Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Preface
List of Contents
List of Contents ............................................................................................................... 1
List of Figures .................................................................................................................. 4
List of Tables ................................................................................................................. 10
Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 13
List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................... 14
Declaration ..................................................................................................................... 15
Copyright Statement ..................................................................................................... 16
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................ 18
Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 19
1.1 Research Background ........................................................................................... 19
1.1.1 Power system blackouts ................................................................................. 19
1.1.2 Wide area monitoring, protection and control ............................................... 22
1.2 Objectives of the Research .................................................................................... 24
1.3 Thesis Structure..................................................................................................... 26
1.4 Main Contributions of This Research ................................................................... 28
Chapter 2 Synchronized Measurement Technology .................................................. 29
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 29
2.2 Phasor Measurement Unit ..................................................................................... 31
2.3 Data Concentrator ................................................................................................. 34
2.4 Synchrophasor Standard ....................................................................................... 35
2.5 Summary ............................................................................................................... 35
Chapter 3 Applications and Benefits of Synchronized Measurement Technology . 36
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 36
3.2 Off-line Applications of SMT ............................................................................... 36
3.2.1 Post-disturbance analysis ............................................................................... 36
3.2.2 Benchmarking, validation and fine-tuning of system models........................ 38
3.3 On-line Applications of SMT ............................................................................... 39
3.3.1 Wide area phase angular and power flow monitoring ................................... 39
3.3.2 Wide area frequency monitoring.................................................................... 41
2.3.3 Wide area voltage monitoring ........................................................................ 42
3.3.4 Inter-area oscillation monitoring .................................................................... 44
3.3.5 Power system restoration ............................................................................... 45
3.3.6 Improved state estimation .............................................................................. 47
3.3.7 Dynamic rating of overhead transmission lines ............................................. 48
2.3.8Intelligent controlled islanding ....................................................................... 49
2.3.9 Adaptive under-frequency load shedding ...................................................... 50
3.4 Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 51
Chapter 4 Architecture of a WAMPAC System ........................................................ 52
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 52
4.2 Architecture of a WAMPAC System .................................................................... 52
4.3 Communication Networks of WAMPAC System ................................................ 55
4.3.1 Available communication media for WAMPAC ........................................... 55
4.3.2 Communication protocols and format for phasor data transmission ............. 57
4.3.3 Communication latency ................................................................................. 59
4.4 Architecture of future GB WAMPAC system ...................................................... 59
4.5 Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 61
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Preface
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Statistics of blackouts: customers affected ................................................... 19
Figure 1.2: Line of separation from the European grid................................................... 20
Figure 1.3: A Generalized WAMPAC system ................................................................ 23
Figure 2.1: Phasor representation of a sinusoidal signal ................................................. 30
Figure 2.2: Synchronized phasor measurement in remote substations ........................... 30
Figure 2.3: A functional block diagram of a typical PMU ............................................. 31
Figure 2.4: State estimation v.s. PMU measurements .................................................... 32
Figure 2.5: Two standalone PMUs ................................................................................. 32
Figure 2.6: Two integrated PMUs................................................................................... 33
Figure 2.7: Data concentrator in a WAMPAC system.................................................... 34
Figure 2.8: SEL Data Concentrator................................................................................. 34
Figure 3.1: The reconstruction of system frequencies after a large disturbance in WECC,
14th June, 2004 ............................................................................................................... 37
Figure 3.2: Comparison of the recorded system response to the 10th August, 1996
disturbance in USA with the simulation results .............................................................. 38
Figure 3.3: RTDMS a wide area visualization platform for the North American power
system.............................................................................................................................. 40
Figure 3.4: Disturbance localization using PMUs and the triangulation method ........... 42
Figure 3.5: Estimation of the Thevenin equivalent with local measurements ................ 43
Figure 3.6: T and Thevenin representation of transmission corridor .............................. 44
Figure 3.7: Oscillations observed by two PMUs in the European grid........................... 45
Figure 3.8: PMU measurements from three areas during reclosing attempts: UCTE, 4
November 2006 ............................................................................................................... 46
Figure 3.9: PMUs installed at both ends of a transmission line ...................................... 48
Figure 3.10: Visualization of the real time mentoring of the thermal condition of an
overhead transmission corridor in APG .......................................................................... 49
Figure 4.1: The general architecture of a typical WAMPAC system ............................. 53
Figure 4.2: The combination of different communication media for a WAMPAC system
......................................................................................................................................... 57
Figure 4.3: Generic schematic of the dataflow in WAMPAC system ............................ 58
Figure 4.4: A simple demonstration of communication latency in WAMPAC system .. 59
Figure 4.5: A general architecture of future GB WAMPAC system .............................. 60
Figure 5.1: WAMPAC application tree with full smart fruits ..................................... 63
Figure 5.2: Roadmap for deploying PMU applications .................................................. 64
Figure 5.3: UK energy target 2020 and 2030.................................................................. 66
Figure 5.4: Power transfers across the boundary between Scotland and England at peak
load condition.................................................................................................................. 66
Figure 5.5: New TCSC and HVDC in GB transmission networks ................................. 67
Figure 5.6: Locations of off-shore wind farms in GB power system (2020-2030) ........ 67
Figure 5.7: Logical filter one The number of PMUs required .................................. 69
Figure 5.8: Logical filter two Commercial availability of PMU applications .......... 69
Figure 5.9: Logical filter three Necessity of PMU application for investors ............ 69
Figure 5.10: Global power angle and frequency monitoring system .............................. 70
Figure 5.11: Real time monitoring system over inter-tie corridors................................. 71
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Figure 7.15: Estimation results of the phase angle of oscillatory component, , for
different Tdw .................................................................................................................. 117
Figure 7.16: Dynamic testing: comparison between the actual and estimated signal... 118
Figure 7.17: A block diagram of the testing procedure based on dynamic simulation of a
multi-machine test system ............................................................................................. 118
Figure 7.18: Two-area test system with HVDC link .................................................... 119
Figure 7.19: Generator rotor speed changes after the disturbance ................................ 119
Figure 7.20: Inter-area oscillatory mode shape estimated by NTA .............................. 120
Figure 7.21: Oscillatory active power (on line 2) after the disturbance ....................... 121
Figure 7.22: Estimated frequency of the inter-area oscillatory mode by NTA and Prony
method ........................................................................................................................... 121
Figure 7.23: Estimated damping factor of the inter-area oscillatory mode by NTA and
Prony method ................................................................................................................ 121
Figure 7.24: Estimated frequency of the inter-area oscillatory mode by reduced-order
Prony method and NTA ................................................................................................ 122
Figure 7.25: Estimated damping factor of the inter-area oscillatory mode by reducedorder Prony method and NTA ....................................................................................... 122
Figure 7.26: Estimated oscillatory active power from estimated parameters ............... 122
Figure 7.27: Oscillatory voltage phase angle difference between Glasgow and London
....................................................................................................................................... 123
Figure 7.28: Estimated frequency of inter-area oscillatory mode in the GB network .. 123
Figure 7.29: Estimated damping ratio of inter-area oscillatory mode in the GB network
....................................................................................................................................... 124
Figure 7.30: Oscillatory signal based on estimated oscillatory parameters .................. 124
Figure 8.1: Closed loop system with feedback control ................................................. 129
Figure 8.2: The structure of a feedback damping control ............................................. 129
Figure 8.3: The shift of an eigenvalue caused a feedback damping control ................. 130
Figure 8.4: A two-area system with HVDC .................................................................. 131
Figure 8.5: Two types of power converters .................................................................. 132
Figure 8.6: Rectifier equivalent circuit ......................................................................... 133
Figure 8.7: Inverter equivalent circuit........................................................................... 134
Figure 8.8: Monopolar HVDC link ............................................................................... 135
Figure 8.9: Bipolar HVDC link..................................................................................... 135
Figure 8.10: Homopolar HVDC link ............................................................................ 136
Figure 8.11: Equivalent circuit of HVDC link .............................................................. 136
Figure 8.12: Voltage profile of the equivalent circuit of HVDC link ........................... 136
Figure 8.13: Basic control scheme of HVDC system ................................................... 138
Figure 8.14: Inverters control for constant voltage .................................................. 138
Figure 8.15: Rectifiers control for constant current ................................................. 138
Figure 8.16: Oscillatory modes in the two-area system with HVDC ........................... 139
Figure 8.17: Generator rotor speed responses to the small disturbances without HVDC
damping control ............................................................................................................ 140
Figure 8.18: System frequency responses to the small disturbances without HVDC
damping control ............................................................................................................ 140
Figure 8.19: Rectifier control with supplementary damping control ............................ 141
Figure 8.20: Feedback control with multiple input signals ........................................... 141
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Preface
Figure 8.21: An illustration of the estimation of the phase angle of the residue .......... 142
Figure 8.22: An estimation of the residues phase angle for HVDC damping control
design ............................................................................................................................ 143
Figure 8.23: Oscillatory modes versus the gain of HVDC damping controller ............ 144
Figure 8.24: Generator rotor speed responses to the small disturbances with and without
HVDC damping control ................................................................................................ 144
Figure 8.25: Active power flow (line 3) responses to the small disturbances with and
without HVDC damping control ................................................................................... 145
Figure 8.26: Generator rotor speed responses to a three-phase fault with and without
HVDC damping control ................................................................................................ 145
Figure 8.27: Active power flow (line 3) responses to a three-phase fault with and
without HVDC damping control ................................................................................... 146
Figure 8.28: Typical two-area system with TCSC ........................................................ 146
Figure 8.29: A structure of a typical TCSC .................................................................. 147
Figure 8.30: An ideal model of TCSC for power system stability study ...................... 147
Figure 8.31: An equivalent circuit of the transmission corridor with TCSC ................ 147
Figure 8.32: A block diagram of TCSC control............................................................ 148
Figure 8.33: Oscillatory modes in the two-area system with TCSC ............................. 148
Figure 8.34: Generator rotor speed responses to the small disturbances without TCSC
damping control ............................................................................................................ 149
Figure 8.35: System frequency responses to the small disturbances without TCSC
damping control ............................................................................................................ 149
Figure 8.36: A block diagram TCSC supplementary damping control ........................ 150
Figure 8.37: An estimation of the residues phase angle for TCSC damping control
design ............................................................................................................................ 150
Figure 8.38: Oscillatory modes versus the gain of TCSC damping controller ............. 151
Figure 8.39: Generator rotor speed responses to the small disturbances with and without
TCSC damping control ................................................................................................. 152
Figure 8.40: Active power flow (line 3) responses to small disturbance with and without
TCSC damping control ................................................................................................. 152
Figure 8.41: Generator rotor speed responses to a three-phase fault with and without
TCSC damping control ................................................................................................. 153
Figure 8.42: Active power flow (line 3) responses to a three-phase fault with and
without TCSC control ................................................................................................... 153
Figure 8.43: Modified two-area system with SVC ....................................................... 154
Figure 8.44: A structure of a typical SVC .................................................................... 154
Figure 8.45: An ideal model of SVC ............................................................................ 155
Figure 8.46: Block diagram of SVC control ................................................................. 155
Figure 8.47: Oscillatory modes in the two-area system with SVC ............................... 156
Figure 8.48: Generator rotor speed responses to the small disturbances without SVC
damping control ............................................................................................................ 156
Figure 8.49: Oscillatory voltage angle difference between bus3 and bus5 caused by the
disturbances ................................................................................................................... 157
Figure 8.50: A block diagram of a SVC damping controller ........................................ 157
Figure 8.51: An estimation of the residues phase angle for SVC damping control design
....................................................................................................................................... 158
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Preface
Figure 8.52: Oscillatory modes versus the gain of SVC damping controller ............... 159
Figure 8.53: Generator rotor speed responses to the small disturbances with and without
SVC damping control.................................................................................................... 160
Figure 8.54: Active power flow (line 3) responses to small disturbance with and without
SVC damping control.................................................................................................... 160
Figure 8.55: Generator rotor speed responses to a three-phase fault with and without
SVC damping control.................................................................................................... 161
Figure 8.56: Active power flow (line 3) responses to a three-phase fault with and
without SVC damping control ...................................................................................... 161
Figure 9.1: 500 kV HVDC links and 400 kV Series Compensators that are installed in
the GB power system (vision 2015).............................................................................. 164
Figure 9.2: Inter-area oscillation monitoring SPTN and NGETN ................................ 165
Figure 9.3: Three large generators selected in Scotland for monitoring inter-area
oscillations .................................................................................................................... 166
Figure 9.4: Three large generators selected in central England for monitoring inter-area
oscillations .................................................................................................................... 166
Figure 9.5: Two large generators selected in the South of England for monitoring interarea oscillations ............................................................................................................. 167
Figure 9.6: The oscillatory inter-area power flow on the Harker-Hutton line after a large
disturbance .................................................................................................................... 167
Figure 9.7: The system frequency variations caused by a large disturbance ................ 168
Figure 9.8: The oscillatory inter-area power flow caused by a large disturbance in the
original and PSSs-reduced GB system.......................................................................... 168
Figure 9.9: System frequency variations caused by the large disturbance in the PSSsreduced system .............................................................................................................. 169
Figure 9.10: System frequency variations measured in substations HUER and DEES in
the PSSs-reduced system .............................................................................................. 169
Figure 9.11: Architecture of the wide-area inter-area oscillation monitoring and control
system in GB ................................................................................................................. 172
Figure 9.12: Inter-area oscillation mode identified by NTA in GB system .................. 173
Figure 9.13: Estimated inter-area oscillation mode shape of GB system ..................... 173
Figure 9.14: Schematic diagram of HVDC damping system........................................ 174
Figure 9.15: Responses of the generator rotor speeds (PEHE, LOAN, HUER and EGGB)
to the large disturbance with and without the wide area HVDC damping control ....... 175
Figure 9.16: Responses of the generator rotor speeds (WBUR, RUGE, SIZE and DUNG)
to the large disturbance with and without the wide area HVDC damping control ....... 176
Figure 9.17: The response of the inter-area power flow on the Harker-Hutton line to the
large disturbance, with and without HVDC damping control ...................................... 176
Figure 9.18: Inter-area oscillation mode identified by NTA in the GB system, with and
without HVDC damping control ................................................................................... 177
Figure 9.19: An illustration of the time delay involved in the data transmission in GB
WAMCS........................................................................................................................ 178
Figure 9.20: A block diagram of HVDC damping controllers (with time delay) ......... 178
Figure 9.21: The effect of time delay in the wide area damping controllers
(50 milliseconds to 200 milliseconds) .......................................................................... 179
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Preface
Figure 9.22: The effect of time delay in the wide area damping controllers
(300 milliseconds to 700 milliseconds)......................................................................... 179
Figure 9.23: Responses of the generator rotor speeds (PEHE, LOAN, HUER and EGGB)
to the large disturbance (all PSSs in service) ................................................................ 180
Figure 9.24: Responses of the generator rotor speeds (WBUR, RUGE, SIZE and DUNG)
to the large disturbance (all PSSs in service) ................................................................ 181
Figure 9.25: The influence of HVDC damping control on the inter-area power flow in
