Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
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B u c k lin g
F a ilu re )
E x a m p l e s o f b u ckl i n g fa i l u re
rt
;E--""1.-';f
stvv'i
J".- '.
$
.0''
u.,\^ |e fa ld s O ^ ft1
" *i " o-l
sQ"^eler'.s"
sq,^
eler '" s ,yYd*io
o-t
$"
il"-
J.^ JL u^}e,
ll
lI I
,,t,,i
/lj
It
2l
\J
-lo^p,,o''"
*^r
n ".+"e+" o^,( tll.
t,""""D
"""tT,
"
Yl
U
r r r^ ^ ---t i^ " 1
I iiI , , . .c..*il*
v,kn..
l*9^;_
r".",."jdtil,,, c,,,,,^LIO
;+t +l*, Q1"rth fe;.J{
'^
buckting
of thin
,.ratred sections
I l c,o"j.r.
J
l!
l/
," f.;
t\" .
l/ "**ni= *-
( ,1 6 ,- ..,S ee\on
!,11o c.-q*J$
{1""*"*b."r.I
li:
l.t
l
). sQ"^["X1]-o tf,q
t
-"*r^",. ",,q
S"".^l\ !o^!. 1.1 t..\rL.n .-et1
\L*", r\: c"_?*,,,"- vo.Jl
strerlth
ts ve^olneJ
'
(!) Io6ronol8!.tllng
3)
Eidelrays buckling
of beans
'rN
(b) Loc6lBucrlng
4) buckling
p ro d u ce d b y to rsr on
'*o-1..GlW*,
T,i.r.b.r<t b{.!jna of . lnrtr in r6to..
5 ) ' s n a p - t h ro u g h '
(d)
0)
..Sirprhro{,i ,,
inrt.Ul(, of r lhrlow qu$.t |tEnt-.
Th e s e t y p e s o f fa i l u re
a re n ot due to the attainm ent of
s t l e s s v a l u e b u t a re re fe rre d to as an instaUifiiv- ialfor e. a m axinum
Th e d e f l e c ri o n s
a re Ia rg e and r hey .r .
ie if r he
de f o r r n a t i o n i s p re ve n te d trom pr oceeding "ii"ii",- - and the load
too far
le m o v e d t h e co n p o n e n t w i l t retur i to its oiifinaf
poJiiio",
Th e c r i t i c a l
l o a d fo r a n i d eal elasti.c column is known as
the
"Euler Loadn after the ma th enar ician Leonhar d Eufe! ( f707_f 7S!t
rdho first
invest ig ated tbe phenomenomof i ns tabi li tv.
T h e s t r e n g t h o f th e n a te l i a l -i tself
( eg lensile
St.r ength) does
no t i n th e fo rmu ta for the ciiti.ii- ioua,
- Th""- a;;
r d is
bu c k l-ianpgp e al oa
n o t i n cre a sed Uy usin!- a
str onge! m ater ial.
Ho w e v e r , t h e Io a d ca n b e i n c!_easeil!y r .,s- in9 i- "tiite.
;"t".- ;i
(ie a mare;iEf-iiEfi-E-rar=gei-modulus6t
-.a1-eii"i nr. Atso rhe
be
incre,ased
bydistriburios
"riiti"ity
*r"i;-"d:ifr=;:;l_:Cl-.tr_
.I.
as
t o i n c r e a se th e se co n d -n o nent
of ir ea
of ine closs section
U_Vi".."""i.g
the value of .I,
uZ i"Ji"l"ijoy
distr ibutioq
lji,llo hl;.:li,1
l
ho
' tubular
di mensions wI-flJ-TEEEf n
increases iTe-EucF[fn
e c r o s s s e c r io n a l E E E c 6 F E T a n tr is inciEaie[
p r o c e s s h a s a p ra cti ca
h
o
we
v e r b e c a u E E - E ien t u a I t v th e
I lr t , Then local
wa] I itself
b e C o me su n sta ble.
ised buckling
ecause
or wr intlis.
enat qes m a l @
a q u ar e
Effect
of
lateral
restraint
(c)
(5)
(()
rh e d l a g ra m (b) abov e s ho ws .
t h e s t r u t o r c o lu r n n ig
laterally
- h o w,i". if ti,. .iaij!,
restrained from bu.ckling
n a y b e carri ed but ev enrua lt y a i a r o ia ' i- . ii' ii. i. " i'Iarger j.load
b u ckll n g l oad then buc k l i ng ir it t o " " o , ilr r - T r r . - ' . J in . t, h e f r sr
si m il a r l y,
1f that buc k l i l q is p , ! iv e q ! g a t r r " n 1 o " ir in g
" n otrhe
n.
in
-(c)
will o " " o i- . i' "
:tr.mes
ltl l d the
.To d e-.ass how n i n di ag ia n
r
o
a
d
n
in
e
flrs! Ioad.
rhe Euler vaiue ig tfriJit-rni"n
buckling
would first occur for an unrestrained strut.--- -- -"-
8f.f ect of
betraviour
l a rg e
d e fl e cti o ns.
imper fections
and r nelasti.q
the strut
:::r,,
"
-.^:"
Fi n a l l y . -
i s n o t D e rfe ctl y
wirt be
i f_ w e co n si d e r i rh a t happens when
T he . d e ta i l ed. s hape
th-e c u r v e s d e p e n d s o n c h e m a t e r j. aI
pro p e r tj.e s and the c ol_of
umn di m e n s io n s b u i t h e g " n " r it n a t u ! e o f
th e b e h a vi our i s as s how n.
I
Th e b a s i c Eu l e r
fo rn u l a
are possi-brei""n
:1." .iiJ,'tixed enas,
1,"11?-th::_:gl9itions
erastlc
supports etc.
""
The diagrarns belorr,
shor^, t'he four main
support conditions
aasuted in practice.
,P
lo_
Il
i-i
F
I
I
I i!
-fi-i'
I I lr
lr ti
-Lr_t'
\F
(4)
l
r
va I idit
linit
Th e Eu le r
fo i
E u l e r's
_z_ _
f ormul a
is
n a y b e writ t e n
-?le
( L/k
theor
as
tr- EAk'
Cg_
tL/k) \
F _ r o me q ua ti o n (2 ) i .t n a y be
that for a par ticular
value
! r a c u r ve ma y b e d ra w n of .seen
oucKl r ng str ess against slender ne s of
s
It^',
I J.e.r.1 Lc,s.": v.o
+l,a_
-r,.""r.F
(" -1 re * . v *
T l"
-rt v v r
cu.\ \(n(L
. { . -. . , t i.
\ $ ^ ! -.
t h . . c a f rc a , , d q
it ll, " . , ! . * J " , . . , ,
(L-g
ts
leu>
r"aro
tl^,.r,Lo,
)
S1(e9s
L /t'
Ho w e ve r , i t w i l l be aD D a r e n t t h a t f o r
s m a ll v a lu e s o f L , / k
y:]:: :f the E ul er _U uc i i i n g s t r e s s wilt U" . o . .
n e n ce m u s t be i nappl i qabte.
" "olio
o - f li' rn" o
" ,* icaanl " t
lh - " . , " " " o n - i" ,
any particular materiat rhe buckling
n"J#r
exceed
rnaximun compressive stress and i." f;c; ";.;'";
i;
;;h1'noi'io
.x.eea
el a tsic 1j .ni t s tres s for a s a r e q e s t g n .
I r r t r e f a q t i c-e -i t
g rl l
b 9 h e l pf
as a guide to
a r r m a t e r t a l s L ,/k va l u e s b elot!r l 100 wi
l1 make
d a n g e r o u s to u se .
the
an d
to,
the
r"
iildnF"o&'#il
Rankine fornula
Because
th e
l i mi te d
range- of
j';*."*"il,.tirli*:;
l"t"rn"'o?1""',i:.it'rT!?".!,-ri
iii"'"'rrT*"rf
bet
the roaa
s h o u l d b e a co n p ro mi se
wourdcausei;ii";-;;;
;;'J;?.t1'.."n1t"'"iJ:.u i:u
I
"_,\
.rl
-'1"-'
thai
The forrnula
becoll|es:
6"4
l+ e /!\"
where d< and
given be lo!r.
a re n a telial
c ons tants,
typical
Material
Cast fron
L/7 500
540
Wood
r/L600
L/3 0 0 0
coDparison
af Euler
ll
S t a n d a rd p ro ce d u re (BS 449)
BS - 4 4 9 , t h e sta n d a rd fo r B tructur al
steelh,or k,
v a l u e s f o r sta n d a rd a e cti o n s in a tabular for m.'
