,
the island does not share any of the typical animal groups of nearby Africa. Instead,
Madagascar has evolved unique species, with high levels of endemism (species unique to a
geographical location).
The natural vegetation of the island is diverse. On Madagascar, tropical rainforests in the
east give way to dry deciduous forests along the western coast. A unique spiny desert covers
the extreme south. The island also has several high mountain ecosystems, which are
characterized by forest with mosses and lichens.
161
Figure 3 A climate graph for Toamasina, a major seaport in Madagascar. It has an elevation of
five metres.
450
400
m ax
av erag e
m in
30
25
T e m p e ra tu re
/ C
350
T e m p e ra tu re
300
250
20
200
15
150
10
100
50
Jan F e b M a r A p r M a y Ju n
Jul A ug S ep O ct N ov D ec
84
86 85
85
87
86
86
86
84
83
83
85
R a in fa ll /
m m
H u m id ity / %
7
H o u rs o f s u n s h in e p e r d a y
[Courtesy of Columbus Travel Media]
162
Figure 4 Madagascar: key environmental facts

Area / km
600 461
Vegetation remaining / km
60 046
11 600
Endemic plant species
57
Endemic threatened bird species
51
Endemic threatened mammal species
61
Endemic threatened amphibian species

Extinct species
Human population density / people/km

Area protected / km
Key:
45
32
18 482
endemic: species found only in this location

recorded extinctions since the year 1500
163
Figure 5 Human impacts

The geographic isolation that allowed Madagascar to evolve diverse and unique species
also contributed to its environmental degradation. Because humans did not arrive on the
islands until 15002000 years ago, the native animals were not initially afraid and were
easily hunted by the colonists.
The Malagasy people came to Madagascar from Africa and Asia and imported rice
cultivation, slash-and-burn farming and cattle grazing, which are inappropriate for
infertile, lateritic soils and were devastating to the fragile ecosystems of the island. The
central plateau of Madagascar is almost completely deforested and is now a lifeless land
of infertile, baked red earth. It is estimated that only about 17 % of the original vegetation
of Madagascar remains.
The 18 million people who live in Madagascar today do not represent a very large
number considering the land area of the island. However, the population is growing at
more than 3 % per year and is expected to double by the year 2025. In an area that is
already one of the most economically disadvantaged in the world, this growth rate is
putting tremendous pressure on the natural environment. In addition to agriculture,
hunting and logging, industry and small-scale mining are growing threats.
On the other Indian Ocean Islands, these same threats have been worsened by the
introduction of invasive alien species, brought as food sources, pets or for pest control.
Rats, cats and mongooses have devastated populations of birds and small reptiles, while
grazing rabbits, goats, pigs, and deer have stripped many landscapes. In addition, exotic
plant species such as water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) threaten the biodiversity of
freshwater ecosystems.
164
Figure 6 Soil degradation on the central plateau

Madagascar suffers from some of the worst land degradation and erosion in the world as
seen by the dark areas of the aerial photograph below.
[Source: www.photos.wildmadagascar.org]
165
Figure 7 Logging tables
Conventional logging
Too many roads and skidtrails
Too many landings that are too large
Substantial canopy opening
Subsequent invasion by vines and pioneer plant species
Significant damage to other vegetation, including future crop trees
Large number of lost logs
Reduced-impact logging
Reduces soil disturbed in roads, landings, and skidtrails by almost 50 %
Significantly less canopy opening
Better survival of residual trees
Faster recovery; shorter cutting cycles
Total cost is 1015 % lower
Wood waste is reduced by more than 60 %
[Source: Tropical Forest Foundation]
166
Figure 8 Conservation in Madagascar

About 2.7 % of Madagascars land area is officially protected in national parks, strict nature
reserves established to conserve ecosystems and special reserves designed to protect a
particular species or a group of species.
Attempts to identify and safeguard the areas remaining natural habitats are being
implemented with projects that demonstrate the value of this conservation to the country.
For example, in much of Madagascar the economic value of the remaining forests is of
enormous importance. Eco-tourism has provided a source of income for local communities.
Efforts at species-focused conservation represent important progress for the future of
several unique species. A number of lemur species have been bred successfully in captivity,
and, in 1997, the first lemur reintroduction program introduced captive-born black and
white ruffed lemurs into the Betampona Nature Reserve.
Photograph of a black and white ruffed lemur
[Source: adapted from www.images.wildmadagascar.org/pictures/1997/sifaka1.gif]
Lemurs have been the focal point of species-based conservation efforts in Madagascar.
167
Figure 9 Tropical forest ecosystem

The diagram below represents a tropical forest ecosystem on the north east coast of Madagascar.
The climax vegetation type up to the coastal margin is mixed tropical forest.
Table of surveyed animal groups present at the three sites shown on the map above.
Number of species
Animal group
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Lemurs
Tenrecs (rodent-like insectivores)
Geckos and chameleons
12
Carnivores (fossa, fanaloka, mongoose)
Frogs
Insects
14
Scorpions
[Source: adapted from www.europe.2007-aliens.org]
168
78.
(a)
Suggest why Madagascar has such

(i)
high biodiversity.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
169
(ii)
high rates of endemism (species only found in Madagascar).