complete GB system ..................................................................................................... 182
Figure A-1: A single line diagram of two-area system ................................................. 196
Figure A-2: Block diagram of static exciter of G1, G2 and G3 and G4 ....................... 197
Figure A-3: Block diagram of speed governor of G1, G2, G3 and G4 ......................... 197
Figure B-1: A single line diagram of the two-area system with HVDC ....................... 199
Figure B-2: Block diagram of DC exciter of G1, G3 and G4 ....................................... 200
Figure B-3: Block diagram of static exciter of G2........................................................ 200
Figure B-4: Block diagram of speed governor of G1, G2, G3 and G4 ......................... 201
Figure B-5: Rectifier operation condition (DIgSILENT interface) .............................. 202
Figure B-6: Rectifiers control for constant current................................................... 202
Figure B-7: Inverter operation condition (DIgSILENT interface) ................................ 203
Figure B-8: inverters control for constant voltage .................................................... 203
Figure C-1: A single line diagram of the two-area system with HVDC ....................... 205
Figure C-2: Block diagram of static exciter of G1, G2 G3 and G4 .............................. 205
Figure C-3: Block diagram of speed governor of G1, G2, G3 and G4 ......................... 206
Figure C-4: Rectifier operation condition (DIgSILENT interface) .............................. 207
Figure C-5: Rectifiers control for constant current................................................... 207
Figure C-6: Inverter operation condition (DIgSILENT interface) ................................ 208
Figure C-7: inverters control for constant voltage .................................................... 208
Figure C-8: Rectifier control with supplementary damping control ............................. 209
Figure D-1: A single line diagram of the two-area system with TCSC ........................ 210
Figure D-2: Block diagram of static exciter of G1, G2 and G3 and G4 ....................... 210
Figure D-3: Block diagram of speed governor for G1, G2, G3 and G4 ....................... 211
Figure D-4: TCSC with supplementary damping control. ............................................ 211
Figure E-1: A single line diagram of the two-area system with SVC ........................... 213
Figure E-2: Block diagram of static exciter of G1, G2 and G3 and G4 ........................ 213
Figure E-3: Block diagram of speed governor of G1, G2, G3 and G4 ......................... 214
Figure E-4: SVC composite (DIgSILENT interface).................................................... 215
Figure E-5: Primary voltage control of SVC ................................................................ 215
Figure E-6: SVC supplementary damping controller.................................................... 216
Figure F-1: Rectifier operation condition (DIgSILENT interface) ............................... 217
Figure F-2: Rectifiers control for constant current ................................................... 217
Figure F-3: Inverter operation condition (DIgSILENT interface) ................................ 218
Figure F-4: inverters control for constant voltage .................................................... 218
Figure F-5: HVDC supplementary damping controller in GB full model .................... 219
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Preface
List of Tables
Table 2.1: Summary of available standalone and integraed PMUs ................................ 33
Table 5.1: Three scenarios for meeting the 2020 UK renewable targets ........................ 66
Table 6.1: Eigenvalues of the two-area system............................................................... 96
Table 6.2: Oscillation modes in the two-area system ..................................................... 97
Table 6.3: Right eigenvector for eigenvalue 28 (associated with inter-area mode) ....... 98
Table 6.4: Participation vector for Eigenvalue 28 (associated with inter-area mode) .. 100
Table 6.5: The effect of inter-area power flow on inter-area mode .............................. 101
Table 6.6: Effect of inter-tie line impedance on inter-area mode ................................. 102
Table 7.1: Sensitivity analysis for random noise .......................................................... 114
Table 7.2: Sensitivity analysis for sampling for frequency .......................................... 115
Table 7.3: Sensitivity analysis for data window size .................................................... 115
Table A-1: Synchronous machine parameters of G1, G2 and G3 and G4 .................... 196
Table A-2: Power generation conditions of G1, G2 and G3 and G4 ............................ 196
Table A-3: Parameters of static exciter ......................................................................... 197
Table A-4: Parameters of speed governor..................................................................... 197
Table A-5: Transformer parameters .............................................................................. 197
Table A-6: AC transmission line parameters ................................................................ 198
Table A-7: Load data .................................................................................................... 198
Table A-8: Shunt capacitors.......................................................................................... 198
Table B-1: Synchronous machine parameters of G1, G2 and G3 and G4 .................... 199
Table B-2: Power generation conditions of G1, G2 and G3 and G4 ............................ 199
Table B-3: Parameters of DC exciter ............................................................................ 200
Table B-4: Parameters of static exciter ......................................................................... 201
Table B-5: Parameters of speed governor ..................................................................... 201
Table B-6: Transformer parameters .............................................................................. 201
Table B-7: AC transmission line parameters ................................................................ 201
Table B-8: DC transmission line parameters ................................................................ 202
Table B-9: Parameters of rectifier control .................................................................... 202
Table B-10: Parameters of inverter control................................................................... 203
Table B-11: Load data................................................................................................... 203
Table B-12: Shunt capacitors ........................................................................................ 204
Table C-1: Synchronous machine parameters of G1, G2 and G3 and G4 .................... 205
Table C-2: Power generation conditions of G1, G2 and G3 and G4 ............................ 205
Table C-3: Parameters of static exciter ......................................................................... 206
Table C-4: Parameters of speed governor ..................................................................... 206
Table C-5: Transformer parameters .............................................................................. 206
Table C-6: AC transmission line parameters ................................................................ 206
Table C-7: DC transmission line parameters ................................................................ 207
Table C-8: Parameters of rectifier control .................................................................... 207
Table C-9: Parameters of inverter control..................................................................... 208
Table C-10: Parameters of HVDC supplementary control ........................................... 209
Table C-11: Load data................................................................................................... 209
Table C-12: Shunt capacitors ........................................................................................ 209
Table D-1: Synchronous machine parameters of G1, G2 and G3 and G4 .................... 210
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Preface
Table D-2: Power generation conditions of G1, G2 and G3 and G4 ............................ 210
Table D-3: Parameters of Static Exciter........................................................................ 211
Table D-4: Parameters of Governor .............................................................................. 211
Table D-5: The capacitor and reactor of TCSC under steady state............................... 211
Table D-6: Parameters of TCSC supplementary damping control ............................... 212
Table D-7: Transformer parameters .............................................................................. 212
Table D-8: Transmission line parameters ..................................................................... 212
Table D-9: Load data .................................................................................................... 212
Table D-10: Shunt capacitors ........................................................................................ 212
Table E-1: Synchronous machine parameters of G1, G2 and G3 and G4 .................... 213
Table E-2: Power generation conditions of G1, G2 and G3 and G4............................. 213
Table E-3: Parameters of static exciter ......................................................................... 214
Table E-4: Parameters of speed governor ..................................................................... 214
Table E-5: Transformer parameters .............................................................................. 214
Table E-6: Transmission line parameters...................................................................... 214
Table E-7: Load data ..................................................................................................... 215
Table E-8: Shunt capacitors .......................................................................................... 215
Table E-9: Parameters of the primary voltage control of SVC ..................................... 215
Table E-10: Parameters of the primary voltage control of SVC ................................... 216
Table F-1: DC transmission line parameters................................................................. 217
Table F-2: Parameters of rectifier control ..................................................................... 217
Table F-3: Parameters of rectifier control ..................................................................... 218
Table F-4: Parameters of the HVDC damping controller ............................................. 219
Table F-5: A list of the PSS in service .......................................................................... 220
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Preface
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Preface
Abstract
The growing issue of power-grid congestion and a global increase in disturbances have
emphasized the need to enhance electrical power networks using Wide Area Monitoring,
Protection, and Control (WAMPAC). This is a cost-effective solution for improving
power system planning and operation. In addition to these existing issues, the Great
Britain (GB) power system is facing significant changes, in terms of both power
transmission technology and the nature of the generation mix, that will cause the
operation of the future GB power system to become more unpredictable and complex.
Therefore, developing a WAMPAC system will be essential to enhance the stability and
optimise the operation of the future GB power system.
The main objectives of the research presented in this thesis are to design a GB
WAMPAC system and develop solutions to overcome the challenges that will be
involved in the initial stage of the GB WAMPAC project.
As Synchronized Measurement Technology (SMT) is the most essential element and
enabler of WAMPAC, this thesis first provides a study of SMT and its applications.
This study also reviews the state of the art of these SMT applications, and worldwide
experience with the operation of WAMPAC in terms of system architecture,
communication technologies and data management.
After the basic study of WAMPAC, this thesis presents a new methodology for
designing a roadmap that will ensure the future GB WAMPAC system will be
developed in a logical and economic manner. This methodology takes into account the
international experience with WAMPAC project management and the practical
challenges faced in the future GB power system. With this new methodology, the GB
strategies for the development of WAMPAC are devised.
Two major SMT applications are then developed that can form main parts of the
proposed future GB WAMPAC system. These applications are developed to enhance
the small signal stability of the future GB power system.
1. Wide Area Inter-area Oscillation Monitoring using Newton Type Algorithm.
2. Wide Area Inter-area Oscillation Control using Power Electronic Devices.
Finally, the operation of a proposed GB WAMPAC system is demonstrated using the
DIgSILENT software package. The proposed real time applications are tested and
evaluated using dynamic simulations of a full GB power system model. In addition,
some key factors that will influence the operation of the future GB WAMPAC system
will be analyzed and discussed.
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Preface
List of Abbreviations
WAMS
WAMCS
WAMPAC
GPS
IED
SMT
PMU
DC
ISO
EMS
SCADA
SIPS
SPS
WECC
EIPP
ADSL
VPN
TCP
UDP
IP
SE
PE
RTDMS
FNET
VIP
UVLS
UFLS
KF
FFT
LS
NTA
HVDC
CSC
VSC
TCSC
SVC
AVR
TG
PSS
SPTN
SHETN
NGETN
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Preface
Declaration
No portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an
application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or other
institute of learning.
-15-
Preface
Copyright Statement
i.
The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this
thesis) owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the Copyright) and he has
given The University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright,
including for administrative purposes.
ii.
iii.
The ownership of certain Copyright, patents, designs, trade marks and other
intellectual property (the Intellectual Property) and any reproductions of
copyright works in the thesis, for example graphs and tables(Reproductions),
which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may
be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property and Reproductions cannot
and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of
the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions.
iv.
IP
Policy
(see
Librarys
regulations
http://www.manchester.ac.uk/library/aboutus/regulations)
Universitys policy on Presentation of Theses.
-16-
(see
and
in
The
Preface
To my mother Yumei, my father Baotian, my girl friend Laura and Professor Terzija
-17-
Preface
Acknowledgements
The Research and Development (R&D) project, Wide Area Monitoring, Protection and
Control (WAMPAC) in the Future GB Power System, presented in this thesis is funded
by the National Grid Ltd (UK), Scottish Power Ltd and Scottish Southern Electricity
Ltd.. This R&D project started in April 2008 under the direct supervision of Professor
Vladimir Terzija at the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, the University
of Manchester.
First of all, I would like to express my great appreciation to my Ph.D. supervisor,
Professor Terzija, for giving me this great opportunity to be his Ph.D. student. I have no
doubt to claim that this Ph.D. has hugely changed my life, and will benefit me and my
family in the rest of my life. Professor Terzija has been constantly involved in my
research, and provided me with strong guidance and support all through the project. I
wish to express my gratitude for his constant help.
I also would like to thank my Ph.D. advisor, Professor Peter Crossley and external
project supervisor, John Fitch and Mark Osborn, for their sound advice and kind help.
Thanks to all my friends, in particular, Gustavo Valverde, Jairo Quiros, Pawel Regulski,
Peter Wall and Gary Preston for their help and deep friendship.
Lastly, my parents and my girlfriend, Laura Guo, have unwaveringly believed in my
efforts. Their constant support provides me with confidence and courage to ultimately
complete my thesis.
-18-
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Research Background
1.1.1 Power system blackouts
Despite large-scale power system blackouts being very low probability events, their
study is of great interest, due to the immense costs and consequences of such events for
customers, societies and industries [1]. In previous decades, due to economic pressure
from electricity markets and environmental constraints, power system operators have
been forced to operate power transmission systems in highly stressed conditions closer
to the system limits than ever before [1]. In this same period, the number, and size, of
large-scale power system blackouts has increased. For example, the US-Canada
blackout on August 14, 2003 [2] and the Italy blackout on September 28, 2003 [3]
involved more than 100 million customers. Figure 1.1 presents the consequences, in
terms of customers affected, of significant blackouts.
Customers Affected
19
65
,N
E
US
19
67
,N
E
19
US
77
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It is rare for large-scale power system blackouts to be directly caused by a single large
disturbance. However, a single large disturbance in a stressed system may cause a
series, or cascade, of unplanned and unexpected sequential events. These events will
incrementally increase the stress on the system and force it into a more vulnerable state
of operation. If proper protection and control actions are not taken quickly and properly
(e.g. load shedding, reactive power support and controlled islanding), then the system
-19-
Chapter 1 Introduction
may experience further cascading events and separate into unplanned islands, or even
completely collapse [4][5][6].
For example, on September 28th 2003 a sequence of events, which would lead to the
separation of Italy from the interconnected European Power System, was triggered by
the tripping of a Swiss 380 kV transmission line. The line between Mettlen and Lavorgo
(marked as 1 in Figure 1.2), was tripped off at 03:01 due to a permanent fault. This
tripping meant that other transmission lines began to carry the power that was
previously transferred over the tripped line. This caused a second Swiss 380 kV
transmission line, between Sils and Soazza (marked as 2 in Figure 1.2), to trip at 03:25
due to overload. Combined with insufficient reserve in Italy, the loss of these lines
meant that the levels of overload on the remaining interconnections into Italy quickly
became intolerable. This led to the automatic and, almost, simultaneous tripping of
remaining transmission lines, with the effect that the Italian system was isolated from
the European network. The Italian power system lost a large amount of the active power
imported from its European neighbours (about 25% of the countrys total load). Such a
large loss of active power caused a sudden frequency drop of approximately 1 Hz to
occur in Italy. Furthermore, this significant loss of power caused multiple Italian
generators to trip for various reasons, e.g. under-frequency relay operation, high
temperature of exhaust gases. Despite additional load shedding, the frequency continued
to decrease and the system collapsed in three minutes [3].
-20-
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 1 Introduction
highly influenced by climatic conditions and the resulting intermittent nature of the
renewable resources. This will make the operation of future power systems more
variable and unpredictable. In addition, renewable energy generation and transmission
requires the support of power electronic technologies such as HVDC and SVC. The use
of these technologies will introduce further complexity and uncertainty into power
systems [9] [10]. The introduction of further variation, complexity and unpredictability
to power systems will dramatically increase the likelihood of large scale power system
blackouts. This will prove a serious problem, as current systems already find themselves
increasingly vulnerable to such blackouts in the absence of a real time wide area
monitoring system.
The development of a real time wide area monitoring system is essential if the future
changes in our power systems do not change the current trend toward an increase in the
number and size of large-scale blackouts. A real time wide area monitoring system will
allow the introduction of optimal, real time protection and control schemes that can be
used to counter the growing threat of large scale blackouts. With the breakthrough made
in the field of Synchronized Measurement Technology (SMT) and the availability of
high-speed communication channels it is now possible to implement a practical real
time wide area monitoring system. These technological developments, combined with
financial support from governments, will allow the emergence of real time, wide area
monitoring, protection and control systems that will be able to ensure the security of
future power systems in the face of an increasingly unstable operational environment.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Figure 1.3 shows the main components and structure of a generalized WAMPAC
system. In this system, the necessary synchronized voltage and current phasors are
produced by PMUs. The measurement data from these PMUs is transmitted through a
Wide-Area Network (WAN) and aggregated at one, or more Data Concentrators (DCs).
The aggregate data is then stored locally in the DC before being transmitted to the
various Application Software or Servers (ASS) of the different utilities. The main task
performed by the DCs is alignment of the received PMU data; however, the opportunity
also exists to perform additional pre-processing tasks before forwarding the data to ASS
[6].
Utilitys
WAN
PMU_1
Utilitys
WAN
PMU_n
PMU_1
PMU_n
The necessity for WAMPAC has gained worldwide acceptance [6], and a number of
WAMPAC systems have been established, or initialized, in different power utilities
throughout the world. For example, a Real Time Dynamic Monitoring System (RTDMS)
has been implemented in the Eastern North American bulk power system. A wide area
inter-area oscillation monitoring and control system was established by China South
Power Grid [11]. Other countries, such as Switzerland, Sweden, Denmark, Austria, and
Japan, have developed SMT based applications to improve power system stability [12].
-23-
Chapter 1 Introduction
-24-
Chapter 1 Introduction
testing
platform
in
DIgSILENT
PowerFactory
for
-25-
Chapter 1 Introduction
-26-
Chapter 1 Introduction
-27-
Chapter 1 Introduction
-28-
2 N
X =
xk e j 2 k / N
N k =1
(2.1)
where N is the total number of samples in one period, X is the phasor representing the
sinusoidal signal, and x k is kth sample of the signal. In a real measurement system, the
signal is continuously sampled and each time a new sample is acquired a new phasor is
produced as the data window is moved to include the new sample. The most efficient
method for dealing with continuous monitoring of the input waveforms is to use a
recursive form of the phasor equation [15].
-29-
Xm
For the evaluation of the performance of a real power system, the positive sequence
voltages and currents are far more useful than the single phase quantities. Positivesequence voltages of a network constitute the state vector of a power system, and it is of
fundamental importance in all forms of power system analysis. The positive sequence
phasor can be computed according to its definition:
X1 =
1
( X a + X b + 2 X c )
3
(2.2)
As illustrated in Figure 2.2, when the voltages and currents in different substations are
measured and converted to positive sequence phasors in this way, their phasors can be
put in the same phasor diagram.