The table
a!e
British
values
gives
- aIIowabIe
'
_ l{lo,+ttt+uo.l,
-lo,+lt_+tlc,J
2
r-j
V [L
t
t-
_- -",".
t*
I
i
UNIVERSIOTy OF WOLVERHA-MPTON
SCIIOOI OF CONSTRUCTION, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
B Sc COMPUTER
AIDED PRODUCTDESIGN
TUTORIAL SHEET -
struts
1)
G i v e fo u r d i ffe re n t
2)
for
failur e.
tn at
A c i r cu l a r b a r,
2 5 mm diam eter is 1 m ] o n g .
If both
b e c o n sj .d e re d to b e p i nned, calculate t h e b u c k lin g lo a de n d s m a v
by :-( a ) T h e E u L e r th e o ry
( b ) T h e R a n kj .n e th e o l y
E = 20 0 GN /m2
Ans
d s = 3 25 MN,/m2
(a ) 3 7 .8 5 kN
.a. =
!/' ,OOA
(b ) 37.98 kN
W h i . c ho f th e so l i d
sections shown would be the
s h a p e fo r a stru t su b j e c t to buckl ing ?
optirnum
@ EA,
Ans
ol
Q5( a)
f is
Q6 (a )
. __l
7l
06(b)
--T
50,"-
(b)
An s { a ) 2 . 0 5 6 kN
E = 200GN,/rn2
151, 7 s k N
An 'I'
E e cl i o n i s b o l ted thr ough the web and hence nav be
considered
to have pinned ends when bnding about the- x-x
axls
as 6hown but to have fixed endg when lending about the
y - y a xi s.
c a l c u l , a te th e E u l e r b uckling load for . the cr oss- aection
shown of length I0 m,
E
200 cN/nz
-
N3. c
n:.c
I
I
I
Ans 95.8 kN
t
t -- Ipf
2+ Is
T
i_
Buckling
r
f
T
{
I
!
t
t
I
{
ilIiT'
ffi
Pr"t'J
/l
l;
ti
\
Pi""J -Pi""J
f ir"tr-linJ
{ir"ol' ['.t
h =tf
n = l-
(br)+
'=#'o
T= r<-o|t
(,.cf
6+ -
I = A.Ka
rcY-:
tr
f/ o"
\6
o{
K= rJus
3y6dion
n*"F{
rcY =
P""
- _T_.
--r _T
:>
nfc "EAttt
EAt(
l=-=
V- = *Q.J"*.tt
-
'.-<
^7--\
- -l:"
1T6
^ca*io -- tK
^
nna-
--> ba"-#..
u(/f.)
.r
A
Qq)
or)
eoo6
0_
r-=no&fu
ir
Y\o
tet sion
tu"\'[j
\r )
Cc-pvess ive,
b,"F!%
\ii)
@v pre-s:ive,
b,"k$Z
iv)
\a
v)
e*to.^*-[
nn3ea
?ct =
z
4J =
33. \6 r'J
bu.\<1.^6
!ra< ure.
\oo ltoo9
\?-
L".t.4-1
a
U-egt---r.zx#**\
\z
.n
Bu"KYn*'
L..)
f'"A"
- @r.pves: iva.
,A
_ S*v&:c.r"Z
t,
tL^
- i"st -bihy
eQn"t;.
o-
J6^a
d
s!e^Jnv-
cv'+;c^0lr^J
ott
- E t't..."n^L Presstr<- on
s\el\s
$=P.A
B.".Avb
E= louy
I =
ll
wl-\,,
>e.on d,
nt/
L= )teylh
on
rronenT
ol
4hz
o+
3tvut,
C;rqzx, vt4
r/r\
FATIGUE
F ailule
of
rate r ials
by f ar igue
lvpes
r es ur ! s
l)
rroh
Ioads
ehi.h
are
i;' .;i:
;:;'i: ;:"i"ffi::.i"fl".;:".T:iT'i.:#.1",";;;"'i;;i,.;
T he
h ost
srrikrng
r ealur e or
f at ique
in i he r egion of f r ac r ule
of
fa ti q @
str e ss
svstd s
p i r e ct.tr e ss
The sinplest
stress systen.
A component i s su b j e ct d
tension or compression a l o n g i ts l e n g th .
At a n y l n sta n t
s t r e ss
is
u n i fo m l y
d i str i b u te d
a cr o ss
to
th e
*';;J::
" iif:'t:
::;::,";;:'li:*li::,:1ru"1,"i,:;i:i::"i:J:
Fatique
rarture
is
lne
tact
or
fractures
fhe_ -fracrute
s ur r ae
oI par r 6
generarry
h ave a c har ac t er is t ic
t haL hav e r a r t p d
am er
due
to
tariaue
HI ::
mnil;::.,'.:Xt":;:.::i:ii;"is:.:r.ffi:":",:*:",;i:r
2l
A co m p o n e n t i s r e p e a r e d l y b e n i a b o u t a p a r ti cu l a r
a x i s.
q l e a f sp r r n g s o I a l o !r y.
n e u tr a l
final
zone of flacture
{6 a r s e
appearance)
Roud
6d.
s \.r .u
3)
ar e!
of or igin
of pr op a g a t i o n
(fatigue
r s m ot h a p p e t u e c e )
zone)
Rotatirq
bendlnq
A
co m p o Eo t
is
bent
about
a n e u tr a l
a xi s
e h i ch
is
c o n r i n u d sl y
r o ta r e d u i r h
r o th p .6 p o n An r
F9 r h e
'p
sp
e
cr
r a r r va y t!u ck.
Th e to a d o n r h e j o u r n a ts
n n d r n e r scti o n .r
th e u h e e ts b e n d s L h e a yl e a r r h e ce n r r e
u h i l st
n o ti o n co n r i n u a
y ch d n q e s r h p
u ..Ji n f
v i E h i n tn e a ! r .
",,"".i ".
"r
tff.",:'":r:
::*i:::;-"i:i;il:';:ri:y:i.:i;:::!i_l!1.iiilil"
of
t he c r r
s pr e a d r e l a t i v e t y
: : T . il""
ano
this
is
6 l *l y .
ress sborh
na s
p."r,.p",.-"""iiii
.i":.:::":"'ii"..i;,:TS,"$':,,[:::"]I
"i;::;
rhis,-is
the a rea on { hr c h
t he
f inal
I r ac lu r e
ocdrred
when
repearedly
te i ste d
a b o u t a fi xe d
a xi s.
rhe
;iil:::.""i;. i:gt":io':L.T;;n",'t'"utt'"'.tii--,,!"';:;i"'i;:
3!i:,"il;""."tl"fi#."::',"i,:,TIiii:::"e
is
or ribrous apperance
5)
T h e te r n
prev i @s l y
si D p l y
i h p ti e s
a co n b r n a ti o h
E nti oD ed.
o f th e typ e s
of
6 tr e ss
;^-
s"J'^t
rrt
o{ tle.
gtr.g;-{-.
l-.-o.ardl
v.pz-te{
Peri"*s\\r.
Itfe; are subjcted to Y
uany conponerts,
dur1n9 thelr selvtce
l o a il r bic b v ar les .ith tihe and 60 the atre.s
lepleaented aB a 6 1 n . ta ve .E sh d n
cycle
can often
S-l| curve
A f a t r g u e te st i 5 u su 6 l l y ca r r i e d o u r H i th a r Ip a sr e j g h r sl m i l a r
t . s L p r e c es.
Th e se
are
r .ste d
u si n g
o i fr e r e n r
va tu e s
ol
alternating
3 tr e 6 5 b u t th e
( th e n e a n str e ss ts
orrcn
rero'
Th e a tr e r M ti n g
sr ,.ss
i s r e p e a L e d ty.p p r i .a
on i
restprece
unril
!t fa i tB o r r e .ch e s a r ,r e d e r Fr n i n e d
humber of
be
9\r,"
fhe
or
,N .
r e s u lts a r . r h e n p l o tte d o n d g r a p h d s sh o h .
th e n u m b e r
. y c r e s to r r a ctu r e
i s u su a y p ) o ! r e d o n . Io sa r i r h n i c
sca te
tu y r a n g e fr cn a fe { th o u sa n d r o m a n v n l l l r o n _
9fi=
\ir
3.o
Ir o
,*"
F.i3_
ar.v e
'*-=oYl!.^12*.
tb da.te
n.l"r'1te.tuLo1
v
b r l,"? tl
ln.
h-^
{.t"
a",f
*l"(-.t.5.";
-u-.