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
170
(b)
Explain why Madagascan species have been vulnerable to hunting in the past.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
171
(c)
Construct a model (diagram) that demonstrates why the soil of the central plateau in
Madagascar has become degraded.
(4)
172
(d)
With reference to Figure 7, explain why reduced-impact logging is likely to be more

sustainable than conventional logging.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
173
(e)
(i)
With reference to Figure 4, calculate the proportion of Madagascars total area

which is protected.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
174
(ii)
Suggest two reasons why the economic benefits of conservation are being
promoted by the authorities in Madagascar.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
175
(f)
With reference to Figure 9,

(i)
suggest two reasons for the variation in animal groups found at sites 1, 2 and 3.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
176
(ii)
evaluate the reserve shown according to principles of good reserve design.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
177
(g)
(i)
With reference to Figure 5, state the expected total Madagascan population in

2025.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
178
(ii)
Justify whether or not you think the government should attempt to reduce the rate
of population growth on the island.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 23 marks)
179
79.
The perspective of the late German green philosopher Rudolf Bahro is accepted that, for
worldwide sustainability, industrialized countries need to reduce their impact upon the
Earth to about one tenth of what it is at the present time.
[Source: W Rees, M Wackernagel and P Testemale, (2005), Our Ecological Footprint, New Society Publishers]
180
(a)
With reference to a named example, outline the concept of an ecological footprint.

(5)
(b)
LEDCs tend to have smaller ecological footprints than MEDCs. With reference to case
studies explain why this is so.
(7)
(c)
Describe three national strategies that could be used to reduce an ecological footprint and
suggest, giving reasons, which one is most likely to succeed.
(6)
(Total 20 marks)
181
80.
While much attention has been focused on the impending planet-wide oil shortage, a far
greater problem awaits us. Arguably the next world war will be fought over water resources
not oil reserves.
[Source: adapted from www.waterconserve.org]
182
(a)
Describe the Earths water budget and explain why the distribution of water resources
could be a source of conflict in the future.
(7)
(b)
Discuss how ecocentric solutions to water resource needs can be applied on a local scale.
(5)
(c)
Describe and evaluate the role of technocentric solutions in meeting the demand for food.
(6)
(Total 20 marks)
183
81.
(a)
(i)
A country is described as having an ecological footprint of 24 times its own

geographical area. Explain what this means.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
184
(ii)
Discuss the influence of three factors on the size of a countrys ecological

footprint.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
185
(b)
(i)
Describe how one cause of climate change may be attributed to human activity.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
186
(ii)
Draw a sketch graph of temperature change against time over the last 2000 years.
Using arrows and brief notes, annotate significant historical events that illustrate
interesting trends or changes along the time-temperature graph
T e m p e ra tu re /
2000 bp
0
T im e /y e a rs
(3)
187
(iii)
Outline two causes of climate change that are natural.

1 ........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
2 ........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
188
(c)
(i)
Outline how global warming may change the climate for a named country.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
189
(ii)
Discuss how this new climate may lead to a change in the ecological footprint of
the country named in (c) (i).
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 13 marks)
190
82.
(a)
(i)
Define the term species diversity.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
191
Simpsons Diversity Index

D=
(ii)
N ( N 1)
n( n 1)
State what N means in the equation above.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)
192
(iii)
Design a method that could be used to analyse diversity of plants within a