Substation B
Substation A
At different locations
PhasorA
PhasorB
In a large power system, if all the substations are equipped with synchronized phasor
measurement devices, the real time system operating condition can be directly measured
rather than estimated; including the system frequency, the voltage phasor of each bus
and the power flow between substations. The first paper to identify the importance of
synchronized phasor measurement technology was published in 1983 [17]. At this time
-30-
the Global Positioning System (GPS) [18] was beginning to be fully deployed and
offered a source for the necessary synchronising clock signal. The timing pulse offered
by GPS is accurate to within 1 microsecond at any location on earth. It became clear
that GPS offered the most effective way of synchronizing power system measurements
over long distances.
If enough PMUs can be installed across a large power transmission network, the real
time system operating condition can be directly measured by PMUs. In addition, as the
PMUs have a high data reporting rate, the system dynamics can be captured when the
system is subjected to disturbances [19]. Figure 2.4 compares the voltage angle
difference between two substations obtained using PMU measurements and traditional
state estimation. This comparison demonstrates clearly that a real time monitoring
-31-
system made up of PMUs will provide much more precise and dynamic system
operation information than the traditional state estimation.
Macrodyne 1690
ABB RE8521
electricity usage metering, fault event recordings, etc.) rather than to offer pure
monitoring. However, whatever the primary task of these integrated PMUs the result of
their deployment will be that a substantial number of IEDs in a power system will be
capable of offering synchronized measurements [7].
GE N60
SEL 421
Table 2.1 gives a summary of available standalone and integrated PMUs, including
manufacturers, model, and the number of inputs and outputs [16].
Table 2.1: Summary of available standalone and integraed PMUs
Manufacturer
ABB
Model
RES521
Arbiter
1133A
Arbiter
GE
Macrodyne
SEL
SEL
SEL
933A
N60
1690
SEL-311
SEL-421
SEL-451
SEL
AMETEK_RIS
QualiTrol
REASON
REASON
SEL-734
TR2000
Q9
RPV304
RPV310
Other
functions
No
Revenue
Meter, Power
Quality
Portable
Power
Quality Meter
Relay
No
Relay
Relay
Relay
Revenue
Meter
DTR
No
DFR
DFR
Internal GPS
receiver
Yes
Yes
9(3)
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
9(3)
16 (5)
30 (10)
12 (4)
12 (4)
12 (4)
No
Yes
Optional
No
No
12 (4)
32 (10)
16 (5)
16 (5)
64 (21)
-33-
ASS Z
ASS A
DC
WAN
SMU_1
SMU_n
As shown in Figure 2.7, Data Concentrator (DC) is another critical building block of a
SMT-based WAMPAC system. The DC collects the synchronized phasor data and
aligns that data into a single data packet for each unique time stamp; it then forwards
this data to different SMT applications. The data concentrator may also include other
functions, such as system event detection and archiving, data reprocessing for various
applications and data calibrations.
2.5 Summary
In this chapter, the concept and technology of synchronized phasor measurement has
been breifly introducted. In [14] the algorithms behind synchrnized phasor measurement,
including the phasor estimation with nominal frequency inputs and the phasor
estimation with off-nominal frequency inputs are detailed. The hardware and functions
of PMUs and DCs have also been introduced, as well as the major commercial PMUs
and DCs. To ensure a consistent performance among the PMUs from different
manufacturers in a WAMPAC system, synchrophasor measurement standards were
developed. So far, the IEEE standard C37.118-2005 has replaced the original IEEE
standard 1344. However, more detailed standard conformity testing must be developed,
based on a clearly defined test requirement, setup, and procedure. It is also important
that qualified test entities are established, to ensure that the tests themselves are
executed consistently.
-35-
been used for many years is not synchronized. Therefore, it has been extremely difficult
and time-consuming to reconstruct this data on the same time axis. This reconstruction
is a prerequisite for understanding the sequential events that have occurred during and
after the disturbance [20] [6].
Application of SMT allows all of the data gathered during the system disturbance to be
time tagged based on the same synchronizing GPS signal. Therefore, it is much easier to
reconstruct the sequence of events after the disturbance has occurred. Simplifying the
reconstruction process will allow the time spent analyzing the vast amount of data to be
reduced from months, to days, or even hours [1].
Figure 3.1 presents one example from the Western Electricity Coordinating Council
(WECC) of using PMU data for the reconstruction of the sequence of events that
occurred after a large disturbance, this reconstruction was performed using the post
disturbance analysis software, Power System Outlook (PSO). PSO was developed by
Southern California Edison (SCE) Corporation [21]; it has been used by 11 states on the
west coast of the USA as well as two Provinces in both Canada and Mexico. It helps
power system analysts and operators to understand the dynamic characteristics of the
system by producing visualizations of the real data recorded during disturbances.
59.820
59.615
59.410
59.205
59.000
14:40:34.00
14:40:44.00
14:40:54.00
14:41:04.00
14:41:14.00
14:41:24.00
VINC
JDAY
DEVR
MALN
BGCR
COLS
ALAM
BE23
SONG
BE50
KRMR
SYLM
DEV2
MPLV
ANTP
KEEL
VLLY
CPJK
MAGN
SUML
LUGO
SLAT
GC50
SCE1
14:41:34.00
Pacific Time
Figure 3.1: The reconstruction of system frequencies after a large disturbance in WECC, 14th
June, 2004 [16].
-37-
Figure 3.2: Comparison of the recorded system response to the 10th August, 1996 disturbance
in USA with the simulation results [22].
Here, power system model validation is not limited to the steady-state models; it also
includes the dynamic models. In the aspect of the validation of static model parameters,
which includes synchronous machine inner resistance and reactance, transformer tap
position and transmission line impedance etc, the algorithms are well developed and
commercially available which is commonly referred to as Parameter Estimation (PE)
[20]. The emergence of precise SMT has significantly improved the performance of PE
-38-
algorithms, as the estimated phasor values in the PE algorithms can be directly replaced
by measured phasor values. For example, with a PMU installed at both ends of a long
transmission line, the transmission line impedance can be directly calculated using the
voltage and current phasors [20].
In comparison to dealing with a static model, the benchmarking and fine-tuning of
dynamic system models is much harder and more complex. This is because it requires
careful evaluation of the actual system response to the events. Dynamic model
validation is usually achieved by comparing the data recorded during system events
with the response of system models to the same disturbances. When differences are
encountered, the dynamic model parameters are tuned until a corresponding response is
obtained [20]. The high data reporting rate offered by PMUs is capable of capturing the
system dynamics, with a sufficient number of PMUs installed across a large power
network the dynamic characteristics of the system can be precisely profiled by using the
synchronized recordings. The procedures and principles that should be observed when
validating power system models are described in [22] [23] [24] and [25], alongside
algorithms that allow wide area synchronized measurements to be used for the finetuning of dynamic system models.
-39-
In addition, in large interconnected power networks, a real time phase angle monitoring
system, consisting of PMUs, can provide clear understanding of the entire operational
situation to the system operators. The August 14, 2003 blackout that occurred in the
United States and Canada demonstrated the necessity to implement such a monitoring
system throughout bulk interconnected power networks, because it was the lack of
awareness of the neighbouring grids operational status that allowed the cascading
blackouts to occur. After this blackout, the provision of a real time wide area
monitoring system for all transmission owners and regional transmission operators was
recommended [2].
Figure 3.3: RTDMS a wide area visualization platform for the North American power system
[26].
Figure 3.3 presents one application of wide area phase angular monitoring in USA, i.e,
Real Time Dynamic Monitoring System (RTDMS) that was developed for the North
American bulk power system. Assisted by this visualization tool, the system operators
will make optimum and confident decisions when operating the system, since both the
local and global operational situations are clearly observed. The RTDMS visualization
tool also offers: 1) Voltage Magnitude monitoring, 2) System Frequencies monitoring, 4)
-40-
Real and Reactive Power Flow across Monitored Lines, 5) a Summarized Information
Display [26].
algorithm for disturbance location was also tested in a small power network in South
Korea, and the results were also acceptable [30].
Figure 3.4: Disturbance localization using PMUs and the triangulation method [27].
Load shedding is a key action when trying to help a system recover from extreme
under-frequency conditions. The ability to immediately produce an accurate estimate of
the power imbalance between the generation and demand after a disturbance will be a
quite useful input for an adaptive load shedding scheme. The active power imbalance
(P) is proportional to the rate of frequency change (df/dt), the system inertia serves as
the constant of proportionality in this relationship. The wide area frequency
measurement system provides real time frequency and the rate of the change of
frequency, based on which the magnitude of the disturbance can be estimated. In the
case presented in Figure 3.4, the estimated tripped generation was 786 MW, while the
actual tripped generation was around 870 MW [27].
-42-
complex network and the generator at the remote end can be estimated, as shown in
Figure 3.5.
Z th
E th
ZL
Figure 3.5: Estimation of the Thevenin equivalent with local measurements [31].
The Thevenin equivalent circuit and the maximum power transfer principle can be used
to estimate the voltage collapse point of the equivalent network [32]. When the voltage
of the local bus is close to the estimated collapse point a certain amount of load is
disconnected, with a certain time-delay, until the voltage rises above the threshold [31].
However, the drawback of these conventional approaches is that a single set of local
measurements do not contain enough information to directly compute the parameters of
the Thevenin equivalent accurately, this inaccuracy may lead to a large error in the
estimation of the voltage collapse point.
Real time voltage monitoring software, supported by a network of PMUs that are
installed at both end substations of a complex transmission corridor, can overcome the
shortcomings of conventional VIP. In the first stage of the application, the T-equivalent
of the transmission corridor can be directly computed using the voltage and current
phasors that are measured by the installed PMUs, as presented in Figure 3.6. In addition,
the source impedance is calculated by using dynamic data collected from the PMUs at
the sending end of the corridor. Furthermore, the dynamic parameters of the load, such
as the coefficient of voltage-dependence, are estimated by using the PMU data collected
at the receiving end of the corridor. In the next stage, the T-equivalent of the
transmission corridor is combined with the source impedance and the dynamic load
model, calculated in the first stage. Once the real time combined model of the critical
transmission corridor is available, the voltage stability analysis can be directly carried
out [31]. ABB has developed a PMU-based voltage stability application for real time
-43-
v1
i2
i1
i1
ZT / 2
Zg
E th
ZT / 2
Z sh
v1
v2
i2
v2
ZL
availability of fast communication links are the primary enablers of this opportunity to
monitor the inter-area oscillations.
So far, a considerable amount of work has been done by different power utilities in
developing techniques to identify the dominant inter-area oscillation modes. For
example, the Prony Method has been used in the southern power grid of China and the
West coast power grid of the USA [35][36]. The Nordic power system has used an
adaptive Kalman Filter (KF) to track the inter-area oscillations [37] [38], and the Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) has been used in the Japanese system for estimating the
oscillatory parameters [39].
Figure 3.7: Oscillations observed by two PMUs in the European grid [1].
may not be the same as those encountered at the present status [1]. During power
system restoration, power system operators often encounter excessive standing phase
angle difference across the breakers that connect adjacent power grids. Incorrectly
closing such a circuit breaker could shock the power system, causing high currents,
voltage drops and severe equipment damage [1]. In addition, unsuccessful attempts to
reclose the tripped power lines, rather than taking other actions, could cost valuable
time when the power system is operating in the emergency state [3].
The main value of using PMUs in power system restoration schemes is the ability to
provide the operator with real-time information about the phase angles in relevant parts
of the interconnecting grids. This ability helps the operator to know if reclosing a circuit
breaker can be done without affecting the stability of the system. When the angle
differences across the breakers are within acceptable bounds, the system operator can
safely reconnect the adjacent areas immediately. As a consequence, the time spent on
power system restoration will be significantly reduced.
Figure 3.8: PMU measurements from three areas during reclosing attempts: UCTE, 4 November
2006 [42].
-46-
Figure 3.8 shows the PMU measurements recorded during the reclosing attempts for the
power lines between two areas, including the successful reclosing between those two
areas and a third area. Seven attempts to connect these zones failed, as the operators did
not use the PMU data to assist the restoration. If the PMU data had been used during the
restoration these unsuccessful reclosing attempts could have been avoided [42].
-47-
In the traditional Parameter Estimation (PE), the system line parameters are
estimated from available telemetries; a high level of redundancy and accuracy in the
measurements used is essential for PE. Synchronized phasor measurements can be
used to calculate the actual line impedances and charging admittances, as the
voltage and current phasors are directly measured at both ends of the transmission
line, as presented in Figure 3.9.
I ik
ik
+ jb
ik
I ki
g + jb
si
si
sk
+ jb
sk
-48-
Figure 3.10: Visualization of the real time mentoring of the thermal condition of an overhead
transmission corridor in APG [12].
A commercial product that offers this application, Line Thermal Monitoring from
ABB, has been installed at two locations in Europe, one in the Austrian Power Grid
(APG) and another in Switzerland [12]. Figure 3.10 shows the overhead line monitoring
system in APG. It provides power system operators with real time information about the
network stress caused by heavy power transfer. Upon the detection of an extraordinary
status, the monitoring system alerts the operator by giving an early warning or
emergency alarm [12].
Wide area real time synchronized measurements provide important information about
the prevailing system conditions that can be used to improve the action of SIPS. These
synchronized measurements may be used to improve conventional system islanding
schemes in the following areas [14].
1. Using real time data provided by PMUs to detect whether a power system is
approaching an unstable state, e.g. the phase angles across the system beyond
limits, and if network islanding is needed to prevent a blackout.
2. Determine optimal islanding boundaries according to the prevailing system
conditions. For example, establish which groups of generators will separate due
to the loss of synchronism and how to optimally balance generation and demand
in each island.
allow system operators to be more confident when optimizing the UFLS protection
scheme.
3.4 Conclusions
In this chapter, the major applications and benefits of Synchronized Measurement
Technology (SMT) have been introduced in terms of off-line and on-line applications.
From worldwide experience, off-line applications are usually considered to be the first
step when developing a WAMPAC system; these applications include 1) accurate post
disturbance analysis and 2) system model validation and benchmarking. Concerning online applications, most power systems have utilized synchronized phasor data to
develop wide area real time monitoring systems; these monitoring systems include real
time power flow (power angle), voltage magnitude monitoring, system frequency
monitoring and inter-area oscillation monitoring. In addition, SMT offers opportunities
for improving the quality of conventional power system state estimation and protection.
However, other applications, such as real time power system restoration, smart
controlled system islanding and adaptive load shedding, are still in the research stage,
significant long term effort will be necessary before these research applications are
ready for practical implementation.
-51-
Therefore, there still hasnt been a developed and generic architecture of WAMPAC
system. However, based on the current experience of the operation of existing
WAMPAC systems, a general architecture for a typical WAMPAC system has been
defined; this is shown in Figure 4.1. Although this general architecture doesnt provide
many details about how a real WAMPAC system works, it presents the essential
components involved in a real WAMPAC system. The results of this work will help
new WAMPAC systems be built logically and economically.
Communication
WAN/LAN
networks
Utilitys
applications
Communication
networks
WAN/LAN
Utilitys DC
Utilitys
applications
Utilitys DC
SCADA/
EMS
Communication
networks
WAN/LAN
SCADA/
EMS
ISOs Super DC
`
Data server
SCADA/
EMS
Event archive
Data Archiving
Long term archive
This general WAMPAC system architecture presented in Figure 4.1 was mainly based
on the experience of the real WAMPAC system operating within the Eastern
Interconnection Phasor Project (EIPP) community in the USA [46] [47]. Figure 4.1
shows a fourlayer architecture that is typical in the operation of WAMPAC system, 1)
Synchronized Phasor data acquisition 2) Synchronized data collection 3) Data services 4)
-53-
Largescale data archiving (short term archive, long term archive, event archive);
Real time wide area control (inter-area oscillation damping control, etc);
-54-
communication
and
internet
infrastructure
are
owned
by
-55-
-56-
Figure 4.2: The combination of different communication media for a WAMPAC system.