_._
d'lku"..
c ' l. r .
io
F* i .ru!
{N)
Thele
are
so n e o a te r i a l s
fo r u h i ch fa i l u r e
se l d o n
o ccu r
a fte r
c n d u r a n c .s sr e a r e r r h a n .
nirlion
o r fl o cycl p s,
e v- n It .h e r e sl
r o r a s m a n y a s ) 0 " o r t0 . cvcte s.
The s-N diagran
i B th e n drah
as a s l opi ng
l i ne
Lhrouqh
the
testpieces
r h a t fr a cttr r e d and a l b.i z ontal
I i ne abov e rhos e w hi c h
rL scrua a,n c
rc-s.!
6tfta-> z
nlaa*j
-.1
5.*r,
el^o''
z p1 tust f c",r^*&r
''tr"'ts
o[^^;.
{a,tiq,.,'- te9'(,.o^e f,r!-* th<.
n
o.(qetI";.
llk"r, .t- bztvJe-e alp
r"X
d,"^.L ,--,
a\let
\-
4^L
?c:rL4-,
the
s t r e ss a t u b i ch r h e cu r ve b e cse s h o r i zo n ta l
i 6 kn o m a s th e
f a E i q u e ttfi t.
xe r a l s u h i ch sh o w a fa ti su e
r i .r !
i .l i r l "_ - .i "i
a n d 6 o 'rg h t
i r o n s,
to r a n d r e d i u D sr r tr g th
ste e l s,
sta i n r e s;
s t e e l s a n d sm e ti ta n i u n
a l l o vs.
Hoever,
r h e _ .n a j o r .i ty
o r m e i a l s a n d p r o b a D l y a tj n o n _ m e l a ts
do
'tn e e ' j n th e o n ;
n o L s h d a d e fi n i te
bur d; rqa
t"* ,a s
."."
limitiDg
va l u e a t ve r y ta .g e n sb r s
o f cycr e ;.
As can
.b e - se e n fr o n i h e se tw o s- N cu r ve s l h e r e
s c a t t e r i n fa ti g u e r e su l ts.
is
co h si d e r a b l e
liLta',t:
,? o
FLo.tvoL-\
6.-t i'"a*r61 6f
n
idcJl c K".> C"-fuereb
t eter>el
5lrws
||rnn atr.nr
oth.r
than rero
j o r n . ti e tyo kn o r n p o tn ts e tr h
ctr L e r r o n
a p .r .b o l a .
j o i n 6 th e o r l th
drldion
a Br r a tq h r
ti n :.
xo 6 r
a o q u tr e d d a r a fa l l
b e tr e e D th e se i i n e E.
cr
r
r
e
r
i
o
o
,
r h tcb i s m r cd se r u a ti ve ,
e rt g
u5e6 rhe
y'nr eer, d r spooerr tr
a s r h e e n d p o i n t o f th e tr n c.
s b dn .i s.a
l j n e d ,.,n .t
a 5 fl o n th e yi e l .t st.e 6 s.
A) o n q
^rso
:l:
- c *Fr
e r p e l r E n ta l l y
!(xrl.') s.o
iH.:f
,;T"Ti:.":i.::l:'*i;1",;::;ii":
#:i:';i:;:::""
copE.live
ieln
so far
.ero.rs
.i L ..p p e .r s
to d e cr e a a e
.rr..s
th r l
th e
appried eirhoutr"ir*".
tli'r
rs
the
r6n
strs
tatlgira
6trenqth
dereas.
is
ircrc.sed
eneo
rhs
far_iqNe
lirtt
F or n etrta
ihici
s hor _a @lt def ineit f at ig G
tltrir,
cuwes
. Dov e typ e ca n b e us ed r o buit d up t ne r o r t r i r g
aiigran.
rld
of
the
(n4|rt\
Ihla
diagrah shoes the alternating
srress rnat can be usal
th e , c or E . pddt ng
s rra s to e * u e
the _rp-" .t;;;"
ra rr by r at ique.
"on
tbe ti&e consudng .rxr erpdsi E tEring
requi red
.9f .Dove
tn.
o.ve,
eq,ilil
crireria
r,.u" u"in pio"i.a
the f.tigue properties
6a
Ditrl
-;;;
ro
i"
i."
:*i:t,i!;i."i!i];f*i-#.""::;:::,::"::.x".*".:"i::ff":
5 tr e 3 s
.r-.ss
rhan
co.preEsiv
Ean stres*s
are ar
g:,1:..
yr.ra-i"iii-i"-i;;iElli*,l"iil
:i=9,,.
fi ;lli:i .li:
arrohbre
a r te m a ttn g
str e ss.
In fi (
susee.red
thst 1," r.tii*'!i,liiii
zero rean
H.tu
o th e r
iii"i"-ri j:':*$?r*'::.,;l:"X"H
tor purpcs-of
design cal@tati@s
provideal_rhar
Dean stress des
not erceed che viel;
,664!.1!d(r
*_":y.
pr@lce
predict
th e e fr e t
o f a n e a n str e 6 s
.l l o Eb l e
alk
rele
a cttD o _
the
conpressive
fr 'l:.ilJ"tf,:.:i,il,":. i;
De8lo
clldlatlds
for
fatlque
conditlong
Effect
Fatigtre
proceea and one rbich
is
a very cdplex
is
6rltl
nor
f ullt
un de rsto d.
The appr oac h * e s ha t t u s e i s . v a r i a t i o D
of
the
cla.sical
S-N nethod.
Ir shoul.t be noted that
the
.ore
-fllcture
advanced
ethods
of
oecluntcs'
are replacing
the
s-N
met hoa fo! 'h igh t ec h' applic at i66.
F a c t u l e n *t h n i ;
is based
on ca lcu latid s
of c r ac k s ior t h.
Facto!s
affectinq
!atide
bebavidr
Expelirents
lndicate
that
the sMe factors
rhich
affecr
the
tenBlle
atlagth
of a naterial
arso affecr
the faciae
stremrhconseq ue ^ t)y
arr enpr a
hav e beer nade r o
rerate
rhe
rarioe
strength ,ith
th e t ens it e
s t r engr h.
Thi6 is rcr a pr.ctice
to
b. e ge ne hlly
rec or er ' dd
but in r he abs c e n o f
mor;
leliabre
infomation,
it
is
one rhich the ilesigner ,ill
find usrtrl
in
nany aitu atlo ns.
F or
ate ela
ha v lng
a t ens ile
s t r 6gr h
upto
l3oo uN/n2 it
is
u6ually.ccep red
t hat a geFr . li6ed
iat iqir e drve
My be poduceit
,h1ch p.oviites
a useful apploxihatlon.
of
tvp e o f
loadina
stnce
n o st r a ti g u e te sti h g
i s p e r fo m d i n r o ta ti n g
bending,
it
is
c o n v e d i e n t to r e l a te o th e r fo r n s o f l o a d i n q to th i s b v n e a n g
of a led
co r r e cti o n
fa cto r d e si g n a l e d |( L th r s;
Tvpe of
loadinq
l o d d co r r e .r i o n
rotatinq
reverseal
benaing
bending
reverseat
torsion
0 .8 5
0 .5 8
to Ei o n
is
Effect
surface
texture
in
te m s
of
sh e a r stl e sse s)
B e 6 u s e fa ti g u e
generally
fa i l u r e
o r i si n a te s
a t r h e su r r a ce ,
th e
quality
of
th e su r fa ce te xtu .e
i s i n p o r ta n r .
Th e p o o r e r
th e
texture
th e p @!e r th e fa ti g u e str e n g r h .