woodland ecosystem.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4)
193
(b)
(i)
Define the term biome.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
194
(ii)
Discuss how the factors that control natural biomes also dictate how people farm
the landscape. Refer to at least two examples of farming systems within your
answer.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(Total 10 marks)
195
83.
Introduction
Uganda is a relatively small country in east Africa with a rapidly growing and ethnically
diverse population. The economy of the country is heavily dependent on farming which
employs 83 % of its workforce. While rainforests have extraordinary global significance,
conservation efforts in Uganda clearly need to take into account the needs of both the local
communities and the national economy as a whole. Management of their forest reserves has
moved toward meeting social, economic and conservation needs within the country. In
Kibale National Park, for example, the protected area is surrounded by 7 parishes (areas
of local government with strong family and tribal ties) where approximately 150 000 people
live. These boundary communities extract more than 20 different products from the park to
meet some of their subsistence, commercial, cultural and medicinal needs.
196
Figure 1 Map showing the location of Kibale National Park in Uganda
SU D A N
K E N YA
K itg u m
A ru a
Z A IR E
M o ro lo
G u lu
M a sin d i
H o lm a
K ib a le
N a tio n a l
P a rk
U G A N D A
M b a le
F o rtP o rta l
K a m p a la
J in ja
e q u a to r
E n te b b e
M asaka
M b a ra ra
KK a ab b a a l lee
T A N Z A N IA
L ake
V ic to ria
RW A N D A
[Source: www.usu.edu. Reproduced by permission of Utah State University]
197
Figure 2 Map of Kibale National Park and surrounding parishes
198
Figure 3 The model on which the original proposal for the Kibale National Park was based
T h e U g a n d a s tra te g y fo r m a n a g in g th e ir tr o p ic a l fo re s t w a s s ta rte d b y th e W o rld B a n k F o re s try R e h a b ilita tio n
P ro g ra m m e a n d th e o r ig in a l p ro p o s a l fo r K ib a le N a tio n a l P a rk w a s b a s e d o n th e ir M a n a n d th e b io s p h e re
m o d e l s h o w n b e lo w .
P ro d u c tio n z o n e 5 0 %
B u ffe r z o n e 3 0 %
S tric t re s e r v e 2 0 %
K ey:
S tric t re s e rv e
(0 % o f th e f o re s t a re a ) w h e re a ll d ire c t h u m a n im p a c t is p ro h ib ite d
B u ffe r z o n e
(3 0 % o f th e fo re s t a re a ) m a n a g e d fo r e c o to u ris m , e d u c a tio n , re s e a rc h
a n d c o n tro lle d h a rv e s tin g b y lo c a l c o m m u n ity o f m in o r fo r e s t p ro d u c ts
e .g . w ild c o ffe e
P ro d u c tio n z o n e
(5 0 % o f th e fo re s t a re a ) m a n a g e d fo r s u s ta in a b le fo re s try a n d lo c a l
c o m m u n ity u s e
[Source: adapted from D Earl, (1992), Wise Management of Tropical Forest for Timber Production, Tourism and
Wildlife, Wise Management of Tropical Forests, Oxford University Press, Oxford]
199
Figure 4 Data showing diameter and abundance of Ficus* species in logged and unlogged
Ugandan rainforest
2
Number of Ficus species trees / km by diameter class (cm)
Forest Type
10 20
21 30
31 50
51 70
71 90
91 110
> 110
Unlogged
40
20
Logged
153
77
101
* Ficus species are fig trees that grow by attaching themselves to the main trunks or stems of
other forest trees. The trees that they grow against are very often those that provide timber for
the loggers. In a typical rainforest they provide abundant food for many fruit-eating birds and
insects, particularly at times when there are very few alternative food sources available. Many
other trees and shrubs depend on these bird populations for dispersal of their seeds. Because so
many species depend upon Ficus species, they are frequently referred to as keystone species
in a forest ecosystem.
[Source: adapted from D Alder, (1991), Uganda Forestry Rehabilitation Project Data Processing for the Budongo
Forest Inventory, report DA-UG-4]
Figure 5 Figure showing relative abundance of seven primate species in adjacent areas of
mechanically logged and undisturbed forest at Kibale National Park
M e c h a n ic a lly lo g g e d fo r e s t
U n d is tu r b e d fo r e s t
R e d c o lo b u s
R e d ta il m o n k e y
B lu e m o n k e y
C h im p a n z e e
B la c k a n d w h ite c o lo b u s
M angabey
L H o e s t s m o n k e y
6
In d e x o f a b u n d a n c e (n u m b e r o f p rim a te g ro u p s /k m )
(n u m b e r o f in d iv id u a ls /k m in c a s e o f c h im p a n z e e s )
[P Howard (1991) Nature Conservation in Ugandas Tropical Forest Reserves, IUCN Publishers.
Reproduced by permission]
200
Figure 6 Conservation and indigenous peoples