WAN
WAN
WAN/LAN
WAN/LAN
-58-
WAN/LAN
WAN/LAN
The main factors that cause communication latency includes raw data (voltage and
current instantaneous measurements) buffering for phasor calculation in the PMU,
distant data transmission over communication links, and signal processing in the central
station. The approximate communication latency in a WAMPAC system can be
estimated by using expression (4.1):
Tt = T f + T p +
L
+
R
(4.1)
Where Tt is the total communication delay, Tf is the fixed delay associated with
transducers used, phasor calculation, data concentration and multiplexing, Tp is the link
propagation delay associated with different communication media, L is the amount of
data transmitted, R is the data rate of the link, and is the random time delay
component [48].
Transmission Network (NGETN). In this system, each power grid has its own DC. In
Each power grid, the DC collects synchronized measurements from PMUs and
processes the data to support the regional SMT applications; whilst, the DC also sends
the collected data to the Super-DC to support the wide area real time applications. A
Super-DC will be installed in the National Grid monitoring and control centre in
Wokingham. The Super-DC collects the synchronized data from the three regional
DCs and process the data for the wide area real time applications, whilst, the SuperDC broadcasts the collected data back to the three regional DCs. With such SMTbased WAMPAC system, each power utility will not only supervise its own regional
system operation but also monitor the operational status of the entire GB power network.
WAN
WAN
4.5 Conclusions
This Chapter has introduced the architecture of a typical WAMPAC system. A Four
layer architecture is considered to be the most accepted approach for serving WAMPAC,
based on the current international experience with WAMPAC operation. PMUs, DCs,
various communication links and application software are the essential components in a
typical WAMPAC system. As a large scale WAMPAC system, such as the future GB
WAMPAC system, usually involves a number of power utilities; a Super-DC is the key
component supporting wide area real time applications. The different SMT applications
required by the power utilities have different demands, in terms of data management,
reliability and security on the communication networks. Therefore, a WAMPAC system
must accommodate a diverse range of technical requirements and increasing quantities
of PMU data and the requirements of the new WAMPAC participants and clients.
-61-
-62-
-63-
This three tiered ranking of WAMPAC applications means that it would be logical to
develop a WAMPAC project for the delivery of full smart fruits in three stages, as
shown in Figure 5.2, the initial stage (1-3 years), the developing stage (3-5 years) and
the developed stage (5-10 years).
In the initial stage of a WAMPAC project the main objective is the use of synchronized
phasor measurements to afford system operators greater visibility and understanding of
the status of a power system. The best applications to implement at this stage of the
project would be those with fully developed, commercially available solutions (e.g. such
as real time power angle (power flow) monitoring, voltage stability monitoring and
inter-area oscillation monitoring). An additional benefit of these applications is that they
require only limited support in terms of the number of PMUs that must be installed.
This is beneficial as limitations on the available finance means that the number of
PMUs deployed in the initial stage will be modest (around 5).
In the second stage, with the increase of the number of PMUs being commissioned in
the system, the system operators will have a deeper understanding of the power system
dynamics. For example, wide area synchronized fault recordings will significantly
improve system model validation. Consequently, system planning, emergency
protection and control schemes will be optimized. The conventional state estimator
could be upgraded to the faster and more accurate linear state estimator in this stage if
25-30% substations have a PMU installed.
At the developed stage, having developed significant operational experience with PMUs
operating over the course of several years, the system operators and planners will have
-64-
become more confident in their use of using synchronized phasor data. This confidence
and experience will afford the opportunity to develop sophisticated closed loop control
and protection schemes.
In Summary, a generic roadmap for development of a WAMPAC system should meet
the following requirements:
1) The roadmap must have the evolutionary character, i.e. it must assume a
stepwise development of a WAMPAC system.
2) The evolutionary character must be expressed in development of two main
strategies for development of a WAMPAC system: a) the short-term and b) the
long term strategy.
3) The short term strategy must be based on the currently most critical system
needs, which as such will determine the minimum requirements to the
WAMPAC system (e.g. the minimal number of PMUs, the minimum
performance of the communication infrastructure). The WAMPAC applications
for the short term strategy must be well developed and tested.
4) The long term strategy must be based on the expected future system challenges
(risks), which as such must be clearly explored and further used as an input for
development of the future WAMPAC system.
-65-
Scenario 1
20.9GW in England and
Wales
11.4GW Scotland
Scenario 2
24.3GW in England and
Wales
8GW Scotland
Scenario 3
25.7GW in England and
Wales
6.6GW Scotland
In these scenarios, the minimum installed capacity of wind turbines in Scotland is 6.6
GW. The majority of the power generated by these wind turbines will be transferred to
the remote load centres in Southern England. Therefore, this large increase in the
generation capacity in Scotland will cause a large increase in the power flow between
Scotland and England [8], as shown in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4: Power transfers across the boundary between Scotland and England at peak load
condition [8].
Obviously, the increasing levels of power transfer between Scotland and England will
require substantial power transmission line reinforcements and the deployment of new
technologies to facilitate the transmission of wind power from Scotland to England.
To strengthen the power transfer capability at the interface, the National Grid Electricity
Transmission (NGET) and Scottish Power Electricity Network (SPEN) are planning the
installation of Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) into the inter-tie lines and
-66-
new submarine High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) links between Scotland and the
North of Wales. Figure 5.5 outlines the proposed locations of the TCSC and the new
HVDC link, which is the prototype of the GB future electric power transmission
network (vision 2020/2030) [10].
Figure 5.6: Locations of off-shore wind farms in GB power system (2020-2030) [8].
-67-
The locations of the off-shore wind farms in the future GB power system are shown in
Figure 5.6. These off-shore wind farms will connect to the GB power grid via back-toback HVDC links. This transmission technology will not allow the wind turbines to
provide inertia to the system [56] [9]. This shortcoming, coupled with the increasing
replacement of conventional generators with wind turbines, will cause the inertia of the
future UK power system to be approximately 15-20% lower than it is currently [57].
The utilization of complex power transmission technology, such as TCSC and HVDC,
and the increasing levels of intermittent and low inertia renewable generation that will
be in use by 2020 and 2030, will cause the GB power system operate in a more complex
and dynamic way. This shift will render the power system more difficult to monitor and
control. Therefore, there is an essential need for the provision of WAMPAC across the
entire power system. This will enable improved visibility and understanding of the
system operational conditions as well as more effective protection and control schemes.
-68-
Figure 5.9: Logical filter three Necessity of PMU application for investors.
-69-
With this methodology, the GB WAMPAC project may be initialized in one of the
following ways:
Wide area power angle and frequency monitoring system
As Figure 5.10 shows, this initial project consists of 6 PMUs, located in Scotland,
Wales, Northern England, Central England, Southern England and Western England.
This simple system will provide system operators real time global system frequency and
power flow monitoring. This is a very user friendly application that has been widely
used by many power utilities in the initial stage of a WAMPAC project.
The proposed PMU placements for this application are presented in the Figure 5.11.
They are Stratheven, Eccles, Harker, Stella West, Penwortham and Thornton.
generators with wind turbines the inertia of the future UK power system will be largely
reduced. Low inertia systems will experience extremely fast frequency deviations and
lightly damped low frequency oscillations after disturbances.
Based on these characteristics and potential risks, the long term strategy for a UK
WAMPAC system should focus upon (1) Providing a real time wide area monitoring
system, (2) Improving system frequency stability, and (3) Enhancing system damping
for system small signal stability. For these purposes, three long term SMT applications
are proposed.
Real time wide area monitoring system
With the proportion of total electricity generation coming from renewable resources
increasing, the future GB power systems operation will become more dynamic and
unpredictable; correspondingly the power flow pattern and generation dispatch scheme
will change quite frequently. The conventional State Estimator may no longer be
capable of providing a wide area, fast and accurate monitoring system for the next
generation of GB system operation. In this case, the development of a SMT-based real
time Wide Area Monitoring System (WAMS) is a necessity. Figures 5.12- 5.15 present
the PMU placements across the GB electricity transmission network that would serve as
a prototype for the future GB WAMS.
-72-
As Figure 5.12 presents, four substations in Scotland will have PMUs installed. These
are Beauly, Kintore, Errochy and Tealing. As seen from Figure 5.12, these substations
are the big substations that have the maximum number of branches in the Scottish
Hydro Power Transmission Network (SHPTN).
In the Scottish Power Transmission Network (SPTN) and the North part of National
Grid Transmission Network (NGTN), there are seven substations where PMUs will be
installed. They are Stratheven, Eccles, Harker, Stella West, Penwortham and Thornton
and Auchencrosh. As shown in Figure 5.13, six PMUs will be used to monitor the
transmission corridor between Scotland and England, as this is a key corridor in the GB
power system and a very large increase in the power transmission across it. The PMU
installed in Auchencrosh will be used to monitor the electricity transmission between
Northern Ireland and GB.
Figure 5.13: PMU placements at the boundary between Scotland and England.
In central England, there are eight substations where PMU will be installed. They are
Deeside, Daines, Cottam, Derakelow, Feckenham, Pembroke, East Cladon and Pelham.
As seen from Figure 5.14, all these substations are big substations of the 400 kV
transmission networks (represented by blue lines). The installation of PMUs into the
275kV transmission network (represented by red lines) is not recommended as it is
unlikely that the operation of this highly meshed network will be improved through the
use of PMU data.
-73-
Figure 5.15 presents the PMU placements in the South of England. The PMU installed
at the Sellindge substation will be used to monitor the power transmission between the
UK and France, the other five PMUs are installed at the Indian Queens, Exeter,
Melksham, Bramley and Lovedean substations for the monitoring of the southern 400kv
transmission network.
So far, the proposed PMU placements for monitoring the GB electricity transmission
networks have been presented. In addition, around 30% of the electricity in the future
GB power system will be produced by wind farms; this constitutes a significant amount
of relatively unstable electricity generation that will bring more dynamics to the system.
Therefore, the future GB WAMS should also monitor the operation of wind farms,
-74-
particularly large off-shore wind farms. This monitoring could be delivered by installing
PMUs at the substations shown in Figures 5.16-5.20 that will allow the real time
operational information of the large wind farms to be transmitted to the WAMPAC
control centre. With this real time information, more economical and efficient power
generation dispatch schemes can be developed.
Figure 5.17: Three PMUs installed in the Crekey Beck, Keadby and Grimsby West substations.
-75-
Figure 5.19: Two PMUs installed in the North Wales substations of Wylfa and Stanah.
-76-
The PMUs discussed above will form the prototype WAMS for the future GB power
transmission network shown in Figure 5.21. With access to the real time monitoring, the
power system operators will have a clear view of the operational status of the entire
transmission network. In addition, the conventional State Estimator could be updated
significantly due to the integration of a significant amount of precise synchronized data.
Figure 5.21: PMU placements for the future GB wide area monitoring system.
-77-
Figure 5.22: A SMT-based adaptive UFLS scheme in the future GB power system.
adaptive UFLS protection scheme, for example, real time active power outputs from
wind farms, the power generation reserves of synchronous generators and power flow
condition over the tie-line that connects the generation area and the demand area. With
access to so many real time wide area measurements, system operators would be more
confident when optimizing UFLS protection schemes allowing these schemes to be
more efficient and effective.
Wide-area inter-area oscillation damping control with power electronic devices
As mentioned above, the huge increase in the power transmission over the transmission
corridors between Scotland and England, coupled with reduced system inertia, will lead
to the system experiencing lightly damped inter-area oscillations. The Thyristor
Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) and new submarine High Voltage Direct Current
(HVDC) link installed in the inter-tie transmission corridors can be used to improve the
damping of the inter-area oscillatory mode between Scotland and England if their
controllers are set properly.
Figure 5.23: Inter-area oscillation damping control with power electronic devices in GB power
system.
Figure 5.23 provides a conceptual view of the wide area inter-area oscillation
monitoring and control system in the future GB power system. In order to monitor the
inter-area oscillations accurately, six PMUs will be installed over the critical AC
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transmission lines between Scotland and England. The real time inter-area oscillation
signals, such as power angle difference and system frequency across these transmission
lines will be captured by these PMUs. With the real time information of the inter-area
oscillations the control centre calculates the parameters of the controllers of the power
electronic devices to modulate power flow.
A general procedure for real time inter-area oscillation closed-loop control with HVDC
is presented in Figure 5.24. Six PMUs will be installed across the inter-tie transmission
lines to allow monitoring of the inter-area oscillations, as shown in Figure 5.23.
Measurements of the oscillatory signals, such as active power flow, power angle and
system frequency difference, across the inter-tie transmission lines can be used in the
centralized control centre to generate dynamic firing angles for the converters of the
HVDC transmission system. In such a way, the DC power flow will be dynamically
changed to stabilize the inter-area oscillations.
Figure 5.25 presents an alternative procedure that uses TCSC, for real time inter-area
oscillation closed-loop control. As for the HVDC closed loop control scheme, the widearea centralized damping controller will use the real time inter-area oscillatory signals
captured by the six PMUs that are monitoring the inter-tie transmission lines. This
controller will determine a suitable firing angle that will allow the capacity of the TCSC
to vary dynamically to modulate the power flow for damping inter-area oscillations.
-80-
5.5 Conclusions
In this Chapter, the methodology of designing a roadmap to guide the GB WAMPAC
project has been introduced. This methodology takes into account the international
experience with WAMPAC project management and the practical challenges faced in
the future GB electric power network. Based on this methodology, the GBs strategy for
the development of WAMPAC is devised. The GB WAMPAC strategy is divided into a
short term strategy and a long term strategy. In the short term, only a few (5-6) PMUs
will be deployed in the GB power system. This is due to the uncertainties related to the
project and the limitations of financial investment. These PMUs can be distributed
across the entire UK transmission network to form a wide area power angle and
frequency monitoring system. In addition, these PMUs can also be used to monitor the
power flow and inter-area oscillations between Scotland and England. In the long term,
with the increase in the number of PMUs deployed in the UK power system, the
conventional state estimator will be upgraded into a new generation of real time wide
area monitoring using the methodology for PMU placement introduced. In addition, a
wide area adaptive load shedding scheme is proposed. This scheme will help GB power
system to overcome the challenge of reduced frequency stability that will be introduced
by the high integration of renewable resources. The most ambitious element of the long
term strategy for the UK WAMPAC system is the use of HVDC and TCSC to damp the
inter-area oscillations between Scotland and England. Successful development of such
an application would constitute a great achievement in improving the operation of
power systems. This is because it will allow the conventional EMS based open loop
control that is currently in use to be upgraded to a sophisticated wide-area closed loop
control system.
-81-
the different types of oscillations that occur in an interconnected system [59] [60]. This
two-area system can be considered as a useful tool for the study of the
electromechanical oscillations in the GB power system. For this purpose Area 1
represents the Scottish power system and Area 2 represents the English power system.
A single line diagram of the two-area system is shown in Figure 6.1, and the full set of
the system parameters i.e., the generator, transformer and transmission line parameters,
as well as the controller settings of the Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) and
Turbine Governor (TG) are given in Appendix A.
This simple model shows the electromechanical oscillations that are inherent in the twoarea system. There are three possible electromechanical modes of oscillations in this
system. There are two local modes, one in which generator 1 swings against generator 2,
and another in which generator 3 swings against generator 4. In addition, there is also
one inter-area mode, in which the generators in area 1 swing against the generators in
area 2. In this Section, nonlinear simulations will be used to give an insight into the
nature of these different types of electromechanical oscillations. In these nonlinear
simulations, the different modes of oscillation are initiated using a range of different
disturbances.
2. The response of the generators, in terms of speed, to this pair of small disturbances in
Area 1 is presented in Figure 6.2.
1.0002
G1
1.0001
inter-area mode
observed
G2
1
0.9999
0.9998
Area 1
6
10
time [s]
1.0001
G3
G4
0.9999
Area 2
0
6
8
10
time [s]
Figure 6.2: Generator rotor speed responses to the disturbances occurred in area 1.
In Area 1, the rotor speed changes of generator 1 and 2 were in anti-phase i.e. generator
1 oscillated against generator 2 in the local mode. This local mode dominated the
oscillation for approximately 7s, at which time the generators began to swing together in
the inter-area mode. The generators in Area 2 experienced oscillations with lower
amplitude than those seen in Area 1. These oscillations were in phase with one another
and are driven by the inter-area mode, the local mode in Area 2 was not observed here.
These simulation results show that the frequency of the local oscillation mode in area 1
is approximately 1 Hz.
speed [p.u.]
1
1
1
G1
1
G2
4
Area 1
6
10
time [s]
1.0002
speed [p.u.]