Al so th e h i g b e !
th e
tensile
str e n g th th m o r a cr i ti "ca l
i s r h 3 u r fa ce fi n i sb .
it ha6
i . e e n s u g g e ste d th a t th e su r fa ce te xtu r e
sh o u l d b e cl a ssi fi e d
i n to
5 brcd
etegories:
r)
2)
3)
,)
5)
p o l i sh e d
sr u n d
o a ch i r e d
bot rolled
as folgeil
Fo!
t h e p u r p o se o f d e si g n i t i s co n ve n i st
to u ti l i se
a
texture
factor
r(s rhich My be obtained
from aliagram A.
ind ic at es
s uc h an s - N @r v e r o r l o r a t i n e
bendine.
Ar
1l:
lgr-Tpo tntr
t he 9rurhe r . t ig@
t inil
t s a6quG d r o b e e q u a r r o i / 2 o (
the ,ten sile
stle ngr h uhile ! t . r he lor p o i n r i r i s 'a 6 s u r e d
ih;a
E ne r.trg ue
s* en gt h
t s 0. 9 x t eniit e
s t r en q t h
.
on tin_too co_
ordinate s
r straig hr
line is u6ed r o ioin L i s e p o i n t s .
A t lor ing
for the c ons ider able
s c at t er uhich e x i s t s a m n q
fatiae
test s
for
vatlo us
6r eeI s
produces
r his Er hod
; *. ; ; ; ; i ;
.Pproxlnation
to lhe fatlgue
cur@ uhich
"
be ottaineit
Fight
fron
fat lg ue
t.e sL s o n 6Landr r d
s p* ir ens
ud e r
the
condition
of
rot arrn g
De nd lnq .
F or oEh er na ter l. ls
t he s - N c ur v e d@ s n o r t e v e t
ort
aL hioh
cycles b ut co ntrn ues ddNdd
! r a v er y 6l i q h t
.r"a".
e"-.ai""i"
insrea d o I a fatis ue
r inr t , .
c o", pec ir y . - r . t i q " !
iti"""ir,-.i
l
6pec lrred
n umr'e r ot c y c t . d.
A r ule of t hu m b i 5 f o u s .
fat igue
e tren gth
ut
lo"
. y "t ""
0. 25 a t e n s i l e
stleusth
( X, )
{r e v e r s e d
of
i a cL o r
su l fa ce
T h e c m mn p r a cti e
i s to i g n o r e tb e su r fa ce te xtu r e e ffe ct
fo r
hetals
o th e r th a n ste e l a l tl b u g h
so r e r i r e s
a n a l l tr a n ce
nay be
@ d e b y i d cr e a si n g
a n o ve r a l L sa fe ty r a cto r .
Effecr
EF;ECT Or sviF^ce
TGtruRE
(sTE!)
of
si ze
ll:,:::i:;"".;:':::;'":i"?,::'::';:,
".;."1,
i"::i"":l:::'
H:l;l:
i:ri;:ilt;.,:l::iiii;,:;i:i:li":iT"rj:;:i
n;".".r
!ri",;rii".
""."jr
.;;;t;;';.-;::;;:;;
ffi:t':#,iiil'.i":"'1":ii,s.::.,::g':H.bG
The
d e s i gn
a p p r o a ch r o th i s
p .o b r e fr
is
to u ti l i ze
a si ze
fa cto r
:s.""::"i:T:::.::i:T.":;:
;i'ffi';",:i".-.;";a.a-".i*""'iii
TvE
of
loadirs
r o t a t i nq
r e v e r se d
si k
@e cr r o n
b e n d i !9
bending
ta cfo r
i xD )
0.3 5
I
0.3 5
;l!.:r:lil
lt:i::.':::::ri
ii::i3;:ii:ii.
f $::r:"{i.::.!i::ii,
4gl!.!gatioa
of
fa cto r s
to q e n e r a l i * d
fa ti q u e
cu r ve
:',.j.li.
ii::ffiiri;i":ri."i."::;*ri::i'iii::::3:i"l
:l'rij:i
::
ratisue orve
"utuii,eat"i'u-stj,a.;;
";:JT:iL:""
E";;i;;;
I' l
'["
i.
. *.
1l :::
?i ;:;" ::::,_ "*^'
6^' :
-ki
r ENsr !!
sr R NGr H
M ^ /n2
tr^ .
f-\i.?
d^ : .fr{.trn
\6.t
oa K. K- K5
,pr("{-
{,6.
bn\<
\.r
&-?.^+r
C olr osior
Frtlqu e
Effect
qenerally
latigre
t$ts
dre
cdilucted
in atr
as a reference
practice
coDdition'
but
in
Dany c@ponents
are
subjeted
to
cyclic
alre ss i! t he pr es enc of a s lloEiv e
envirdcst.
the
GJor po lnls to not e ar er 1.
A n eta l
hr v lng .
o ne in a mr r os iv e
2.
la p
ra tei
iB
a ' c or r os t v eenv ir cm a t ,
it
can
fa tigu e
st.enqt hs
up t o 50* in t he r i g h t c i l c u s t a n c e s .
l.
Fat.ig ue
5.
The
Metals
{b)
in a i !
no lohger
possesses
reduce
iieta ls
con s lder ed r es is t ant
t o c or bs i o
suffer
reductidg
in fatig ue
s t r engt h,
eg br as s es , br o n z e s . n i c k e r t
alMiniud
some na qn es lws
and aluninit r n
all o y s
alt
shd
reduced
qat
er
fatig ue 6tre n9t h
in t ap
and t o a g r a t e r e *t e n t i n s e a
4.
{a)
f at igue
lim it
env ir oNeDt .
llhitinq
can
gr owt h
crac h
be
crack
r at es
size
for
protected
floo
by the aililition
a! e
increased
plop6gation
corlosion
or inhibitors
is
in
by
fatigue
by sulface
to
rhe
orrosive
surfa ce
coat ings pr ov lde pr or ec t ion
in tro rays
either
by
p reveu ting
ac c es s of t he c or los iv e
nedium to the base retal
or
if
th c oat ing is anodic t o r he b a s e r e t a l .
they
cas
re strict
th e elt r o
c henic al aLLac k.
zinc,
a coarino or
th e scpn d t y pe has , at pEes enr , pr ov d
rhe rcsr successful,
giv e pr ot ec t ion
lnh ibiL ors
by f o! nr n9 a n a d h e r e n r
corrosion
re srstan !
r r lm on t he net al Eur f ac e.
The inhrbiLors
nosL
wide ly
ln ve s is at ed
f or us e , it h
sreels are rhe
chrcFtes
a nd d i-ch rm at es ,
s oaim c ar boc t es
and eDulslfvina
oirs
h ave be en us ed.
Frettinq
If
two Eo lid
s ur f ac es in c onc ac t ar e E u b j e c t e d r o
a repeated
let ative
mo vd en t of s m alI am plit ude,
sde danage Lo rhe surtace
lin th e forn of piLt inq)
nay oc c ut and Lh i s i s t n o n
as freLrinq.
rr
i a ro rm or nehanic al
wear r hic h c a n o c . u r e i L h o r
wirhdl
the
added facto!
or co.tusld
but rhich is furthe.
aggravaLed by
the presence of a corro3ive
eoviloment.
tbe a no ud t o f rel at iv e
t r eed only
be in t he o r d r
of a fractioD
of
pre se nce
Ite
is
us uar ly r ec os nied
bt
the
corrosion
fatigue
produ cts
h htch
c onEis r of f t nely div ided
pa.tictes,
oxide
tn
steel
tbis
is ir on ox ide Fe, or r hic h is a r e d d i s h b r o , n
colour
rhit e
in ha qn esium and aLum iniui alloy s
the fineLy divided
oxide
patticle s
ap pe a! blac R.
The ac c or pany i n g l o c d i p r L L r n q o t i h e
th e r r er r r ng
r eq: on c an les ut t
in serious
reituctions
( r r on s - t 0t '
in fa tiqu e
stren qt h.
o n ste e l s
t4pratures
Ih e i n fo m a ti o D
so fa r d e scr i b d l e l a te s
to
room
t e t r p e r a t ul e
+2 0 C .
ie
As te r p r a r u r e 3
d e cr e a se
th e
t n si l e
strength6
a n d th u s
fa tl g u
6 tl e n g th s
of
ste e l s
i n cr e a se .