The removal of people in establishing protected areas in Africa is the most basic form of
ecological restoration, and is based on the idea that human occupation is unnatural. In
some instances this may be true, but in most it is not, and serious questions of human rights
are raised by the imposition of wilderness conditions through the eviction of farmers,
hunter-gatherers or pastoralists. Many institutional and legal problems arise, but are
typically met through various forms of community outreach programmes, sometimes with
revenue sharing, development aid and access for resource use.
[M Penrow and A Davy, Handbook of Ecological Restoration, (2002).
Reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press.]
Figure 7 Sample letters received by the Kibale chief warden from parish members around
the park
This is to tell you that when we went in the park we saw four people pit-sawing timber
around Lake Kiribwato. We are therefore calling you to come and patrol the area. The
resource users reported to me of that illegal activity.
General Secretary, LC II, Nyabweya Parish, 6 June 2000
There are five people who are in the park, hunting. We saw them while we were checking
coffee areas. Bring rangers and we will arrange to catch them. Come quickly before they
come out of the forest.
Resource User, Nyakarongo Parish, 2 March 2000
Madam, we are informing you that people are burning charcoal in the park. Please arrange
to send rangers for patrolling. We shall guide you to show the areas and the people
involved.
LC II Office, Kiziba Parish, 8 November 2000
I hereby inform you that after Mweya coordination meeting we patrolled the park and found
that pit sawyers had split a tree in the park but upon seeing us they ran away. So, we
collected their tools and took them to the office of LC II. We wanted someone to come so that
we could hand them in to your office. But they never showed up. We still have in our
possession two machetes, one rope and one file for sharpening.
User Group Member, Kakooga
[Adapted from P Chhetri, A Mughisa, and S White (2003), Community resource use in Kibale and Mount Elgon National Parks,
Uganda. In: G Borrini-Feyerabend and T Sandwith (eds) Conservation Partnerships in Africa, Parks journal, IUCN Gland,
Switzerland, 13:1, pages 28-38 Box 1]
201
Figure 8 A selection of strategies employed to develop a cooperative partnership between the

local population and the management of Kibale National Park
Strategy 1 allowing local people access to park resources
Cooperative resource management allows people access to selected resources under certain
conditions. In return the resource users undertake to monitor and regulate resource-harvesting
levels and to protect the resource use areas. Formal agreements are negotiated and signed by
Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) and by resource users. Kibale National Park has entered
into a number of agreements, involving 29 % of surrounding parishes. Of these, three
agreements were for harvesting wild coffee in the park by people in Mbaale, Kabirizi and
Nyakarongo parishes, one agreement allowed extraction of multiple resources such as
papyrus, craft materials, medicinal plants, grass for thatching and access to crater lakes for
fishing at Nyabweya.
Strategy 2 problem-animal management
In Kibale National Park, the loss of crops to park animals is perhaps the biggest source of
conflict between local communities and park managers. UWA, working with local
communities, tested a number of deterrents to keep the park animals from entering the
farmers fields. They included digging a trench, live fencing with Mauritius thorn
(Caesalpinia decapetala), placing sharp objects, scare-shooting and growing buffer crops
such as tea and soybean that are not easily eaten by wild animals. Of these, the trench and
Mauritius thorn fencing were found to be the most effective measures to keep bush pigs and
elephants out of crops.
Strategy 3 partnerships to reduce pressures on protected areas
Unsustainable development outside the parks forces people to turn to park resources for food,
other subsistence products and even to generate cash income. By cooperating with the district
authorities to promote environmentally sustainable development outside the parks, UWA is
helping to reduce pressures on the parks. These projects, which are also working with local
NGOs, include a variety of activities e.g. beekeeping (honey production) under managed
conditions within the park, domestic pig farming, coffee and fruit growing.
Strategy 4 revenue sharing
UWAs policy of allocating 20 % of the entrance fees to surrounding local authorities is a
good example of sharing benefits from conservation. However, the actual amounts shared are
small, as they are limited to gate fees only and do not include a wide range of other sources of
revenue such as trekking fees, camping fees, etc. For example, Kibale National Park earned a
total of US $116 300 in the year 2002 but only US $7800 was given to nearby communities.
[Source: adapted from P Chettri, A Mughisa, and S White, (2003), Community Resource Use in Kibale and Mount
Elgon National Parks, Uganda Parks, 13:1, pages 2838]
202
Figure 9 Decentralization
Decentralization is the process whereby a central government gives up some of its
management powers to local government, local leaders or community institutions. Central
governments have often found it hard to enforce some policies such as grazing allocations,
fishing quotas and forest use because of resistance in local communities. Decentralization
can bridge this gap by creating ways for people to negotiate mutually acceptable
environmental goals with governments.
The first wave of decentralization was seen in developing countries in the late 1980s and
early 1990s, frequently resulting in some form of decentralized natural resource management.
Uganda tried to recreate its government in a way that was responsive to citizens and would
promote local governments after years of repressive rule. From the mid-1990s onward, a
second form of decentralization became popular thanks to the efforts of donor agencies
targeting aid toward specific environmental and social sectors. For instance, donor agencies
supported the establishment of forest and wildlife committees in Uganda.
[Source: adapted from World Resources 20022004, (2003), World Resources Institute]
203
Figure 10 The roles of local organizations in the decentralization of forest management in