G3
G4
1.0001
1
0.9999
0.9998
Area 2
6
10
time [s]
Figure 6.3: Generator rotor speed responses to the disturbances occurred in area 2.
speed [p.u.]
1.0004
G1
G2
G3
G4
1.0002
1
0.9998
0
10
time [s]
Figure 6.4: Generator rotor speed oscillations dominated by inter-area mode.
-85-
As Figure 6.4 presents, the inter-area mode dominated the response of the generator
rotor speeds to these disturbances. The generators in Area 1 began to swing against the
generators in Area 2 immediately after the disturbances, and the magnitudes of the
speed change of the generators in Area 2 were larger than the magnitudes of the speed
change of the generators in Area 1. Initially the oscillations in Area 1 were strongly
influenced by the local mode. This is evident as for the first 4 seconds the generators in
Area 1 oscillated against one another whilst also moving together in the inter-area mode.
The frequency of the inter-area mode was approximately 0.5 Hz. The inter-area mode
was not damped by any external control and the amplitude of the inter-area oscillation
was seen to increase.
For obtaining more information about inter-area oscillations, the responses of the
system frequency and the inter-area active power flow to the disturbances were
analyzed. Figure 6.5 presents the system frequency response to the disturbances
measured in Area 1 (bus 3) and Area 2 (bus 5). The oscillations in the frequency
deviation in Area 1 were approximately in anti-phase to the oscillations in the frequency
deviation in Area 2; which is consistent with the changes seen in the generator rotor
Frequency [Hz]
50.002
fre-bus5
50
49.998
49.996
6
8
time [s]
Figure 6.5: System frequency responses in inter-area mode.
10
Figure 6.6 shows the active power flow over line 3 after the disturbances. The
oscillatory power flow on line 3, is purely driven by the inter-area mode; with no
influence from the local modes. This occurs because the physical mechanism behind
electromechanical oscillations is the active power exchange between the generators that
are involved in the oscillatory mode. Therefore, as line 3, like all of the inter-tie lines,
only carries power between the two areas, then only the inter area oscillations, and not
the local mode oscillations, will be seen on these lines.
-86-
210
P [MW]
P-line3
205
200
0
10
time [s]
Figure 6.6: Oscillatory active power flow on transmission line 3.
The power exchange driving the local modes in Areas 1 and 2 occurs along lines 1 and
8 respectively. Therefore, the power flow associated with these local oscillation modes
will only be seen on these lines. To demonstrate this, the power flow on line 1 during
the disturbances is shown in Figure 6.7. The variation of the power flow on line 1 shows
the difference between the power flow that supports the local mode and the power flow
that supports the inter-area mode. This can be seen by comparing the power flow during
the first four seconds after the disturbances, where the local mode dominates, with the
power flow during the next six seconds, where the inter-area mode dominates.
700
P [MW]
P-line1
6
10
time [s]
Figure 6.7: Oscillatory active power flow on transmission line 1.
1.005
G1
G2
G3
G4
0.995
10
time [s]
Figure 6.8: Responses of the Generator rotor speeds to the large disturbance.
300
P [MW]
P-line3
200
100
0
6
8
10
time [s]
Figure 6.9: Active power transfer over the tie line after the disturbance.
As seen from the Figures 6.8 and 6.9, after the system recovered from the transient fault,
the generators in Area 1 started to oscillate against the generators in Area 2 in inter-area
mode around the new system equilibrium point. The inter-area mode was clearly visible
in the generator rotor speed responses and the oscillatory active power flow on the intertie line.
a wide range of tasks, such as determining the oscillatory modes, the sources of the
oscillatory modes, and the parameters needed for designing oscillation controllers.
In this Section, the modal analysis will be introduced. This analysis tool will then be
used to explain the physical phenomenon of inter-area oscillations presented in the
Section 6.2.
x = f (x, u)
(6.1)
where
x1
x
x= 2
...
xn
f1
f
f = 2
...
fn
u1
u
u = 2
...
u r
The column vector x is the state vector, its elements xi are the state variables, and n is
the number of system states. The column vector u is the vector of inputs to the system,
and r is the number of inputs. f is the vector of the differential equations.
The outputs of the system can be expressed in terms of the state variables and the input
variables with the following form:
y = g(x, u)
where
y1
g1
y
g
2
and
y=
g= 2
...
...
ym
g m
-89-
(6.2)
The column vector y is the vector of outputs, g is the vector of nonlinear functions for
calculating the system outputs, m is the number of system outputs.
x 0 = f( x 0 , u 0 ) = 0
(6.3)
If a stable system is disturbed from steady state by a small disturbance, i.e. x and u ,
it will eventually come to rest at a new steady state. This transition will still satisfy
equation (6.1), hence we have
x = f[( x 0 + x), (u 0 + u )]
(6.4)
f i
f
f
f
x1 + ... + i xn + i u1 + ... + i u r
x1
xn
u1
u r
(6.5)
Since x i 0 = f i ( x 0 , u 0 ) we have
xi =
f
f i
f
f
x1 + ... + i xn + i u1 + ... + i u r i = 1, 2 ,..., n
x1
xn
u1
u r
-90-
(6.6)
y j =
g j
x1
x1 + ... +
g j
xn
xn +
g j
u1
u1 + ... +
g j
ur
ur j = 1, 2,..., m
(6.7)
Therefore, the linearized system state equations around the equilibrium point are given
as [34]:
x = Ax + Bu
(6.8)
y = Cx + Du
(6.9)
where
f
f 1
... 1
x1 x n
A = ...
f n ... f n
x
1 x n
f 1 f 1
...
u r
1
B = ...
f n ... f n
u u
r
1
g1 g1
x ... x
n
1
C = ...
g m ... g m
x1 x n
g1 g1
u ... u
r
1
D = ...
g m ... g m
u1 ur
det(I A) = 0
(6.10)
A i = i i i = 1,..., n
(6.11)
is the right eigenvector of the A matrix associated with the eigenvalue i . The right
eigenvector i has the form:
1i
i = 2i
...
ni
(6.12)
The right eigenvector describes how each mode of oscillation is distributed among the
system states. In other words, it indicates on which system variables the mode is more
observable [61]. The magnitudes of the elements of i give the extent of the behaviours
of the n state variables in the ith mode, the angles of elements give the phase
displacements of the state variables with regard to the mode. Thus, the right eigenvector
is called mode shape.
Similarly, if a n-row vector i that satisfies:
i A = i i i = 1,..., n
-92-
(6.13)
It is called the left eigenvector of the A matrix associated with the eigenvalue i . The
left eigenvector has the form:
i = [ i1 i 2 ... in ]
(6.14)
The left eigenvector i can be used to identify which combination of state variables
displays only the ith mode. Thus, the kth element of the right eigenvector i measures
the activity of the variable x k in the ith mode, and the kth element of the left
eigenvector i weights the contribution of this activity to the ith mode.
x& = A x
(6.15)
In the time domain the response of the ith state variable can be described by
x (t ) =
x (0) e
i =1
it
(6.16)
where i is the ith eigenvalue, i is the ith right eigenvector, i is the ith left
eigenvector and x(0) is the initial state of the state vector x . Reference [34] presents
the detailed derivation of equation (6.16). The expression (6.16) defines the free motion
of a power system in terms of the n eigenvalues, and the right and left eigenvectors of
the system, from this equation the following properties of the system response can be
determined using eigenvalues [34].
-93-
(2) Complex eigenvalues always occur in conjugate pairs, and each pair corresponds
to an oscillatory mode. For example, a pair of complex eigenvalues
i = i ji
(6.17)
The real part of the complex eigenvalue gives the damping factor of this
oscillatory mode, and the imaginary part gives the frequency of this oscillatory
mode. A negative real part represents a damped oscillation whereas a positive
real part represents an oscillation with increasing amplitude.
The frequency of oscillatory mode is
f =
(Hz)
2
(6.18)
2 + (2f ) 2
100%
(6.19)
The oscillatory modes with a damping ratio less than 3% are the critical modes
that must be improved [34]. When designing damping controls, a stability
margin should be taken into account due to the uncertainties of system operation.
Thus, a damping ratio of at least 5% should be the objective of the control
design [59].
P = [p1 p 2 ...p n ]
(6.20)
p1i 1i i1
p
p i = 2i = 2i i 2
... ...
p ni ni in
(6.21)
with
where
(2) Three states for modelling Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR); vt -voltage
transducer state, v ph -phase shift state and va -amplifier state.
(3) Three states for modelling the Turbine Governor (TG); tg ser -governor servo state,
tg hp -high pressure turbine state and tg rh -reheat stage state.
In steady state, a classic modal analysis is executed. All the eigenvalues corresponding
to the system state matrix are presented in Table 6.1. There are 48 eigenvalues in the
system, the same number as the system state variables. As seen in Table 6.1 there are 8
pairs of complex eigenvalues (shaded), which implies that 8 oscillatory modes exist in
the system.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
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The oscillatory modes and their information are presented in Table 6.2. There are three
electromechanical oscillatory modes, two of which have a satisfactory damping ratio (1
and 2) (>5%), and a third that is unstable (shaded). The other five oscillatory modes are
excitation and governor control modes. As shown in Table 6.2, the frequency of the two
local modes is 1Hz, and the frequency of the inter-area mode is 0.54Hz.
Table 6.2: Oscillation modes in the two-area system.
No of oscillatory
mode
No of
Eigenvalue ()
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
18,19
20,21
28,29
31,32
33,34
39,40
42,43
44,45
Real
imaginary
Frequency
(Hz)
Damping ratio
(%)
-0.4706584 6.30193
1.002983
-0.4738081 6.257372 0.9958917
0.0266525 3.375049 0.5371557
-1.668693
1.61424 0.2569142
-0.3302784 0.9980652 0.1681012
-0.9635178 1.056211 0.158847
-0.4201452 0.6448019 0.1026234
-0.4050253 0.6372563 0.1014225
7.447738
7.550383
-0.78966
71.87365
67.39455
31.41638
54.59233
53.64027
The layouts of the eigenvalues that are associated with the oscillatory modes are
presented in a complex panel (see Figure 6.10). Here, only the eigenvalues that have
positive imaginary part are presented, as the complex eigenvalues always occur in
conjugate pairs.
7
6
local modes
imaginary
5
damping ratio=5%
4
3
2
1
0
-2
inter-area
modes
governor
modes
exciter
modes
exciter
modes
-1.5
-1
-0.5
real
Figure 6.10: Oscillatory modes in the two-area system.
-97-
0.5
The eigenvalues and the system state matrix are now used to calculate the eigenvectors
and participation factors that correspond to the inter-area oscillatory modes. The
elements of the right eigenvector corresponding to the 28th eigenvalue, which is
associated with the inter-area mode, are given in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: Right eigenvector for eigenvalue 28 (associated with inter-area mode).
State
State
No.
Magnitudes Phase angles No.
Magnitudes Phase angles
variables
variables
1 G1
0.000
107.24
25 G3
0.514
-4.48
2 G1
0.001
-124.43
26 G3
0.005
90.82
0.027
43.75
27 G3 1d
0.022
121.14
3 G1 1d
4
G1 1q
0.025
162.25
28
G3 1q
0.054
150.66
G1 fd
0.023
74.92
29
G3 fd
0.017
85.03
G1 2 q
0.017
145.31
30
G3 2 q
0.037
133.71
G1 v ph
0.002
101.16
31
G3 v ph
0.000
111.40
G1 va
0.052
9.01
32
G3 va
0.015
19.25
G1 vt
0.809
164.68
33
G3 vt
0.229
174.92
10
G1 tg ser
0.045
36.97
34
G3 tg ser
0.223
-107.78
11
G1 tg hp
0.023
-22.05
35
G3 tg hp
0.113
-166.80
12
G1 tg rh
0.001
-108.20
36
G3 tg rh
0.007
107.04
13
14
0.032
0.001
-24.28
-129.78
37
38
-4.94
90.90
0.034
44.97
39
G4
G4
G4 1d
0.472
0.004
15
G2
G2
G2 1d
0.022
108.72
16
G2 1q
0.034
154.12
40
G4 1q
0.054
150.55
17
G2 fd
0.030
71.89
41
G4 fd
0.02
81.26
18
G2 2 q
0.023
137.17
42
G4 2 q
0.037
133.61
19
G2 v ph
0.002
98.91
43
G4 v ph
0.001
105.22
20
G2 va
0.065
6.76
44
G4 va
0.023
13.07
21
G2 vt
1.000
162.42
45
G4 vt
0.347
168.73
22
G2 tg ser
0.029
31.62
46
G4 tg ser
0.201
-107.71
23
G2 tg hp
0.015
-27.40
47
G4 tg hp
0.102
-166.72
24
G2 tg rh
0.001
-113.55
48
G4 tg rh
0.006
107.12
-98-
Figure 6.11 gives the compass plot of the right eigenvector elements associated with
generator speeds. As seen in the compass plot, the speed changes in Area 1 are
approximately in anti-phase with the speed changes in Area 2. Furthermore, the
magnitudes of the right eigenvector components are larger in Area 2, than they are in
Area 1. These characteristics of the inter-area oscillatory mode given by the right
eigenvector are confirmed by the nonlinear simulation results (see Figure 6.4).
90
120
0.004
G3
60
0.003
G4
150
0.005
30
0.002
0.001
180
G2
G1
210
330
240
300
270
To obtain more information about the inter-area oscillatory mode, the participation
factors are calculated, as shown in Table 6.4. The participation factors have all been
normalized, so that the largest element is 1.00. This allows the source of the oscillatory
mode to be identified. The states associated with the rotor speed and phase angle of the
generators dominates the inter-area oscillatory mode. The participation factors
associated with the rotor angles and generator speeds are much higher than those
participation factors associated with the other state variables. However, since generator
1 is considered as the reference machine, the participation factor associated with the
rotor angle of generator 1 is zero.
-99-
Table 6.4: Participation vector for Eigenvalue 28 (associated with inter-area mode).
No.
State variables
Magnitudes
Phase angles
No.
State variables
Magnitudes
Phase angles
0.000
166.68
25
0.00
0.563
-176.82
26
0.496
-177.31
G1 1d
0.009
145.82
27
0.007
42.94
G1 1q
0.011
41.45
28
0.025
-148.78
G1
fd
0.113
-126.54
29
0.082
63.31
G1 2 q
0.012
41.45
30
G3
G3 1d
G3 1q
G3 fd
G3 2 q
1.00
G1
0.027
-148.78
G1 v ph
0.038
-2.88
31
G3 v ph
0.011
-172.91
G1
va
0.025
-27.22
32
G3
va
0.007
162.76
G1
vt
0.005
13.82
33
G3
vt
0.001
-156.20
10
G1
tg ser
G1 tg hp
0.009
36.95
34
G3
0.044
71.97
0.024
-40.67
35
tg ser
G3 tg hp
0.118
-5.65
0.005
-109.60
36
G3
-74.59
0.102
144.67
37
0.59
3.32
0.374
-175.00
38
tg rh
G4
G4
0.024
14
tg rh
G2
G2
0.257
-173.44
15
G2 1d
0.011
148.39
39
G4 1d
0.007
32.04
16
G2 1q
0.017
46.94
40
G4 1q
0.028
-135.88
17
G2
0.14
-128.22
41
G4
fd
0.091
61.05
18
G2 2 q
0.019
46.94
42
G4 2 q
0.031
-135.88
19
G2 v ph
0.045
-3.78
43
G4 v ph
0.016
-177.58
20
G2
va
0.029
-28.12
44
G4
va
0.01
158.09
21
G2
vt
0.006
12.92
45
G4
vt
0.002
-160.87
22
G2
0.004
34.25
46
G4
75.30
0.011
-43.37
47
tg ser
G4 tg hp
0.028
23
tg ser
G2 tg hp
0.075
-2.32
24
G2
0.002
-112.31
48
G4
0.015
-71.25
11
12
13
G1
G1
fd
tg rh
G3
tg rh
To investigate the effect of the inter-area active power flow on the inter-area mode,
modal analysis was executed for a range of inter-area active power flow conditions. The
frequency and damping ratio of the inter-area mode for the different inter-area power
flow conditions are given in Table 6.5. As seen from Table 6.5, the frequency and
damping ratio of the inter-area mode are reduced as the inter-area active power flow is
increased. Figure 6.12 shows how eigenvalues of the systems oscillatory modes change
with the power flow condition. The arrows represent the direction of the movement of
each eigenvalue that occurs as the inter-area power flow is increased.