IioEver.
b r i ttl e n e ss
a n d th u s n o tcr ! se n si ti vi r y
d e cr e a se .
th
rcsulting
ch a h g e tn
rarigue
sL r e n o r h d o {n fa - a o c
rs
rhus
Elevated
tenperatures
o p to 3 0 0 c th e r e i s l i ttl e
e ffe ct
o n th e
fatrqup
l j n i t,
a b o ve Eh a t fe m p e r a tu r e d r cm b i l a ti o n
ot
r a ti g u e
a n d c r e ep
td ke s p r .ce u i r h l h e c!"- p r a p i d l y
n e .o i n g
r ,r e n o sl
lnportant
a s tsh e td p e l a tl r e
r i se s.
Sumary:
Effect
corrosive
reduced
Le
o f T n p e r a tu l e
negrigble
of
sulface
e ffe ct
b e tw e e n
- 4 0 C a n d +3 0 0 C .
rreatnents
g r e th
The crack
i s ca u se d b y r e n si te
sl r e sse s
crack.
th u s @h p r e ssi ve
r h e su r fa ce
the
crack
fr o d p r o p a g a ti n g a n d a n y p r o ce ss th a t
s t r e s s e s i s u su r r y
b e n e fi ci a r
e s sh o r p e e n i n q .
-opening,
th e
te n d to i n h i b i t
p l o d u ce s
su ch
Th e r e
i 6 a n a r l e d r e d u cti o n
in
fa ti q u e
str e n g th
folldinq
su .fa ce
d e e r b u r i sa ti o n
a D d th i s b a s b e ;n
sh o e n - to
r e s u l t f ro m b o th l o 3 s o f ca r b o b a n d g r a i n b o u .d a r y o r i d a r i o n .
rlalne
ba-4e!=rng ald
inductis.
iardenirs
pr o e sse s
improE
fa ti q u e
by gajburisilgr
i D p r o ve
str e n g th .
nitliding
rarigue
sr r e n g r h
ai4
ljya4idiog
o r a cm r o n - n r
b e ca u s-
l r ) t he h l g h e r str e n q th o f th e h a r d e n e d ca se
( 2 ) t he cd Fe ssi ve
r e si d u a t
sr r e sse s p r o d u ce {i
Nirriding
i s p r o b d b l y L h e b e r te r p r o ce ss tr o m th e p o j n t o r
vi e w
o r r a t r q ue cd sr d e r a ti o n s
d e sp i r e r h e ve r y r h i n ca se b Fca u se r h e
subsequent
p r o ce ss i s u su a tl y o n ty h o n i n J o r l d p p r n g
p r ce sse s
/e q u r r e 9 .i r d i n g
and in addrLron rhere rs
a
d a n g r o f cr a cki n g d u r i n q q u e n ch i n q .
gaaliqsE a4 9!qe!
ferlolrg
Ete ctr o _ p l a ti n g
si th
n o o _ fe r r o u s
.
c o a t r n g s su ch a s ca a l n i u n , l e a i l r i n a n d zi n c h a ve r i ttl e
e ffe ct
in
g e n e r a l o n th e fa ti g l e
sr r p n g L h .
Bu L H i th L h e r yo h a r d - r m e ta l s
.h r o n r u m th e r e m y b e se r i o tr s ,- d u cL i o n s
in
fa r r o u e
lon
r2
lF
endulance fartque
iagglc
der igher s
hav e t o c ds id p r
rhe Fssibilitv
ratrg ue
o ccurin g
in r he r ange 100 - 10,0 0 0 c y c t e s .
Thes
jnply s h o ; t l i f e
nun'b ers of cycles do not nee6s ar jly
rn tihe
a p resgu re
ve s Eet m ay r or L f or 25 y ear s u i l h
t,OOO cycles
clea n lng a od in sp ec t ion) .
of
lou
teq
oi
In low en du ran e
f at igue t he! is a m alk e d p t a s t i c
deforMtlon
in
every cycle a na l due ! o s r r ain
bar dedi. s
lo r s o f t s i n g )
efrects
it
beco re3
of
6o m e Bignif ic de
whet hr r he c y c t e i s
of
constant
stres s
a mplitu de o! ol c ons t anr s t r ar n a n p l i t u d e
a probtpn yhich
dos no t a rrse a t hiqh endur ees
and t ow ; c l e s j .
glll!!!.:!sE
B e c a u s e r i g i d i ty,
r a th e r th a n th e str e ss l e ve l ,
is
thFortant
i n - p l a sti c
p r o d u cts,
fa ti g l e
M y b e te ss
i n D e t d l p r o d u ctsH o Fve r ,
th e r ; cr r n d n y ca se s
r n p o r r a n h i n p l a sti c
des rq n.
Becausc,
rly.:I:
of
.T.
th e
csp l e r e l y
d i C tcr Fn t
n o l e cu l a r
sL r u c!u r e
of
r h e p r o ce ss o f cr a ca r n i L i cr r o n
d n o p r o p d sa r r o n a r e
j:lj^l:,;:::,iff:
;::",;::.;:1",."i"'
Ll!ii'i;.,ll,i "?ii"iti,
;*i:
;:: "::iT::i::"
t*.--i:
!iq?;:"*:'$""ff:"::.,:i:
skin raYe.hich
inhibits tiire" -....i
ii$*:r"i/"?:S;::i:e.
i s su b j e cr e d
L o a tw
a tr cr n a r i n g
sL r e ss
Lhe hiqh
:iTt'3:.,i'i"':t.::..**:,:sii;.:'::i"yil;,'
::..:::"":,n!l:;
i;l
li"'."1:T:l;t
:;.'l:.;:::i:*i:?..il,:"n:::,.1:,,;:li:i,,il"
i^:":ti::;:lii"-:lil.:'ti,
i.:::::ii:,:t:"tiil"ii:;'i.ix:;:];j
higher
te d p r a r u te .
$ r h e n l h e a l L e r n a ti n g
* t.;;;;;
i:::::;'"ti:
.*s.:iti::$:i,lJ-.t:.,1::'"1;
t:::il.n;:;""ilt
5S.:ti:":i,i":::::"?"::*i';"it,:::
ti.:i':i:";::;:: ;ii!:;
",,* ",;
The
ner
r e su l r
ique
cu r ve
hds
reo
d i sti n ct
f :' H: ."""t:,;":":l"":;j,:ll;:j:,
"i:ii, ::.i'"ii::l:l i i r,i-i''ia
In
s o n e p ta sti cs
th e fa ti g u e
r a r g e v a l ue s o f N r a th r l i ke
cD r ve te e n e s
r h e S- N cu r ve
a r m o st h o r i zo n ta l
fo r fe r r o D s m e ta l s
Effect
of
flequepcv
lf
th e-fre qu en cy
of c Fling
is t educ ed fr o m ( h e p r e v j d s
exanpte
rnen
a rrern arrn g
s r r e66 v ar ues r hat y out d h l v e p ! o d u c e d
ther;ar
E olte nin s
rajlu r es
pr
ev
t
ous
ar t he
rrequency,'
,""
...;ia
i;
a st6 bre rer'p er ar ur e and ev enr ual f ! r i9ue
f6j tutes.
Nomat tv,
t t is fo uDd tha t t hes e f at ique f ailur eE
fa l l
on the
extraporad;
curve Iro m the f at ique r ait ur es
at t he pr e v i d s
frauencv.EveD
.t
th e lore r fre quenc y t her e wir r be t h r @ l
sotte;inq
taitures
at
hrg he r. stre s 6 t ev els .
if r at igue
raitur.s
are
r4uired
ar
t hese
h i9h
stles s ps
t hen r he f r equenc y o u s r b e r e d u ; e d
srrl I
?r>=.-
l l ::g r
. I : t ) y :r:he
"
hat er i d l s
than
o th e r !.
I : 11 "1::-:lg 1:..
E fect
of
s ir h
For
e r a n p le ,
t her .
poryc;rboal e
is
yi th
a ve.v
a marked rendenry
in
uave forn
T he en erg y
Inp ur
depends upon t he s hap e o f t h p
uave forn
eo
square ra ve pro vi des nor e ener gy t t bn a si n u s o i d a l
rave which
r;
Fo r e t han . t r i_anqut a.
u. v e .