Uganda
A survey was carried out of local organizations and governmental bodies associated with forest
management in Uganda in order to identify the roles each played. The organizations were
considered in three categories district governments, parish authorities and support
organizations (e.g. NGOs, research institutes). The table below records results of this survey
where the figures represent the percentage of responses from each category that considered
themselves to contribute to the given role.
Note: N = the number of organizations surveyed in each category.
District
governments
(N = 47)
Parish
authorities
(N = 169)
Support
organizations
(N = 20)
Promotion of tree-planting
98
95
90
Promotion of energy conservation technologies
43
35
Monitoring illegal forest use
57
23
20
Promotion of bee-keeping
30
23
20
Formulation of policies and local laws
47
19
15
Promotion of ecotourism
17
10
15
Promotion of forestry research
35
Seeking funding for forestry activities
Roles
[Source: adapted from N Turyahabwe, C Geldenhuys, S Watts, and J Obua, (2007), Local Organizations and
Decentralised Forest Management in Uganda, International Forestry Review, 9:2, page 588]
84.
(a)
Suggest two ways in which the buffer zone of the Man and the biosphere model
(Figure 3) may contribute toward achieving effective conservation of the forest
ecosystem.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
204
(b)
Identify one way in which the Kibale National Park differs significantly from the model
on which it was based, and state how that difference may influence the success of
conservation within the park.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
(i)
Calculate (to the nearest whole number) the percentage of Ficus species trees
(Figure 4) that have a diameter of 50 cm or less in unlogged and in logged forest.
Show your calculations.
Unlogged: .........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
Logged: .............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Suggest two reasons why logging may have caused the differences in abundance of
size classes in the populations of Ficus.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
205
(d)
From an ecosystem you have studied, identify another species that, like Ficus, may be
described as a keystone species. Justify your answer.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(e)
(i)
Outline the differences in abundance of primate species between mechanically

logged and undisturbed parts of Kibale National Park forest (Figure 5).
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Suggest an explanation for the difference of abundance in Black and white colobus
between the two areas.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
Assuming that the recording of data in the study was completely reliable, state one
other assumption that must be made in order to conclude that the differences found
in primate abundance between the two areas is due to logging activity.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
206
(f)
From your own study, or from the information provided in the resource booklet, state one
way in which logging may not be considered a truly sustainable activity even when
harvesting is kept to below maximum sustainable yields.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(g)
Four parishes are specifically referred to in Figure 8 as entering into agreements with the
UWA. From an examination of the location of these four and the other parishes on the
map, suggest two reasons why other named parishes may be less willing to enter into
such agreements.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(h)
Identify one cause for indigenous people to have negative attitudes toward the
establishment of the Kibale National Park, and explain how one of the strategies adopted
by the park management may help to overcome it.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
207
(i)
In the study reported in Figure 10, identify one role in which the three groups show a
significant difference in their contribution and suggest a reason for this difference.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(j)
From the information given in the resource booklet, identify and discuss two pieces of
evidence that could be used to suggest the Kibale National Park has achieved a degree of
success in its conservation aims. (Use the figure numbers to refer specifically to any
evidence you identify.)
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(4)
(Total 25 marks)
208
85.
(a)
Distinguish between the terms renewable, replenishable and non-renewable natural

capital.
(3)
(b)
With reference to a named example of replenishable natural capital, explain how human
actions are damaging the resource and discuss the possible effects of this.
(8)
(c)
Describe the Gaia hypothesis and evaluate the usefulness of a global perspective for
managing resources sustainably.
(7)
(Total 20 marks)
86.
Some people believe that population control should be given equal weight to resource use in
environmental management.
(a)
Discuss, with reference to the statement above, the relationships which exist between
human population growth, resource consumption and carrying capacity.
(5)
(b)
Describe and compare the role of density-dependent and density-independent factors in

the regulation of animal populations.
(4)
(c)
Explain why an understanding of equilibrium is important for the successful management