Table 6.5: The effect of inter-area power flow on inter-area mode.
Active power flow
(area 1 to area 2, MW)
100
Frequency
1467
0.587
1.235
150
1517
0.586
0.855
200
1567
0.583
0.540
250
1617
0.577
0.262
300
1667
0.567
-0.012
350
1717
0.554
-0.345
400
1767
0.537
-0.789
7
6
local modes
imaginary
5
damping ratio=5%
4
3
inter-area
mode
governor
mode
exciter modes
1
0
-1.8
exciter
modes
-1.6
-1.4
-1.2
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
real
Figure 6.12: The effect of inter-area power flow on system oscillatory mode.
0.2
In addition, the effect of the impedance of the inter-tie lines on the inter-area mode was
investigated. The inter-tie lines impedance was varied by changing the number of tie
lines. Under the same inter-area power flow conditions but with a different number of
inter-tie lines in service, modal analysis was once more applied to the system. The
frequencies and damping ratios of the inter-area mode in the different cases are given in
-101-
Table 6.6. In Table 6.6, 0 denotes the scenario in which all four of the inter-tie lines
were in service; whereas -1 denotes the scenario in which one inter-tie line (line 6)
was out of service due to maintenance. As seen from the results of modal analysis in
Table 6.6, the frequency and damping ratio of the inter-area mode were reduced as the
impedance was increased.
Table 6.6: Effect of inter-tie line impedance on inter-area mode.
Power flow
(area 1 to area 2, MW)
100
0.587
1.235
-1
100
0.524
0.634
150
0.586
0.855
-1
150
0.522
0.416
200
0.583
0.540
-1
200
0.515
0.210
250
0.577
0.262
-1
250
0.503
-0.026
Operation scenario
Frequency
300
0.567
-0.012
-1
300
0.487
-0.372
350
0.554
-0.345
-1
350
0.463
-2.853
400
0.537
-0.789
-1
400
0.428
-2.140
6.5 Conclusions
In this chapter, the physical nature of power system oscillations has been investigated in
both the time domain and the frequency domain. In the time domain, a series of
nonlinear simulations were carried out. By using different types of disturbances, the
local modes and the inter-area mode were excited, and the characteristic of each
oscillatory mode was clearly observed. The generator speed and system frequency
response to disturbances are the essential signals for confirming different modes of
oscillations. Whilst the active power flows across different transmission corridors can
be monitored to identify oscillation modes (oscillatory frequency and damping factor).
-102-
-103-
y (t ) = A e ( + j 2f ) t
(7.1)
where A is the amplitude of the oscillation, is the damping factor and f is the
oscillation frequency. The magnitude of the oscillations decays if is negative,
whereas it increases if is positive. A practical measure for the assessment of
oscillations is the damping ratio, , defined as:
+ ( 2f ) 2
2
100%
(7.2)
In order to ensure a sufficient stability margin in the system, the damping ratio
should be greater than 5% [59]. Poorly damped, or unstable oscillations ( smaller than
5%) are a risk since they can lead to undesirable system conditions such as instabilities,
cascading events, or ultimately a catastrophic system blackout. A typical example is the
August 1996 blackout of the western US/Canada interconnected power system [62].
In large interconnected power systems, poorly damped or unstable inter-area
oscillations usually occur between power grids which are weakly connected. Here, the
weak connection refers to two adjacent power grids connected over high impedance
-104-
(7.3)
n 1
solution of (7.3) for the i-th state variable, xi , in terms of the eigenvalues
-105-
x i (t ) = A0 + Ak e k t sin( k t + k )
(7.4)
k =1
k and k = 2 f k are the damping factor and the oscillatory frequency, respectively
and k is the phase angle of the component. The DC component is included in the
signal model because the signal processed can oscillate around a non-zero value, this
will be shown in the algorithm testing and processing of real data records.
Given a system disturbance, the observation of the response of the i-th state variable xi
can be mathematically modelled through the following general nonlinear equation:
y (t ) = h(x(t ), t ) + (t )
(7.5)
in which (t ) is a zero mean Gaussian random noise, x(t ) is a suitable selected timevarying parameter vector and h(x(t ), t ) is the suitable parameter model of the processed
signal. In this particular case, the model is:
n
h(x(t ), t ) = A0 (t ) + Ak (t ) e k (t )t sin(k (t )t + k (t ))
(7.6)
k =1
The parameter model (7.6) is obviously highly nonlinear, so to estimate the unknown
model parameters, the nonlinear estimation techniques must be used. Let us define the
following 4n +1 vector of the unknown model parameters, x(t ) , for the signal model
(7.6):
x ( t ) = [ A0 ( t ) A1 ( t ) 1 ( t ) 1 ( t ) 1 ( t )... Ak ( t ) k ( t ) k ( t ) k ( t )... An ( t ) n ( t ) n ( t ) n ( t )] (7.7)
From the sampled values of the input signal, the following discrete representation of the
above signal model (7.6) can be created:
-106-
y i = h( x i , t i ) + i
(7.8)
where:
n
h(xi , ti ) = A0,i + Ak ,i e
k , i t i
k =1
(7.9)
4n + 1
y i = h( x i , t i ) + i
(7.10)
where
n
h(xi , ti ) = A0, i + Ak , i e
k , i t i
k =1
sin(k , i ti + k , i ) i = 1,2,..., m
(7.11)
y = h ( x) +
(7.12)
The solution (the estimates of the unknown model parameters) can be obtained
iteratively, or through a sequential update of estimates obtained from a single data
window. This is presented in the next Section.
F ( x) = h ( x) y = 0
(7.13)
F (x) 0
(7.14)
There exists an unknown correction vector x i , which has to be determined so that the
following holds:
F ( x i + x i ) = 0
(7.15)
From the Taylor series expansion of F(x) , linearized in the neighbourhood of xi, the
following expression is obtained:
(7.16)
-108-
F1 F1 F1 F1 F1 F1 F1 F1 F1 F1 F1 F1 F1
A A .. A .. A
k
k
k
k
n
n
n
n
0 1 1 1 1
J ( xi ) =
...
...
...
Fm Fm Fm Fm Fm .. Fm Fm Fm Fm .. Fm Fm Fm Fm
A0 A1 1 1 1 Ak k k k An n n n
(7.17)
where
F p A 0 = 1
(7.18)
Fp Ak = e k t sin(k t + k )
(7.19)
Fp k = t Ak e kt sin(k t + k )
(7.20)
Fp k = t Ak e k t cos(k t + k )
(7.21)
Fp k = Ak e k t cos(k t + k )
(7.22)
J i xi Fi = [h(xi ) y + ] = y h(xi )
(7.23)
Taking into account the error that occurred by neglecting the higher order terms in the
Taylor series expansion, it further follows that:
J i x i = y h(x i ) +
where
is an
m 1
(7.24)
error vector that includes the error vector and the errors produced
by neglecting the higher order terms in Taylors series expansion. By minimizing the
sum of the square of the errors in (7.24), the following unknown correction vector xi
can be obtained:
x i = ( J Ti J i ) 1 J Ti [ y h ( x i )] = J i# [ y h ( x i )]
-109-
(7.25)
(7.26)
The above equation is essential to the NTA. Typically, the iterative procedure should
stop when all of the unknown parameters in the (i+1)th iteration do not differ from
those in the i-th iteration by more than a specific tolerance, , that is defined in advance
by the user, this condition indicates that the optimal solution has been reached.
The algorithm presented in this thesis, like any other nonlinear estimator, may
prematurely converge to a local minimum. Therefore, it is important to make sure that
the initial estimate lies close to the true solution. If the initial estimate from which the
iteration begins is far away from the global minimum, the method may reach one of the
local minima or, in the worst case, totally diverge. To find an appropriate initial starting
point for the NTA, the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm is used. The FFT is used
to find the number of dominant oscillatory components, n, in the samples captured in
the initial data window; after that the Least Square (LS) method [74] is used to estimate
the parameters of each oscillatory component, A0 , Ak , k , k = 2f k , k , k = 1,..., n .
Furthermore, the algorithm requires appropriate choice of the following algorithm
parameters: data window size Tdw and the sampling frequency f s . In the next Section the
algorithms sensitivity to the selection of data window size and sampling frequency will
be discussed.
-110-
xk '
xk '
xk
k
As shown in Figure 1, Block 1 generates groups of test signals with the signal
parameters x k defined in the INPUT Block. Block 2 represents the NTA applied for the
estimation of unknown parameters. The results of the estimation xk ' (saved in Block 3)
are compared to the actual values of x k and then the error vector k = x k x k ' is
analyzed in Block 4. The results of the error analysis are saved in Block 5. The
computer simulation tests comprise Static tests, Noise tests and Dynamic tests.
(7.27)
-111-
y(t)
15
10
5
0
10
time [s]
A0
Actual
Esti.
10
9.8
6
time [s]
10
Actual
Esti.
A1
5.2
5
4.8
6
time [s]
10
damping factor
Actual
Esti.
-0.15
-0.2
-0.25
2
6
time [s]
10
-112-
0.52
f [Hz]
Actual
Esti.
0.5
0.48
6
time [s]
10
60.2
60
Actual
Esti.
59.8
2
6
time [s]
10
Actual
Esti.
y(t)
15
10
5
0
4
time [s]
SNR = 20 log
-113-
A0
2
(dB)
(7.28)
where A0 is the magnitude of the DC component, and is the noise standard deviation.
Here, three series of noise tests are performed. In all cases the mean error vector k of
the estimation results for the unknown parameters is defined as:
n
k =
x
i =1
xk '
n xk
100%
(7.29)
where x k represents the actual unknown parameters, and xk ' is the estimated values of
the unknown parameters, n is the number of estimation results.
Tdw = 3s . The results of the sensitivity analysis are presented in Table 7.1. The results
suggest that larger errors are obtained for a higher noise level.
Table 7.1: Sensitivity analysis for random noise.
Mean error in the estimation results (%)
Parameters SNR=30 dB SNR= 50dB SNR=70 dB SNR=90 dB
0.6088
0.31985
0.0826
0.0317
A0
A1
58.0023
25.62634
14.8779
5.0705
39.5772
17.74586
8.7892
3.0651
f1 (Hz)
3.7504
1.55972
0.5360
0.2177
1 (deg)
92.0565
36.4835
13.2939
5.2441
SNR = 50 dB . The data window size was set to Tdw = 3s . The results (summarized in
Table 7.2) indicate that for a higher sampling frequency better estimation results are
obtained. However, in practice, the improved accuracy obtained by increasing the
sampling frequency would need to be balanced against the processing time requirements.
-114-
Parameters
fs =50 Hz
fs =1000 Hz
A0
0.38549
0.31985
0.17782
0.1412
0.10415
A1
39.34897
25.62634
18.96515
14.54942
12.31657
22.08241
17.74586
14.90845
9.40634
8.12717
f1 (Hz)
2.60918
1.55972
1.00475
0.52258
0.50971
1 (deg)
62.29959
36.4835
23.87996
12.32148
11.9796
A1
25.62634 24.22365
7.45586
7.06324
17.74586 12.88686
6.91787
5.09057
1.55972
0.75748
0.58151
0.43645
36.4835
15.44149
11.7549
7.3249
f 1 (Hz)
1 (deg)
In Figure 7.9, both the estimated and processed noisy signals are presented
( SNR = 50 dB , f s = 100 Hz , Tdw = 3s ), suitably demonstrating that the algorithm is
capable of processing noisy signals.
Actual
Esti.
y(t)
15
10
5
0
4
5
6
7
time [s]
Figure 7.9: Algorithm tracking capabilities in presence of noise.
-115-
y(t)
15
10
5
0
6
8
10
time [s]
Figure 7.10: Computer generated signal with step change of .
12
Actual
Tdw=2s
Tdw=3s
Tdw=4s
A0
10
8
6
6
7
8
9
10
time [s]
Figure 7.11: Estimation results of the magnitude of DC component, A0, for different Tdw.
-116-
A1
15
Tdw=2s
Tdw=3s
Tdw=4s
10
5
0
10
Figure 7.12: Estimation results of the magnitude of oscillatory component, A1, for different Tdw.
1.5
damping factor
Actual
Tdw=2s
Tdw=3s
Tdw=4s
1
0.5
0
-0.5
6
time [s]
10
f [Hz]
0.5
0.4
Actual
Tdw=2s
0.3
Tdw=3s
Tdw=4s
6
time [s]
10
Figure 7.14: Estimation results of the frequency of oscillatory component, f, for different Tdw.
400
Actual
Tdw=2s
200
Tdw=3s
Tdw=4s
0
2
6
time [s]
10
Figure 7.15: Estimation results of the phase angle of oscillatory component, , for different
Tdw.
-117-
Actual
y(t)
15
Esti.
10
5
0
4
5
6
7
8
time [s]
Figure 7.16: Dynamic testing: comparison between the actual and estimated signal.
= j
'='j'
Figure 7.17: A block diagram of the testing procedure based on dynamic simulation of a multimachine test system.
The simulated two-area power system consists of two active networks in which each
one has two generators (see Figure 7.18). The two active areas are connected via four
AC transmission lines and one HVDC transmission link. The full set of the system
parameters are given in Appendix B.
-118-
1.006
G1
G2
G3
G4
1.004
1.002
1
0.998
0.996
0.994
10
15
time [s]
20
25
30
The generator rotor speed variations are simultaneously analysed using the NTA. These
oscillatory signals were processed with a sampling frequency f s = 100Hz and a data
window size Tdw = 5s . In order to obtain a clear mode shape of the inter-area oscillation
mode and to avoid the influence of the other oscillation modes (e.g. local modes and
control modes), only the oscillatory signals in the range of 10-30 s are considered. In
Figure 7.20, the estimated magnitudes and phase angles of the dominant oscillatory
component of each processed signal are presented in a polar diagram. The estimation
results were updated every two seconds and the polar diagram provides a very clear
view of the shape of the dominant inter-area oscillatory mode. The phase angles of the
oscillatory speeds of the generators in area 1 are in anti-phase with respect to the
oscillatory speeds of the generators in area 2.
-119-
60
G2
150
30
G1
180
G3
210
330
G4
240
300
270
For the fault described above, the oscillatory active power flow over one of the AC
inter-tie lines (line 2) is presented in Figure 7.21. This oscillatory signal (from 5 s to
30 s) was processed with the sampling frequency f s = 100Hz and the data window size
Tdw = 5s . In Figures 22-23, the estimated dominant inter-area oscillation mode (damping
factor and frequency) obtained from the oscillatory active power flow is presented. The
estimation results obtained by using the NTA were compared with the Prony method
and Eigenvalue analysis (performed under steady state). In the Prony analysis, an
estimation model with 21 orders was used for better fitting the original oscillatory signal.
As seen from Figures 7.22-23, the results obtained using the NTA are practically the
same as the results obtained using the classical Eigenvalue analysis. Furthermore, it is
demonstrated that the NTA algorithm delivered more accurate and stable estimation
results, compared to the Prony method. This is because the Prony method is based on a
linear approximation technique and the oscillation modes are calculated by solving
independent approximated polynomial equations with the data captured by individual
data windows. In the case of the NTA method, the oscillation unknown parameters are
calculated by the continuous iteration procedure based on a set of partial differential
equations. In the iteration procedure, the estimation results obtained from the previous
sliding data window are the initial points for the next iteration using the data from the
next data window.
In order to eliminate the effects of the weaker high order components in the estimation
model used for Prony method, the sampling frequency of original oscillatory signal was
-120-
reduced to f s = 5 Hz (data window size Tdw = 5s ); the Prony estimation model was
reduced to have 3 orders, i.e., one DC component and one oscillatory component. The
dominant inter-area oscillation mode (damping factor and frequency) estimated by the
Prony method are shown in Figures 7.24-25. As seen from these plots, the quality of the
estimation of the dominant inter-area oscillation mode was significantly improved. The
estimation results obtained from NTA algorithm are still more accurate and stable than
the results obtained from Prony method. Figure 7.26 presents the reconstructed signal
based on the NTA estimated parameters.
P (MW)
200
100
0
10
15
time [s]
20
25
30
Figure 7.21: Oscillatory active power (on line 2) after the disturbance.
frequency [Hz]
0.54
0.52
0.5
10
Prony
NTA
Eigen
20
25
30
time [s]
Figure 7.22: Estimated frequency of the inter-area oscillatory mode by NTA and Prony method.
damping factor
15
0
-0.1
-0.2
10
Prony
15
NTA
Eigen
20
25
30
time [s]
Figure 7.23: Estimated damping factor of the inter-area oscillatory mode by NTA and Prony
method.