As niqht be ercerd
rhe m at
s or r enr ng r ailur es
Hill
srdri ro occ;r
at
rorer
a rtern aL rng
6t ! es 5es f or a giv en r r e q u s . a
khen dstna
a
squa.e sa ve ro rn t han f or a s inus oidal
ea v e _
Effect
of
testipq
control
hode
T he e ne lgy
d iasipaied
r n plas ( jc s
i6 pr opo r r i o E l
lo the
oroducL
a nd s lr ain.
r ! t he s t r es s i s m i n r a i n e d
co;sranE,
t hen
a ny te np er at ur e
jn
r ls e uill
lead r o a n i n c r . a s c
strai;
mo du r us dec r eas es wit h t enpe! at u r e .
The increase
in
m or e ener gy t s dis s ipar ed ,
readjng ro d furrher
jnc r eaEe i n s t r a i n .
orop
rn
rcdu rus anat a f ur t her
It r3 this
type of cha iD lea c t ion
v hic h leads t o t her e l
.otte"i"l
i"irui"l
if lh e h ea t tra n6 f er
r o t he s ur r oundinqs i s i n s u f r i c i e ; t -
l5
T h e a l t e r n a ti ve
mode of
te sti n g
is
ro
co n l r o t
th e
str a i n
anplitude.
In tb i s ca se a n i n c.e a se i n te n p e r a tu r e
a q a i n ca u se E
,r h a r e i s
a d r o p i n n o d u l u s b u r r h r s l e a d s r o a d r o p i ; sr r e ss.
t h u s a dr o p i n e n e r g y d i ssi p a r i o n
a n d h e n ce te n p e .a r u r e
r i se .
tn
this
c ase i t
i3
fo u n d th a t th i s
se r f
sta b l r i si n g
m e ch a n i sn
plevents
th e @cu r e n ce o f th e r m a l so fte n i n g
fa i tu r e s.
Th e n e t
result
i s th a t u n d e r th i s n o d e o f co n r r o l
th e
te m p e r a tu r e
r i se
a l u a y s s ta b i l i se s
a n d o n ty fa ti g u e typ e fa i r u r e s
o ;u r .
Effect
of rean
srrss
since
p o l yr e r s H i l l
cr e p p u n d e r r h e a cr i o n o t a m p a n str e ss r h i s
a d d s r o th e co m p l e xr r y b e ca u se i f L h e m Fa n str e ss r s ta r g e L h e n d
c r e p r u p tu r e fa i l u r e
m a y o ccu . b e fo r e a n y ta ti g u e fa i tu r e .
A-,6inilar
g r a p h to r h a t fo r n e ta ts ca n b e p r o d u ce d to
sh o {
th e
effect
o f n e a n sr r e ss.
o ve r th e r e si o n A to B r h e r ,"r ."u t"".
i"
similar
to th a t o f r e r a l 3 i n r h a r a s En e
the
a l t e r n a ti n g
str e ss n u sr b e r e d u ce d to
tu i f"."
i"
tn "
s a n e n m b e r o f cycl e s.
o ve r th e r e g i o n c to "uD"."th e m e a n sl r e ss i s
s o r a r 9 e th a t cr e e p r u p r u r e r a i l u r e s
p
o
i
n
r
a r e d o n r n a n t.
be obrained
r r o m cr e e p r u p tu r e Ja L a cL a r r n e
.q u a I
ro
rhai
necessa(y
r o g i ve N cycte s a t L h e r e sr
,r h e r e fo r e
fr e q u cn cy:
s cu r ve tu y b e p r o d u ce d tr o m A L o D i t sh o Jtd
depturnq
o n th e va l u e o f
Effect
typ e o f
of
t@d i n q
A sinilar
e ffe ct
h a s b e e n o b se r ve d to th a t i n n e ta t fa r i g u e
in
ItEt drrFt
d xi a l l o a d i n g i s n o r e se ve r e r h zn r cve r sp .t r ,.,j i "9
i"
t h . s a o e m a xi h m sfr e ss Ie ve t.
Fa r i su e cr a .r Fr o D a l a L i cn a D o ;a r s
t o b e s l octt
b e ca u se o t r h e sr r e ss g r a d i e n t,
ih"
.,;a r e n l
a r s o n e a ^ s th a t r h e o ccu r .n ce o r
so r r cn r n ";,-sssd r :""d 'h e m r t
E f f e c t of str e 3 s cd e n tr a ti o n
As rith
ainilar
n e ta l e
str e ss co n e n l r a ti o n s
,i 1 1 h a ve a n e ff ct
fo r
r e a so n s o r h i g h r o ca l str e ss a n d a r e t"r ""
i n t"
.""o o n l
n a n n e r u si n g
Xc th e str e ss c6 n ce n tl a ti o n
fa cto r .
l5
^<)
l/5 w =loTta'
b1b'"-$$q --3
ilrL= "
ly,' ==
, 0,r,oil];'.
cL
Tld= P
gLYtst
lisp= -:4
A-
Push- p"!!
Re,tetsd-ee"J-y
Rot ti^3
+-
wh'"
be.&'U
I ot.gloh
g=
F,lu"tr*tig
nr"e
Yhe.M
gtrei{,
gtres',
6t Ye,35
3tr"s3
Puhn
IrJ<t"a,r.!,*
Ftntre
!;(.
3- N
,l'WS
QSr-ate
ttY\u6
Terr,.(e*treyttr
Gert^"(-;""J- S-rv
(srve3
@ tot urL,
lo.txurs
"U"!*
fo.snrrtp #
Q 3)
c)
. g ey{".c e.
C'*;1"
4t-{e95
gize
trpe
-f, Y'"^A
a'
t\
r"6*
111s.-/5o
u"I6-i
t^Po-
4;,<tt
6a5'
["'^'
x='l
L
3?s
l0e
lf,
!'S st!'
hJto-- IoJto_
6+ 5- x
i r r)
t) ,on
,J
-&
-Ltt-4,""
67s- z7s
,o'
!"1n-1,0'
=u U:7
975_ B7s
n-3
\ oo
zl
%o o
\oo(n-s)
= \oo
e7s-x
tsoo
n-3
(-3
6+5-575
->
6 7 5 -sr
Intloduction
to Vib! at ions
Although
vi b !a ti o n
ca n so metim es be useful in an enqineer i.ng
vibratory
::lt:I!
.c-oneeyols, hoppers. sieves and cohpacrolsJ
n ce i s g e n e ra IIy
l' t s p r e s e1"9
u ndesir able for thr ee m ain r easons:_
1)
can cause:-
a)
f a ti g u e
d u e to cyclic
var iation
of the induced
s tre ss,
b) more rapid irear of parts sl.rch as bealings and gears,
c ) f a ste n e rs su ch a s n u ts to become loose.
i ii,e u L !rx9
p ro cesses, vibr ation
^tt+r
w h i c h ca n l e a d to a p o o! sur face finish.
Th
h a t.1
2)
? h e t r a n sl l l i ssi o n
o f vi br atj.on to hum an beinqs !esuICs in
d i s c o mfo rt a n d l o ss o f efficiency.
vibr ation
6i instr um ent
p a n e l s ca n ca u se th e i .r nalfunctio;
or difficulty
in r eading
t b e m e te rs.
3)
b)
k r p l l t u de
c$-r
Flee vibration
'l;".F
.'.
If a s y s t e m, a fte .l a n i n i l i a I
distur bance, is teft to vlblate on
its o!.n, the ensding viblat1on i.s knotrn as a free vibration.
No
e x t! e rl D
n a lr
ro rce a cts o n th
fo
tn e syster n,
fhe system is
i
said to
vi b r a _ l e a t a n a tu ra l
fre q u encv.
The oscillalion
of a sim ple
p e n d u l u m i s a n e xa mp l e o f free vibr ation.
Danped Vibration
D u e t o v a r i o u s ca u se s. e 9 a ir lesistance or mater ial hyster esis,
there will
a l 'ra ys b e so me .loss- of
dur j.ng each- cycle oi
gy
v j . b r a t i o n a n d th i s e ffe ct i s catled - ener
danIin9.
a- ti.e vib!ation
'd i e a w a y.'
t
l
C
.
d
u
e
r
o
danping
E9
penautum wiIl
a
1 v1eI 1n.E u a . l . r y
e
sto p .sw -rn g 1 n g .
If the danping fo!ces ar e snaIl
c n e y \ d r l 1 n a ve trttte
a n ftu e nce on the fr equency of vibr ation and
a r e o f t e n n e g l e cte d to si mp l i fy the mathem itica' l soluELon.