of ecosystems. In your answer you should refer to examples of ecosystems where this
equilibrium has been upset by human activities.
(9)
(Total 20 marks)
87.
The table below gives a list of energy sources used to generate electricity and their cost per
kilowatt hour.
Energy source
Unit cost / kw hr
Coal
4.8 5.5
Natural gas
3.9 4.4
Nuclear
11.0 14.5
Wind
4.0 6.0
Hydro electric
5.1 11.3
Solar
15.0 30.0
209
(a)
Identify the two energy sources with the average lowest cost in the table above, and state
one advantage and one disadvantage of each.
Energy source
...........................................
...........................................
Advantage
Disadvantage
...........................................
...........................................
...........................................
...........................................
...........................................
...........................................
...........................................
...........................................
(3)
(b)
Outline two reasons why a country may not use the cheapest energy source to produce
electricity.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(c)
Suggest two reasons why it is so difficult to persuade people to reduce the amount of
energy that they use.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
210
(d)
Describe how the second law of thermodynamics applies to environmental systems.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 8 marks)
The diagram below shows the effects of two different fishing policies on fish stocks over four
years.
H ig h in te n s ity fis h in g p o lic y
L o w in te n s ity fis h in g p o lic y

200
36
28
18
20
32
24
36
48
48
W e ig h t o f fis h / to n n e s
200
W e ig h t o f fis h / to n n e s
88.
36
168
16
6
Year
K ey:
(i)
56
20
Year
(a)
120
C a tc h
S to c k o f fis h
Define the term sustainable yield.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
211
(ii)
Calculate the total catch over four years in each fishing policy in the diagram
above.
High intensity: ...................................................................................................
Low intensity: ...................................................................................................
(1)
(iii)
Calculate the percentage difference between the year 4 catch for the high intensity
fishing policy and the year 4 catch for the low intensity fishing policy.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(iv)
Predict, giving two reasons, which fishing policy would probably give the greater
profit over 20 years.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
Outline two reasons why hunting and fishing may not be controlled by legislation.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
212
(c)
Compare the energy efficiency of terrestrial and aquatic food production systems.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(d)
Suggest one possible solution that a technocentrist might give to the problem of
overfishing.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(Total 10 marks)
89.
The table below shows the total population of Europe and the European share of world
population at certain dates. By 2010, there will be more 55 to 64 year olds than 15 to 24 year
olds in Europe.
(a)
Year
Population of
Europe / millions
European population as a
percentage of world population
1950
547
22
2005
728
11
2050 projection
653
Define the term crude death rate.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
213
(b)
Explain why the population of Europe as a percentage of world population is decreasing.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(c)
Sketch an age/sex pyramid for the population of Europe in 2050. Label the axes.
(2)
(d)
The total fertility of women in Italy is 1.28 and in Nigeria is 5.45. Define the term total
fertility.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(1)
(e)
Predict the effects of an aging population on a countrys ecological footprint.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 7 marks)
214
90.
(a)
Distinguish between the terms natural income and natural capital.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
A view of Yosemite National Park, California, US
(b)
Explain why the value of a view may be hard to measure.

......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
215
(c)
Describe two ways in which air pollution may decrease the value of this view.
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 6 marks)
91.
Figure 1 Introduction
Svalbard is a group of islands within the Arctic Circle and 1000 km north of Norway. For
nearly four months of the year it is in complete darkness. Glaciers and snowfields cover 60%
of the total area. The sea freezes for part of the year. Spitsbergen is the largest island in the
group, with the only permanent settlements. There are no roads except within and close to
these settlements.
Figure 2 Fact file on Svalbard
the warm, North Atlantic Current flows along the west and north coasts of Spitsbergen
Svalbard has a permafrost layer 450 metres deep, only the top metre of soil melts during
the summer
natural resources include coal, iron ore, copper, zinc, phosphate, wildlife and fish
reserves of oil and gas are believed to lie beneath the seas round Svalbard
there are no trees
many scientists come to the islands to study the glaciers and the regions unique wildlife
a global seed store for conserving seeds collected from all over the world has recently
been built on the island
tourism is becoming increasingly important
216
Figure 3 Temperature and precipitation data for Svalbard

The mean monthly air temperature for two consecutive
time periods (19611990 and 19912004)
10
T e m p e ra tu re / C
K ey:
19611990
19912004
-5
-1 0
-1 5
D ecem ber
N ovem ber
O c to b e r
S e p te m b e r
A u g u st
J u ly
June
M ay
A p ril
M arc h
F e b ru a ry
Ja n u a ry
-2 0
M o n th
[Source: data adapted from Norwegian Meteorological Institute]
The mean monthly precipitation for two consecutive