-121-
frequency (Hz)
0.53
Reduced-order Prony
NTA
Eigen
0.52
0.51
10
15
20
25
30
time [s]
Figure 7.24: Estimated frequency of the inter-area oscillatory mode by reduced-order Prony
damping factor
Reduced-order Prony
NTA
Eigen
-0.05
-0.1
10
15
20
25
30
time [s]
Figure 7.25: Estimated damping factor of the inter-area oscillatory mode by reduced-order
P (MW)
200
100
Actual
0
10
15
time [s]
20
Esti.
25
30
-122-
A post-mortem analysis of the event was performed using the NTA with the sampling
frequency f s = 100 Hz and the data window size Tdw = 5 s , which estimates the
dominant oscillatory frequency and the damping ratio defined to the values illustrated in
Figures 7.28-7.29.
The estimation results from NTA were compared to those of the Prony method. For the
Prony analysis, the sampling frequency was reduced to f s = 5 Hz and the data window
size was Tdw = 5s . Here, the Prony estimation model has 5 orders, i.e., one DC
component and two oscillatory components. As seen from Figures 7.28-7.29, both
methods delivered similar estimation results of the dominant inter-area oscillation mode;
however, the results from the NTA more accurately present the dynamic characteristic
of the system. This can be attributed to the NTA estimating the oscillation parameters
based on the real oscillatory signal rather than a decimated signal. The results have been
validated through a comparison between the real and the estimated signal as given in
Figure 7.30. From this exercise it can be concluded that the NTA is capable of tracking
59
58
57
56
10
time [s]
frequency [Hz]
Figure 7.27: Oscillatory voltage phase angle difference between Glasgow and London.
Reduced-order Prony
NTA
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
10
time [s]
-123-
40
20
0
Reduced-order Prony
5
NTA
9
10
time [s]
Figure 7.29: Estimated damping ratio of inter-area oscillatory mode in the GB network.
59
Actual
Esti.
y(t)
58
57
56
t (s)
7.7 Conclusions
This Chapter has presented an NTA algorithm developed for the estimation of inter-area
oscillatory modes. In the static tests, the NTA has been shown to reliably identify the
oscillatory mode in a computer generated signal. The robust nature of the NTA has been
further demonstrated to perform the same duty in the presence of white noise, if the
sampling frequency and data window size are selected properly.
The dynamic capability of the NTA has also been successfully demonstrated by
capturing the dynamic oscillatory mode when the parameters of the test signal
experienced a step change. The performance of the NTA to estimate inter-area
oscillatory modes has been shown to not only corresponded to the results of the
Eigenvalue analysis, but it was also more accurate and stable than the well know
conventional Prony method for both laboratory tests and real condition tests.
The NTA enables the inter-area oscillation mode shape to be observed by processing the
generator rotor speeds, which is an essential application for confirming the swing modes
between different parts of a large system. This work has not been possible from existing
oscillation monitoring methods. The NTA was tested on real recorded data and
-124-
successfully extracted the dynamic oscillation parameters from the oscillations observed
in the GB power system following a large disturbance in 2010.
In summary, the research so far suggests that the NTA is a powerful tool for analyzing
PMU data captured from Wide area monitoring and could be a key constituent of future
WAM applications.
-125-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
-126-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
system is representative of the sort that may benefit from the use of power electronic
devices for damping inter-area oscillations.
x = Ax + B u
(8.1)
y = Cx + Du
(8.2)
n n
B is the input matrix of size nr
C is the output matrix of size m n
D is a matrix of size m r defines the proportion of input which directly influences the
A is the state matrix of size
output, y.
The frequency domain representation of these state equations can be defined by taking
their Laplace transforms, as follows:
-127-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
s x ( s ) x (0) = A x ( s ) + B u ( s )
(8.3)
y ( s ) = Cx( s ) + Du ( s )
(8.4)
(8.5)
(8.6)
Thus:
Substituting x(s) into equation (8.4) allows the system outputs to be defined as:
(8.7)
Since we are only concerned with the transfer function between the system inputs and
outputs, the element x(0) can be assumed to be zero. In addition, if we assume that the
system outputs, y (s) , are not a direct function of the inputs, u( s ) , (i.e., D=0) then the
open loop transfer function of the system is:
G (s) =
y ( s)
= C ( s I A) 1 B
u( s)
(8.8)
G(s) =
y j (s)
u k (s)
Ri
i =1
s i
= c j ( s I A) 1 b k =
(8.9)
where
Ri = c j i i b k
-128-
(8.10)
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
is the residue of the transfer function between the input uk (s ) and the output y j (s ) .
c j is the jth row vector of the C matrix and b k is the kth column vector of the B matrix.
i is the right eigenvector associated with the eigenvalue i , and i is the left
eigenvector associated with the eigenvalue i .
A residue describes the sensitivity of the corresponding eigenvalue, i , to a feedback
control. Figure 8.1 represents the open loop transfer function G ( s) and a positive
feedback control transfer function H(s). For the original open loop control, uk (s ) is a
single input and y j (s ) is a single output; whereas for the feedback control, y j (s ) is
used as an input signal. The output of the feedback control will be used to modify the
input of the original open loop control. When feedback control is applied, the
eigenvalues of the original system are changed according to the rule defined in (8.11)
[82]; i is the shift of the eigenvalue i caused by the closed loop feedback control.
i = Ri H (i )
uk (s )
(8.11)
y j (s )
G(s)
H(s)
Figure 8.2 gives a block diagram of a typical feedback damping controller. The
controller consists of an amplification block, a low-pass filter, a washout filter and
several compensation blocks [83].
umax
kd
1
1 + sTm
sTw
1 + sTw
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
umin
Figure 8.2: The structure of a feedback damping control.
-129-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
1
H ( s ) = k d
1 + sTm
sTw
1 + sT
w
1 + sTlead
1 + sT
lag
(8.12)
where k d is a positive constant gain, Tm is the time constant of the low pass filter
(typically 0.1s) [83] and Tw is the washout time constant (typically 3s-10s) [84]. Tlead
and Tlag are the lead and lag time constants for the N phase-compensation blocks.
As shown in equation (8.11), the distance of the shift of the eigenvalue i that is caused
by the feedback damping control is proportional to magnitude of the corresponding
residue and the gain of the feedback damping control. The direction of this shift of the
eigenvalue i depends on the residues phase angle and the phase shift across the
feedback control transfer function, H ( s ) .
j
Ri
i = kd Ri
H (s )
R
i
inew
An ideal feedback damping control move the selected eigenvalue, i , directly into the
left stable area (damping ratio>5%), moving parallel with the real axis. In other words,
the residues phase angle, R , and the phase shift across transfer function of the
feedback control, H ( s ) , should satisfy the relationship R + H ( s ) = 180 0 . The
compensation angle, H ( s ) , is predominantly determined by the phase compensation
blocks. The necessary parameter values for Tlead and Tlag , which will properly define
the phase compensation blocks, can be calculated using the following equations:
H(s) = 180o R
-130-
(8.13)
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
H(s) 60o
1
N=
2
Tlead
Tlag
Tlag =
(8.14)
H(s) 120o
1 sin(
=
1 + sin(
H (s)
N
H (s)
N
(8.15)
)
(8.16)
Tlead = Tlag
(8.17)
where R is the phase angle of the residue, R i , and (rad/sec) is the oscillation
frequency of the oscillatory mode to be modified.
Bus 6
Tr1
Bus 3
Line 1
REC
Line 3
Line 2
Area 1
Line 8
Cap 3
Bus 1
Line 5
Line 4
Line 6
Load 1
G2
Tr2
Tr3
INV Bus 5
DC link
Cap 4
Bus 7
Line 7
Area 2
Load 2
Cap 1
Bus 4
Cap 2
-131-
Tr4
G4
G3
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
Modern HVDC transmission technology either uses CSC or VSC as power converters.
The proper selection of converter technology in a HVDC transmission system should be
based on a wide range of factors; a number of which are addressed in the detailed
comparison of CSC and VSC technologies given in [85]. The capacity of the current
VSC technology is currently limited to 250 MW, due to practical limitations of the
electronic switches. This limitation means that CSC technology will be more suitable
for use in the HVDC links that are expected to be installed between Scotland and central
England, as shown in Figure 5.5. This is because the power transferred over the new
HVDC links will be approximate 2000 MW [86] during heavy load condition.
-132-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
Therefore, in the discussion of modelling presented in this section only the CSC based
technology is only considered.
A detailed introduction and discussion of CSC converter theory and performance is
presented in [34]. We directly move to the introduction of the equivalent circuits of
CSC power converters. A power converter has two operation modes, rectifier mode and
inverter mode. The operation mode of a converter is determined by the firing angle, ,
of the controlled valves. With a firing angle of 0<<90 a converter operates in
rectifier mode; whereas when the firing angle is 90<<180 a converter operates in
inverter mode. A rectifier converts electric power from the AC system to the DC system;
whereas an inverter converts electric power from the DC system to the AC system.
Figure 8.6 shows the equivalent circuit of a rectifier with one six-pulse bridge.
Rcr
Id
E LL
Vdor cos
Vdr
V dor =
3 2
TE LL
Rcr =
X cr
where:
Vdor is the ideal open circuit direct voltage of rectifier
ELL is the line-line voltage on converter side
T is the transformer ratio
is the ignition delay (firing) angle
-133-
(8.19)
(8.20)
(8.21)
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
Figure 8.7 presents the equivalent circuit of an inverter with one six-pulse bridge. The
inverter operation may be described in terms of ; defined in the same way as for the
rectifier but with an ignition (firing) delay angle of between 90 and 180. However, the
common practice is to describe an inverter using the ignition advance angle (=-),
instead of .
Rci
E LL
Id
Vdi
Vdoi cos
V doi =
3 2
TE LL
Rci =
X ci
where
Vdoi is the ideal open circuit direct voltage of inverter
ELL is the line-line voltage on converter side
=- is the ignition advance angle of inverter
Rci is the commutation resistance of inverter
Xci is the commutation reactance of inverter
-134-
(8.22)
(8.23)
(8.24)
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
-135-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
Figure 8.8 shows the three main parts of a Monopolar HVDC transmission network: the
rectifier at the power sending terminal, the inverter at the power receiving terminal and
the DC transmission line. Combining this configuration with the equivalent circuits of
power converters allows the equivalent circuit of a Monopolar HVDC link to be formed.
This equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 8.11 alongside a typical voltage profile of the
equivalent circuit in Figure 8.12.
Rcr
Vdor cos
RL
Rci
Id
Vdr
Vdi
Vdoi cos
Vdor cos
Vdr
Vdi
Vdoi cos
Figure 8.12: Voltage profile of the equivalent circuit of HVDC link [34].
-136-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
The direct current flow in the equivalent circuit of a closed HVDC circuit can be
described by:
Id =
(8.25)
Pdr = Vdr I d
(8.26)
(8.27)
-137-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
With the predetermined power transfer and a constant voltage at the inverter terminal,
the direct current through the DC link can be directly calculated. Using this calculated
value as a current reference, the rectifiers control acts to hold the direct current at
the reference value by adjusting the firing angle (see Figure 8.15).
control
control
I ref
max
kp
1
1 + sT f
Vref
Vmeas
ki
s
min
max
kp
1
1 + sT f
I ref
I meas
ki
s
min
-138-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
local modes
imaginary
5
damping ratio=5%
4
3
inter-area mode
2
exciter modes
1
0
-2
governor modes
exciter modes
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
real
Figure 8.16: Oscillatory modes in the two-area system with HVDC.
A nonlinear simulation was performed to show that the inter-area oscillatory mode
under which the generators in the areas swing against each other after disturbances. For
exciting the inter-area mode, the mechanical torque of generator 2 was increased by
0.01 p.u. at 0s, the mechanical torque of generator 4 was simultaneously reduced by
0.01 p.u.. Figure 8.17 shows the generator rotor speed responses to this pair of small
disturbances. The shape of the inter-area mode can be clearly observed in the responses,
i.e. the change of the generator rotor speeds in area 1 are always in anti-phase with the
change of the generator rotor speeds in area 2. Figure 8.18 shows the frequency
response at two locations in the system; one is measured in area 1 (at bus 3) and the
other is measured in area 2 (at bus 5). As seen from Figures 8.17-8.18, the inter-area
mode is not damped.
-139-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
1.0003
G1
speed [p.u.]
1.0002
G2
G3
G4
1.0001
1
0.9999
0.9998
10
time [s]
15
20
Figure 8.17: Generator rotor speed responses to the small disturbances without HVDC damping
control.
Frequency [Hz]
fre-bus3
fre-bus5
50.005
50
49.995
10
time [s]
15
20
Figure 8.18: System frequency responses to the small disturbances without HVDC damping
control.
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
monitoring system frequencies at different locations (see Figure 8.18). Therefore, the
frequency difference between the two areas is a logical choice for the input signal of the
damping controller.
I ref
max
kp
1
1 + sT f
I meas
ki
s
min
u max
1
1 + sTm
kd
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
sTw
1 + sTw
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
umin
Figure 8.20 represents such closed loop system, in which the feedback control has two
input signals, y j (s ) and yl (s) . Then based on the equation (8.10), the residue of the
open loop transfer function between the system input uk (s ) and the system outputs
y j (s ) and yl (s) can be represented by equation (8.28).
uk (s )
y j (s )
G(s)
H(s)
yl (s )
Ri = c j i i bk cl i i bk
(8.28)
where c j and cl is the jth and lth row vector of the C matrix and b k is the kth column
vector of the B matrix. i is the right eigenvector associated with the eigenvalue i , and
-141-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
As introduced in Section 8.2.2, the phasor angle of the shift of the selected eigenvalue
i caused by the feedback control should be equal to the sum of R and H ( s ) (see Fig.
8.3). Therefore, if the phase shift across the transfer function of the feedback damping
control, at the frequency associated with i is zero (no phase compensation block is
used in the feedback control), and then the feedback control will move the eigenvalue
i in the same direction as the residue. Hence, the corresponding movement of the
eigenvalue i caused by such feedback control can be described by the following
equations:
i = Ri H (i ) = + j
(8.29)
(8.30)
R = ac tan(
where i is the shift of the eigenvalue i caused by the transfer function of the
feedback control H (i ) and the residue Ri . and represent the change of the real
part and imaginary part of i , respectively. This approach for estimating the phase
angle of the residue is illustrated in Figure 8.21.
2
ishift
2
R = ac tan
Figure 8.21: An illustration of the estimation of the phase angle of the residue.
In this case, the method shown in Figure 8.21 was used to estimate the phase angle of
the residue. First of all, a simple feedback damping controller was integrated into the
system. This damping controller only consisted of a low pass filter and a washout filter;
no phase compensation blocks are included. Modal analysis was applied for both
k d = 0 and k d = 100 (see Figure 8.14); for both of these gain values the locations of
the eigenvalues that are associated with the inter-area mode are presented in Figure 8.22.
With the shift of the eigenvalue, the phase angle of the residue was estimated to be
68.48 0.
-142-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
3.218
3.217
imaginary
3.216
3.215
3.214
3.213
3.212
3.211
shift = 68.480
Kd = 0
-0.0125
-0.012
-0.0115
-0.011
real
Figure 8.22: An estimation of the residues phase angle for HVDC damping control design.
(8.31)
-143-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
7
local
modes
damping
ration=5%
imaginary
5
kd=400
kd=800
kd=1400
4
3
inter- area
mode
kd=1600
2
governor
mode
1
0
-4
exciter
modes
-3.5
-3
-2.5
-2
exciter
modes
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
real
Figure 8.23: Oscillatory modes versus the gain of HVDC damping controller.
Nonlinear time-domain simulations were used to check the ability of the HVDC
damping controller to properly damp inter-area oscillations. At 0 s, the mechanical
torque of generator 2 was increased by 0.01 p.u.; simultaneously the mechanical torque
of generator 4 was reduced by 0.01 p.u.. Figure 8.24 presents the responses of generator
rotor speeds to the pair of disturbances with and without the HVDC damping controller.
In addition, Figure 8.25 presents the responses of the inter-area power flow (line 3) to
these small disturbances with different damping controller gains. These results show
that the larger controller gain is used the larger damping is obtained.