Forced Vibla tion
I f a s y s t e m i s su b j e ct to a n exter nal folce ( often a r epeatinq
type of forqe known as the excitation) the resulling
k n o w r a s a fo rce d vi b !a ti o n .
"i.Ura'ti"n-i3
The oscill.ation
thiCoften
occuii
in d i e s e l en g i n e s i E a n e xa rnpleof for ced vibr afion.
I f t h e f l e q u -e n cy o f th e e xte rnal for ce coincides with the natur al
! re q u e n c y ot th e syste n , a condition known as r esgnance occur s
and the system undergoes dangelously Large o sc i ITlEi6iEl-Ta i lu
res
o ! s u c h s t r uctu re s a s b u i l d i n gs,. br j.dges. tur bines ana air plint
'ieio,.,-.rr...
'rings have been associ.ated with the o.jur6nce ol
lhere
Freedom
f re q u e n c v .
PRXE VIBRATIONS
The r e a r e !h!ee
types
of
sin g le
6\
\\
i \\)
ta/L' ^a a -
ls lo .
FI
the mass'm
3
' i< .,1 6 h ^ r + a A
L e t 'x'
eq u i 1 i b r i u m p o s j .t j .o n .
if
L.Jf =
k /m
Thesolution
i h6n
to
th i s
Y=-Y:*
T?'
d=!1' + r,o;ar
e q u a tj o n is nor m ally
:c
Th i . s c a n b e re -w l i rte n
'
) - ^.
!.,titteD
as
,.-
*-#t
= O
'.
. . }Z 1
A c or ( ' - r "t - C) , )
--'
'A'is
th e a mp l i tu d e and depends entir ely
: le r . e
o rs p r a c e m e nt.
p rs a p h a se angle.
on the ini.tial
U )^
i s o fte n called
'-(.\= -*:
9''-o"i
ii?.\ii"!'"y+
!
no{UY'^L
n , _"\ {q'r^v4^i-\
\
lL \-
L\) n
"zrc
Ih.
P,'"d--
the
ir-.$
) -- --l--
,cir cular
fr equency. of
DAMPING
D a mo ni s
F r e e v i b r a ti o n s
k=
coyra= K/^
force opposesthe morion, rhe equatj.onof motion
l:"jl:":".ntrt
su b sti tu tin
R--'.-.;-|,
the equation
becones
&
+ e pu.r,.',d.=
dt2
dt
+ 1^rn2:c
_",_=\.
is (.-*:_^:"3_:t:)
equation
lr
a nd
--
\a
.'.
trz = -TF.n
l a a re
l .ha
a-r
e+ i a-
? Br.,,,n\. + r^.r,r2 = O
t+frT:G
4\
a
\-]
4 a
W^
" , an/-
N ot{ A
g r e a ter ,
1) rf
can be real
o r i maqina!y
Less thaD or e q u a l to l.
on i{ het her p is
p>l
Tt say !/il
a n d t h e s o l u ti o n
then
b e co me s
\
x =
= LJ,. (.-81{)
Ae
6" ( - Fr *) t
Beur ^( - F,- { ) t
?\
TF
A=I
sher
Xr =
x:
x. '- -Fa,'.
i. F' . , nE( A+ B)
T h e _ _ r . e s u l t i n9
mo ti o n i s a gain aper iodic
bu! the dam ping
c oe f f i c i e n t
n o w h a s th e l e a st value which will
pr oduce !uch
notion,
T h e d a h p i n g j .n th i s case is said to be cr itical.
A crj.tj.cally
d a mp e d syste n will
have the smallest
dampinq
lequ i r e d f o ! a p e ri o d i c mo ti o n and hence the m ass will r etur n t6
the position
o f re st i n th e sholtest
possible
tine
without
overshootjng.
propelty
of
critical
damping
is
u6ed
in nany
.The
prac t i c a l
a p p l-i ca ti o n s.
F or example, in lar ge guns have
'dash p o t s ' r i t h
a cri ti ca l
d a nping value, so that ihey r eEuln !o
poEition after recoj.l in the rniniftu time wj.thout
their original
v j. br a t i n g .
If th e d a l o p i n g p rovided was nor e than the cr itical
v a lu e s o m e d el a y w o u l d b e ca u sed befor e the next f,ir ing.
Sin c e p
= 1 1 5 .tr
qt^pti t\r.e
q fo !
cri ti ca l.
danping
2nur ^
3) rf
B<l
t!
c(d
T h i s m a y be w rj .tte t
,.
( C..s
--F"^b
insufficient
to prevent. overshooling
.qri l;r-ium position.
su ch d a m pi nq i s s ai d ro be s u b - c r ir ic a"f-'ti,Ll
r"is s a id t o
-"*
be underdamDed'
" r d ; i. ; ; ; i;-l-!ct
;
the peliodic
Periodic
t ire
time =
11f
i s e vi d e n t l y
arnT
("./F
and s i.nce
frequency =
Y -- 'I-1'Pz
"i-4=.
d a m - p e dfre
_ g u e n cy i s Io i d e r Enan the natura
1 frequency tJ^
is
2t
for s n a r t d an p i n g th e d i ffe re n ce
Uid.d.'npcd (p < l)
but
Iogarithnic
decrenEnt
f t c a n b e sh o l rn th a t th e
anplitude is given by! -
r atio
of
the
initial
to
.nth.
the
F-". tn
where t^= interraL
Sin _ c e p q J ^t^ i s th e l o g a ri th n
( to
ca1led the loqarirhmic-decreirenr.
it
is
--
-,'
valu e o f
ryPe of danping
{structural
danping)
danped freguencv
natural fleouencv
I
tt
(vehiqle danping)
0,67
(instrunent dehping)
290
I
--.-l
rI
P\nor"wc'sg n/t'br',tio''
\,/n,
"-"'- ''latYue
uet'l
n
,
I tlp
vP oal'---'+ hstn
t,
ql"'sco"do|
,----,
--'+
|,r^on
hoise
l1t'rcvnaktcf
rn
/t|flwe^e"r
Vel*''t1
x
i
Ac.QZo*in
il
V--
\z-*r
tz- tr
At
d,F
At-+"
*=y+-#:*;#=
Dqn4v".4s 3
LJ
*FvlU
rtForc.
ep"itA .= sd-(4r"-rt
Vv
N,\
lnei-rr
\_
o o"^-
YNX
CJryh stl1-z{
rF )
CX
+*"-
s-*Cee{+;"-l-
m'i+ei+rx
o
('":.*Y=
vnlo-n4
*.* +Kx:f
{ -:
L-*
f,ro
tn-fu/
.-Kx--tr
VrU"ation
tl
{"'"J
tl
unh^7rl
rAbroton
F = Fo Gs Lc^tt)
0.
f o -- A mgl+t'-de
= ?t,
f, =
)ve7o<*7
,T-*z
trvae-
oo
oo
WtX 1K X:o
Crh,,,ltar
c,
1'1
'e
x=s
.\
F--
o:1
," .
L-
J7'-
AJI=
).X
L*e*)= rT:,
@2..= ( fp^\
h^t"t*l-
lrvlz
'---6-
*ry,^U
"*,
fvee
-vnJqnrpeo[
f vee-- Jn*g-L -t
=t
+K{a-
-'Yl
,.^^
T + Ci +Kx =- o
t Kx -- F
J**poJ.*'
-u.
^'{
"J
Fdcoia..[-&^".eu-'\*- n T-+ci +KX--F
(o'
tl2)
\r-
n,= o'5 K3
V = 72-po
//n
tK _
fJ
:\l_o
<e c-
,-rLx \oo o
6o
l-tLn,
-r= -T ;
Qs)
foul
=\o5
ft'\
Not otceeptolla
) tJ4
3/
lvrI:=\y\.r+i.!
{""-
ei = &hf''h1 A.n
Kx = 16g"!,
Y'^= yv\.!es
[o,r-
ln ="\o \<-q
K= \
(K4\
L= oucz!2ar,16ioa( w41
,_ /3_ J
.
\:= 5
:= d"?'U cre'lt-';c.;"c
l4:1\
b I
;-/
X== ve\loci+q
velocr+Z (ry,r)
t-,\
^
k+ 9tr{['.gs
(rn)
X= /Lflsurent
f nl
(nt
6)=
[*"-.,
-x
f-=CX->c=
; Xv v r
=ru:_
-.. -_ looo
AI.