time periods (19611990 and 19912004)
45
35
K ey:
30
M e a n p re c ip ita tio n
19611990
25
20
M e a n p re c ip ita tio n
19912004
15
10
N ovem ber
O c to b e r
A ugust
S e p te m b e r
M o n th
J u ly
June
M ay
A p ril
M a rc h
F e b ru a ry
D ecem ber
5
Ja n u ary
P re c ip ita tio n /m m
40
[Source: data adapted from Norwegian Meteorological Institute]
217
Figure 4 Plants and animals of Svalbard
Svalbard reindeer
(Raingifer tarandus
platyrhynchus)
[Marius Fiskum,
www.fotopia.no]
Common_eider
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Arctic fox
(Alopex lagopus)
[Source: Mr Per Herald
Olsen, no.wikipedia]
Snow bunting
(Plectrophenax nivalis)
Purple Saxifrage, Saxifraga

oppositifolia, Svalbard, July
2002, Michael Haferkamp.
This file is licensed under
the Creative Commons
Attribution ShareAlike 3.0
Rock ptarmigan
http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Rock_ptarmigan
Mosquito
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Aedes_aegypti_biting_
human.jpg
Boreal jacobs-ladder
(Polemonium boreale)
[Source: Michael
Haferkamp, wikipedia
[Sources: www.wikipedia.org and www.arcticphotos.co.uk]
218
Figure 5 Reindeer on Svalbard

Some of the animals and plants found on Svalbard are unique. The Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer
tarandus platyrhynchus) is a different subspecies to the wild reindeer of Scandinavia and Russia
and the caribou of North America (Rangifer tarandus). Svalbard became an island about 40 000
years ago when sea levels rose, leaving a small reindeer population trapped on the island.
WILD REINDEER / CARIBOU
SVALBARD REINDEER
IMAGE REMOVED FOR

COPYRIGHT REASONS
IMAGE REMOVED FOR

COPYRIGHT REASONS
[Source: www.uncommonyukon.com]
[Source: www.sciencemuseum.org.uk]
Physical features
long legs
lean body
large antlers
short legs
large amounts of body fat stored
for winter
small antlers
extra large stomachs to digest poor
quality food
Behaviour
live in large herds

move frequently while grazing
as food supply is rapidly
exhausted
can run fast, even when very
young
live singly or in small herds

remain in the same grazing area
for long periods
move slowly
Food
a lichen called reindeer moss,

often found beneath snow cover
in winter
small Arctic flowering plants of

very low nutrient value,
containing natural toxins
Intraspecific competition
compete for food and mates with

other members of herd
little direct competition for

grazing because animals are
widely dispersed in their habitat
Predators
wolves
none
Parasites
warble flies burrow under their

skin and lay eggs, that then
hatch into maggots
no warble flies live on Svalbard
Common causes of death
predation, parasites, injuries

caused by fighting other reindeer
starvation when teeth are lost or

worn out
219
Figure 6 Coal mining on the coast of Svalbard

Coal has been mined on Svalbard for over 100 years. There are plans to open a new coal mine.
The diagram below shows the potential environmental problems of opening a new coal mine.
[Source: http://www.fennerdunlop.com/arctic_Mining, Fenner Dunlop, used with permission]
Figure 7 Model to show fate of coal extracted from mines on Svalbard

C o a l s o ld
(1 .2 1 0 6
to n n e s y r
C o a l e x c a v a te d
in m in e
B lo w n a w a y
as dust
C oal dust
( 0 .0 2 5 1 0 6
to n n e s y r 1 )
D e p o s ite d lo c a lly
o n s o il, ic e a n d
v e g e ta tio n
220
Figure 8 Svalbard International Seed Vault

S e e d v a u lts
A irlo c k d o o rs
O ffic e a n d h a n d lin g a re a
T u n n e l e n tra n c e
S le e v e to p ro te c t tu n n e l fro m
e ro s io n a n d c lim a tic c h a n g e s
B rid g e
[Diagram of Svalbard International Seed Vault - www.croptrust.org/main/arctic]
Species are becoming extinct at an alarming rate. The Svalbard international seed vault has been
built to preserve up to 2 billion seeds from around the world, because other seed collections
elsewhere could be lost. Threats to other seed banks include war, natural hazards, power cuts
and poor management.
The Svalbard seed vault has been dug out of a permanently frozen hill side. Even without
electricity the samples will remain frozen because of the permafrost. Seeds will only be released
from the vault if all other seed sources have been lost.
Figure 9 Arctic polar projection

IMAGE REMOVED FOR COPYRIGHT REASONS
[Source: adapted from www.britannica.com/eb/art-58/Southern-limit-of-Arctic-tundra-and-approximate-line-ofdemarcation]
92.
(a)
(i)
State which major biome is found on Svalbard.

...........................................................................................................................
(1)
221
(ii)
Explain why productivity in the biome named in part (a)(i) is low.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(b)
(i)
Using the data given in Figure 3, compare the climate on Svalbard from
19611990 with the climate from 19912004.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3)
(ii)
Suggest one possible reason for the differences in mean air temperature between
the two periods.
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
(c)
(i)
Describe two factors that have caused the speciation of Svalbard reindeer.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
222
(ii)
Using the information in Figure 5 draw a food chain or food web for wild reindeer
and another for Svalbard reindeer.
(2)
(iii)
Identify, giving a reason, which of the food chains or webs drawn in part (c)(ii) is
least stable.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(d)
(i)
Distinguish between positive feedback and negative feedback.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(1)
223
(ii)
Coal dust and gases from mining may affect local or global climate.
Using Figure 6 and Figure 7, describe and explain one example of positive
feedback and one example of negative feedback caused by coal mining emissions
that may affect the climate.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4)
(e)
(i)
Describe two advantages of Svalbard as a location for a seed vault.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(ii)
Explain the importance of preserving seeds for future generations.

...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
224
(iii)
Suggest two reasons why interest in exploiting oil and natural gas reserves under
the Arctic Ocean is increasing.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2)
(Total 24 marks)
93.
(a)
Define what is meant by the term sustainability.

(2)
(b)
Explain, with reference to a case study, how the concept of sustainability applies in the
exploitation of water resources.
(6)
(c)
Compare the environmental value systems of two named societies and describe how these
societies might differ in the way that they exploit their resources.
(10)
(Total 20 marks)
94.
(a)
Distinguish between pyramids of numbers and pyramids of biomass, and outline two
consequences of pyramid structure in ecosystems.
(4)
(b)
Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages to ecosystems and societies of banning the
pesticide DDT.
(6)
(c)
With reference to examples other than pesticide use, describe the ways in which farmers
can improve the productivity of their soil, and discuss how the strategies adopted may
differ between technocentric and ecocentric farmers.
(8)
(Total 20 marks)
225

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1.

Compare the agricultural properties of sand and clay soils.

Define what is meant by the term biomass.

Outline a method by which biomass can be measured.

Explain how you arrived at your answer to (c) (i).

The diagram shows a model of human population growth.

Justify the line you have drawn in (a) (i).

Identify two policies governments can implement to control population growth.

All units in KJm yr

Insolation on open sea

Farmed shrimp consumed by Inuit

Gross primary production by phytoplankton

Shrimp consumed by kawai

Respiratory loss by kawai (open sea)

Shrimp consumed by salmon (farmed)

Respiratory loss by salmon

Kawai consumed by Inuit

Salmon consumed by Inuit

Energy used in managing salmon farm

Energy used in fishing for kawai

Energy used in managing shrimp farm

Energy used in other human activities including trading furs

Use the data in figure 1 to complete the diagram below.

Define what is meant by the term gross primary productivity (GPP).

State how GPP differs from net primary productivity (NPP).

An understanding of sustainability is crucial for the effective management of natural resources.

Define what is meant by the term sustainability.

Define the following terms.

Suggest why most ecosystems are negative feedback systems.

The diagram below represents a coal fired power station.

.... ......... ....

Define the term sustainability.

Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable (natural capital) resources.

Complete the table below by classifying the following resources as renewable or

Table 2 Nitrogen inputs and outputs within the 30 hectare field.

N dissolved in rainfall or blown in

N held within organic matter in soil

N held within organic matter in soil

ryegrass was planted .........................................................................................

15 kg ha of nitrogen is described as other losses in table 2. Suggest two other

Explain the impact on an aquatic ecosystem of the introduction of large amounts of

Suggest how the above problem could be managed.

Describe the main stages in an environmental impact assessment (EIA).

Justify the importance of ecological monitoring and research for society.

Discuss the value of age-sex pyramids in analysing population change.

Suggest the possible impact of global warming on global water resources.

A variety of strategies exist for managing water pollution, such as

Total protein / g per person per day

Animal protein / g per person per day

Population (U .N . estimates for 1985)

Explain what is meant by the term biomass in Figure 3.

Explain how farmers replace nutrients lost due to harvesting of biomass.

low 3.5, high 4.0

low 2.3, high 2.8

low 5.0, high 7.5

low 2.9, high 5.2

Note: Both nuclear power and renewable energy

Suggest reasons for your answers to (a) (i).

Explain how energy can be obtained from waste.

Justify your prediction in (c) (i).

Outline some of the advantages and disadvantages of hydro-power (hydroelectric power).

Suggest ways in which agricultural productivity can be increased without detrimental

Outline the relative importance of tropical rainforests in contributing to global