,/m
N'
lvl
l fun= tt(
i
i
)I
?
t
orr".\"**Z
t#S
t= h.e-
F=k* => k= \
YN
\ooo
=\O rurl
I
$D 5'1;Jt
9Jtut"';
ModuleCode:ET2006
Page1 of 5
UNIVERS]TY
OF
W O LV E RH AMP T O N
Schoolof Engineering
andthe BuiltEnvironment
PHASETESTPAPER
ET2006
SUSTAINABLE
TECHNOLOGY
2
Dateof Examination:
2 June2005
Timeol Examinatlon:
10:00
Examiner:
Dr Kadd6Yahiaoui
Examiner(s)
Roomi
SC113
TimeAllowed:
2 hours
Numberof Ouestions
to be attempted: Answerall questions
Bequired:
Additlonal
Materials
. Oneeightpageanswer
book
lnstructions
to Studenls:
. Answerg!! questions.
. Youshould
writelegibly
in blackor blueink.
. Checkyourworkcarefully
punctuation
forinaccurate
spelling,
and
grammar.
. Youmaynotleavetheexamination
roomuntilafterthefirsthourof the
examination.
. Anannouncement
willbemadewhenthereare30 minutes
oftheexam
timeleft.
. T HISI SA N ' O P E NB O O K"ASSESSM ENT
Module
Code:ET2006
page2 ot s
(a)
Ql
l)
Brieflyexplainwhatis meantbythetollowing
terms:
(i)
Bi-axial
stateof stress
(ii)
pureshear A
state
of
4t.--,
;,-l
(iii)
PrinciPal
stresses
t
..-i
rl
tt--_--)
Ao
51steh
9 ty e3,
'4-l
+r
,,
l----[! u"--"
.
oJ- rsr"
itYcts:a
No,^oI
IL-l
witL ^"
oJ ;.
rt".''' a.til o- l\o"
iii)
^^,
(b) Mohr'scirclefor stressis a grapiical
jil
glta^' su':s'
stressanalysis
methodthat is commonlyused by the designer.
Describe
howthiscirclecan be constructed
for the
case of a 2D stress systemand nam6 lhree
piacesof information
important
thatcan be readily
obtained
fromsuchconstruction.
i"
(c)
Nafet
s'v.
A rotatingshaftcarriessomeheavyequipment
that
inducesa dirctstressof 10 MN/mz,lt also
transmits
a torquethatconverts
to a shearstressof
5 MN/m'.Drawthe Mohr'sCirclefor this caseand
determine
the maximum
shearstressthatthe shaft
is experiencing.
(:;:, nc)
u3{ .e-t:rt
y'(6"-3f*+'r* =
A material point at the
cylindricalshell under intsrnalpressurecan be
shownto be subjectedto the following3D stress
state,
or = Pci/2t
IOL+ 4 l^ L 5 =a.O7
-
tro=Pd/4t
oS:,*,*J
,,ii\
principal
Thgmaximum
( Ra"r,L )
streqscriterion
(iD
t5 dppkr\ti^tch G**
fke
tr Ogt ir""
^eo1
The Trescayieldcriterion - hcr6\ds
(iiD
The Von-Misesyieldcriterion
*l
b.,*r-
N,4odule
CodetET2006
Page3 of 5
?tv'
Q3
(a)
1oo%
Brieflyexplainthefollowing
termsas applidto
, dL, v v o
uc lqv r v ur ,
(i)
Stresscycle
(ii) l\4ean
stress
(iiD Alternatingstress
30vo
(b)
Sketcha generalised
fatigue,or S-Ncurvefor a
that
structural
material hasa tensilestrengthof 750
MN/m2,
andfromthiscqryeestimate:
* "ah
(i)Themaximum
alternating
shessthatthe
materialcansustainwithoutfatiguefailure
Y.-t.
(ii)Themaximum
alternating
stressif failureis not
to occurbelow100000cycles
n:1
Q4
(a)
ModuleCode:8T2006
Page4 of 5
to supporta bookshelf
The wingof an aircraftin flight
Theoutershellof a submarine
25%
(b)
An idealslender
columnis 5 m longandpinnedat
bothends.It is madeof hollowsquaresection
aluminium
witha Young'smodulusof 70 GPa.The
outerlengthof thesectionis 100mm andthewall
thickness
is 2 mm,as shownin thediagrambelow.
Calculate
itsEulerbuckling
load.
Pcr
(c)
50./"
A designerhas developed
an impressivechild'stoy
with greatmarketpotential.lt is a two-speedgadget
that can rotateat 1000and 2000rpm.Detailed
LloduleCode:ET2006
lvlZWlTiVii.nnvproN
Schoolof Engineering
andthe BuiltEnvironment
PHASETESTPAPER
ET2006
SustainableTechnology2
Oaleof Examination;
Tuesday
30 N/ay2006
Timeof Examination:
j O.OO
am
Examlner:
K yahiaoui
Examination
Room:
MC401
TimeAllowed:
2 hours
Numberof Questions
to beatlemptd: Attempt
allS questions
All questlons are qualtyweighted(unlessotherwisestated)and are markod
on the grade poini syslem.
MaterlalsRequired:
.
Oneeightpageanswerbook
Copiesof approvedtexts
Instructionsto Studonts:
.
.
Programmable
calculators
are not permittedin the exam.
Answeralllyg questions
(allquestions
areequallyweighted).
Checkyourworkcafefullyfor inaccurate
spelling,punctuation
and grammar.
An announcement
will be madewhenthereare 30 minutesof the examtimeleft.
dJ
t.
T--rr
<;l
t+ L ry
l.t
r^r* I
fr\fi/ p^\fu
' -l tn /
I+
I 6*
| 6t=LeY
6 nn* = 50! I
;'1
\6r=-tot
. Ox- 200Mps
oF _1OO
M?a
T
xF 50Mlr
Calculate
theprincipalstresses,
thema.\imuqr
shea!strcssatd theprincipal
directions, /-1p =
,
rsnvi
'-'- - _ZJII =t=7 le e t"n-'l|i
,""rt""
aps-ar"'
c)A "weightless"
shaftis assumed
to transmit
anamount
ofpowbfi-m tt
.. _
. 6: = "
6J="
d) Expressthis abovesrress-through
a simpleformula,wheniiwer is d'e{roted
P=T.u+ T--E
ua i-- g
, (2OVo)
4= +
a) Thestssstateontheoutsidesufface
ofa closed-en#d
cylindersu6jected
to anintemalpressure,
given
P,is
by:
Q2:
o1{=Pd./2t
oA=Pd/4t
ard
oR=O
,/
ii)
iiD
Thdmadmumprincipalstlesscriterior
TheTrcscayield criterion
Thevon-Misesleld criterion
0O%\
(20%)
(30%)
l ) (*1
"
to
vsv
(lO%)
,d
Q:,
0"
*'
fo.Tornff*" !,,*.1 t.T""."'!
Qoya
c) Wlat *ould betheminimumrequiredseco[dmomentofareaifthe
maximumbendingstressis not to exceed300Mpa?you may assume
that,at
thelocationofinterest,thedistalcefrom theneutralaxisto the outerfibresof
thesectionis 0.5m.
(30%)
d) Calculatethedeflectionat theloadedndif thematerialhasa youne,s
modulus
of2l0 CPa.
r30l"r
nv / . _
-,/eq, t. a) Under what loadingconditionswould the fatiguemodeof failEe be of
concemto designers
ard engineers?
In particular,discussthet]?esofsh.esses
thatareofrolevanceto fati8ufailue arallsis.
(15%\
b) Constructa genemlised
S-N curvefor a materialwith anultimatetensile
strength
of 1200MPa.
(20%)
/?
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Surfacefinish
Materialdensity
Component
size
Stress
raisers
Appeara.nce
(s%)
(20%)
equation?
(20%)
t-
c) Calculatetheundanryed
ash[al ftcquencyofa vibratingsystemthatcan
b:gescriblg!y 8tre4uarion
ofthis rypewhenthemassislO kg, the
stiftiessI kl.{/mandthedampingcoefficient5 NVm.
(2OyO
eO%\
Y\"r"J
["5.,""%=
t,J!-