1.0003
1.0003
no control
1.0002
no control
kd=1600
1.0001
1
0.9999
G1
0.9998
0
10
15
1.0002
kd=1600
1.0001
1
0.9999
G2
0.9998
20
time [s]
10
1.0003
20
1.0003
no control
1.0002
no control
15
time [s]
kd=1600
1.0001
1
0.9999
G3
0.9998
0
10
15
1.0002
kd=1600
1.0001
1
0.9999
G4
0.9998
20
time [s]
10
15
20
time [s]
Figure 8.24: Generator rotor speed responses to the small disturbances with and without HVDC
damping control.
-144-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
160
without control
with control kd=400
with control kd=800
with control kd=1600
P [MW]
155
150
145
0
10
time [s]
15
20
Figure 8.25: Active power flow (line 3) responses to the small disturbances with and without
HVDC damping control.
The behaviour of the HVDC damping controller during large disturbances was also
tested. At 1 s a permanent three-phase short-circuit fault was simulated at the mid-point
of line 6, after 100 ms the faulted line was disconnected. The response of the generator
rotor speeds to the three-phase fault with, and without a HVDC damping controller are
presented in Figure 8.26. As seen from the simulation results, the HVDC damping
controller has shown its robustness in damping inter-area oscillations after the system is
subject to a large disturbance. In addition, Figure 8.27 presents the responses of the
inter-area power flow (line 3) to the large disturbance with different damping controller
gains. As before, when the controller gain is increased the damping is also increased;
no control
1.005
this allows the system to be stabilized more quickly from the large disturbance.
kd=1600
G1
0.995
0
10
15
no control
1.005
kd=1600
G2
0.995
20
time [s]
1.015
15
20
1.015
no control
G3
1.01
10
time [s]
kd=1600
1.005
1
0.995
no control
G4
1.01
kd=1600
1.005
1
0.995
10
15
20
time [s]
10
15
20
time [s]
Figure 8.26: Generator rotor speed responses to a three-phase fault with and without HVDC
damping control.
-145-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
400
without control
with control kd=400
with control kd=800
300
P [MW]
200
100
0
-100
10
time [s]
15
20
Figure 8.27: Active power flow (line 3) responses to a three-phase fault with and without
HVDC damping control.
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
typical TCSC consists of a series capacitor bank, C, in parallel with a thyristorcontrolled reactor, L, as shown in Figure 8.29.
For power flow and power system stability studies, the effect of the thyristor operation
can be neglected in the simulations. Therefore, for these studies, a TCSC can be
represented using the ideal model shown in Figure 8.30; that consists of a fixed
capacitor in parallel with a variable reactor.
Figure 8.30: An ideal model of TCSC for power system stability study.
Using this ideal model the equivalent circuit of a transmission corridor with TCSC
shown in Figure 8.31 is constructed. In the equivalent circuit the resistance of the
transmission line is neglected. As the equivalent reactance of line 1 can now be
smoothly changed, by adjusting the reactance of the TCSC, the active power flow
across the two transmission lines can be dynamically regulated.
xTCSC
Pline1
xline1
xline 2
VS
Pline 2
VR
-147-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
Figure 8.32 gives a block diagram of basic TCSC control. Based on off line power flow
study (see Figure 8.31), the reactance of the variable reactor is calculated to obtain an
expected power flow condition (see Figure 8.30). In addition, TCSC can also play an
important role in improving the damping of low frequency power oscillations. This can
be achieved by adding a damping control that provides a damping signal to change the
reactance dynamically.
xmax
xC xTCSC
xC + xTCSC
xTCSC
1
1 + sT f
xreactor
xmin
local modes
imaginary
damping
ratio=5%
inter-area
modes
3
2
1
0
-2
governor
mode
exciter
modes
-1.5
-1
exciter modes
-0.5
0.5
real
Figure 8.33: Oscillatory modes in the two-area system with TCSC.
-148-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
After the modal analysis, a nonlinear simulation was executed in the time domain to
show the inter-area oscillatory mode under which the generators in the areas swing
against each other after disturbances. For exciting the inter-area mode, the mechanical
torque of generator 2 was increased by 0.01 p.u. at 0s, the mechanical torque of
generator 4 was reduced simultaneously by 0.01 p.u.. Figure 8.34 shows the generator
rotor speed responses to this pair of small disturbances. The shape of the inter-area
mode can be clearly observed in the responses, i.e. the change of the generator rotor
speeds in area 1 are always in anti-phase with the change of the generator rotor speeds
in area 2. Figure 8.35 shows the frequency response at two locations in the system; one
is measured in area 1 (at bus 3) and the other is measured in area 2 (at bus 5).
1.0002
speed [p.u.]
G1
G2
G3
G4
1.0001
1
0.9999
0.9998
10
15
20
time [s]
Figure 8.34: Generator rotor speed responses to the small disturbances without TCSC damping
control.
Frequency [Hz]
50.006
fre-bus3
fre-bus5
50.004
50.002
50
49.998
49.996
10
time [s]
15
20
Figure 8.35: System frequency responses to the small disturbances without TCSC damping
control.
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
5). The output of this damping controller is used to modify the reactance reference of
the TCSC.
xmax
xC xTCSC
xC + xTCSC
+
xTCSC
1
1 + sT f
xreactor
xmin
u max
Freq area 1
+
1
1 + sTm
kd
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
sTw
1 + sTw
Freq area 2
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
N stages
Limit
u min
In this case, the method shown in Figure 8.21 is used to estimate the phase angle of the
residue of the inputs and the output of the systems open loop transfer function. First of
all, a feedback damping controller is integrated into the system. This damping controller
only consists of a low pass filter and a washout filter; there are no phase compensation
blocks. Modal analysis was applied for two gain values, k d = 0 and k d = 100 . Figure
8.37 presents the locations of the eigenvalues associated with the inter-area mode
obtained from this modal analysis. Using the shift of the eigenvalue, the phase angle of
the residue was estimated to -42.417 0.
4.0932
4.093
imaginary
4.0928
4.0926
shift = 42.417 0
4.0924
4.0922
4.092
4.0918
4.0916
inter = 0.01913188
+ j4.09175 k = 100
d
real
Figure 8.37: An estimation of the residues phase angle for TCSC damping control design.
In this case, a negative feedback control is used to produce an ideal feed back controller,
based on equation (8.14) the phase compensation blocks of the feedback control should
produce a phase shift of 42.417 at 0.65 Hz (the frequency of the inter-area mode). The
parameters values that produce the necessary compensation were calculated by using
-150-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
equations (8.15-8.19); these values are Tlead = 0.11s , Tlag = 0 .556 s . Hence, we have a
transfer function for the negative feedback damping controller:
1 10 s 1 + 0.22 s
H (s) = Kd
1 + 0.1s 1 + 10 s 1 + 1.38 s
(8.32)
damping
ratio =5%
imaginary
5
4
Kd=22000
Kd=18000
Kd=12000
Kd=6000
3
2
governor
mode
exciter modes
inter-area
mode
exciter modes
0
-4
-3.5
-3
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
real
Figure 8.38: Oscillatory modes versus the gain of TCSC damping controller.
Nonlinear simulations were used to demonstrate that the ability of the TCSC damping
controller to move the inter-area mode eigenvalue corresponds to an ability to damp the
inter-area oscillation. At 0 s, the mechanical torque of generator 2 was increased by 0.01
p.u.; simultaneously the mechanical torque of generator 4 was reduced by 0.01 p.u..
Figure 8.39 presents the responses of generator rotor speeds to these small disturbances
-151-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
with and without the TCSC damping control. These results confirmed the TCSC
damping controllers ability in damping inter-area oscillations. In addition, Figure 8.40
presents the responses of the inter-area power flow (line 3) to these small disturbances
with different damping controller gains. These results show that the larger controller
gain was used the larger damping was obtained.
1.0002
no control
1.0002
kd=22000
1.0001
no control
kd=22000
1.0001
G1
0.9999
10
15
0.9999
20
G2
0
time [s]
15
20
1.0003
no control
1.0002
1.0003
kd=22000
1.0001
1
0.9999
0.9998
10
time [s]
G3
0
10
15
no control
1.0002
kd=22000
1.0001
1
0.9999
G4
20
0.9998
time [s]
10
15
20
time [s]
Figure 8.39: Generator rotor speed responses to the small disturbances with and without TCSC
damping control.
112
111
110
P [MW]
109
108
107
without control
with control kd=6000
106
105
104
10
time [s]
15
20
Figure 8.40: Active power flow (line 3) responses to small disturbance with and without TCSC
damping control.
Furthermore, the damping effect of the TCSC damping controller was also verified for a
large disturbance. At 1 s a permanent three-phase short-circuit fault was simulated at the
mid-point of line 6, after 100 ms the faulted line was disconnected. The response of the
-152-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
generator rotor speeds to the three-phase fault with, and without a TCSC damping
controller are presented in Figure 8.41. As seen from the simulation results, the TCSC
damping controller has shown its robustness in damping inter-area oscillations after the
system is subject to a large disturbance. In addition, Figure 8.42 presents the responses
of the inter-area power flow (line 3) to the large disturbance with different damping
controller gains. As before, when the controller gain is increased the damping is also
increased; this allows the system to be stabilized more quickly from the large
disturbance.
1.003
no control
1.003
kd=22000
1.002
1.001
1
G1
0.999
0
10
15
no control
kd=22000
1.002
1.001
1
G2
0.999
20
no control
1.004
kd=22000
1.002
1
0.998
G3
0
10
15
20
time [s]
time [s]
10
15
no control
1.004
kd=22000
1.002
1
0.998
20
G4
0
time [s]
10
15
20
time [s]
Figure 8.41: Generator rotor speed responses to a three-phase fault with and without TCSC
damping control.
110
100
90
P [MW]
80
70
60
without control
50
40
30
20
10
time [s]
15
20
Figure 8.42: Active power flow (line 3) responses to a three-phase fault with and without TCSC
control.
-153-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
-154-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
For power flow, and power system stability studies, a SVC can be modelled using the
circuit diagram shown in Figure 8.45. This model represents an ideal SVC; which
consists of a fixed capacitor connected in parallel with a variable reactor. By controlling
the reactance value of the reactor, the SVC releases or absorbs reactive power
dynamically to ensure the voltage stays in an acceptable range.
Figure 8.46 gives a block diagram of SVC control. Under steady states, the SVC
controller uses the difference in magnitude between the reference voltage and the
measured voltage to determine the adjustment of the reactive power (Q) output of the
SVC. These adjustments act to hold the local voltage close to the reference voltage;
however, SVC can also be used to improve the systems small signal stability if the
parameters of the controller are set properly.
Vref
VSVC
Qmax
Qfixed
1
1 + sT f
1 + sTa
1 + sTb
QSVC
Qmin
-155-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
8.47. As shown in Figure 8.47, the system is unstable as the there is an unstable interarea oscillatory mode (inter-area = 0.02996345 j3.416078) in the system.
7
6
local modes
imaginary
5
damping ratio= 5%
inter-area
mode
3
2
governor
mode
exciter modes
1
0
-2
exciter modes
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
real
A nonlinear simulation was used to demonstrate that the inter-area mode, identified by
the modal analysis, would cause the system to become unstable. At 0s, the mechanical
torque of generator 2 was increased by 0.01 p.u., simultaneously the mechanical torque
of generator 4 was reduced by 0.01 p.u.. Figure 8.48 shows the generator rotor speed
responses to this pair of small disturbances. Figure 8.49 shows the voltage angle
difference across the inter-are transmission corridor (line 3 and line 5) during the
disturbances. As seen from the simulation results, the inter-area mode was not damped.
G1
speed [p.u.]
1.0004
G2
G3
G4
1.0002
1
0.9998
0.9996
10
time [s]
15
20
Figure 8.48: Generator rotor speed responses to the small disturbances without SVC damping
control.
-156-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
26
25
24
23
0
10
time [s]
15
20
Figure 8.49: Oscillatory voltage angle difference between bus3 and bus5 caused by the
disturbances.
Vref
VSVC
Qmax
Qfixed
1
1 + sT f
1 + sTa
1 + sTb
QSVC
Qmin
u max
kd
1
1 + sTm
sTw
1 + sTw
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
u min
For the SVC damping control design, the method presented in Figure 8.20 was used to
estimate the phase angle of the residue of the systems open loop transfer function
between the inputs and the output. First of all, a feedback damping controller was
integrated into the system; this damping controller only consisted of a low pass filter
and a washout filter, no phase compensation blocks were used at this time. Modal
analysis was performed twice, once with k d = 0 and again with k d = 0.01 . Figure 8.51
presents the locations of the eigenvalues associated with the inter-area mode obtained
from the modal analysis. With the shift of the eigenvalue, the phase angle of the residue
was estimated to be -46.095.
-157-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
3.42
3.415
shift = 46.095 0
imaginary
3.41
3.405
3.4
3.395
kd = 0.01
3.39
3.385
3.38
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04 0.045
real
0.05
0.055
0.06
Figure 8.51: An estimation of the residues phase angle for SVC damping control design.
1 10 s 1 + 0.22 s
H (s) = K d
+
s
+
s
+
s
1
0
.
1
1
10
1
1
.
38
(8.33)
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
approximately 1.0, the two exciter modes begin to move back to the right, and the
damping factor of the SVC control mode becomes less than the damping factor of the
inter-area mode. Therefore, to obtain an optimum set of parameters for the existing
system controllers the gain of the SVC damping controller was set to kd = 1.0 .
7
6
local
modes
imaginary
5
4
kd =1.2
kd =1.0
inter-area mode
kd =0.8
0
-4
exciter
modes
kd =0.8 kd =1.0
kd =0.8
kd =1.0
-3.5
-3
-2.5
kd =0.2
kd =0.5
damping
ratio=5%
governor
mode
exciter
modes
kd=1.0
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
real
Figure 8.52: Oscillatory modes versus the gain of SVC damping controller.
To confirm that the SVC damping controller can prevent the system from becoming
unstable, by damping the inter-area oscillations, nonlinear simulations were used. At 0s,
the mechanical torque of generator 2 was increased by 0.01 p.u.; simultaneously the
mechanical torque of generator 4 was reduced by 0.01 p.u.. Figure 8.53 presents the
responses of generator rotor speeds to these small disturbances with and without the
SVC damping controller. These simulation results confirmed the SVC supplementary
controllers ability in damping inter-area oscillations. In addition, Figure 8.54 presents
the responses of the inter-area power flow (line 3) to these small disturbances with
different damping controller gains. These results show that the larger controller gain
was used the larger damping was obtained.
-159-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
1.0003
no control
1.0003
G1
1.0004
kd=1
1.0002
1.0001
1
0.9999
10
15
no control
1.0002
kd=1
1.0001
1
0.9999
20
G2
no control
1.0005
G3
kd=1
0.9995
10
10
15
20
time [s]
time [s]
15
20
no control
1.0005
G4
kd=1
0.9995
time [s]
10
15
20
time [s]
Figure 8.53: Generator rotor speed responses to the small disturbances with and without SVC
damping control.
215
P [MW]
210
205
200
without control
195
190
10
time [s]
15
20
Figure 8.54: Active power flow (line 3) responses to small disturbance with and without SVC
damping control.
The robustness of the SVC damping controller to large disturbances was also tested. At
1 s a permanent three-phase short-circuit fault was simulated at the mid-point of line 6,
after 100 ms the faulted line was disconnected. The response of the generator rotor
speeds to the three-phase fault with and without a SVC damping controller are
presented in Figure 8.55. As seen from the simulation results, the SVC damping
controller has shown its robustness in damping inter-area oscillations after the system is
subject to a large disturbance. In addition, Figure 8.56 presents the responses of the
-160-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
inter-area power flow (line 3) to the large disturbance with different damping controller
gains. As before, when the controller gain was increased the damping was also
increased; this allowed the system to be stabilized more quickly from the large
no control
G1
1.005
disturbance.
kd=1
0.995
10
15
kd=1
0.995
20
no control
G2
1.005
time [s]
15
20
time [s]
1.02
1.02
no control
G3
10
kd=1
1.01
0.99
no control
G4
kd=1
1.01
0.99
0
10
15
20
time [s]
10
15
20
time [s]
Figure 8.55: Generator rotor speed responses to a three-phase fault with and without SVC
damping control.
350
300
250
P [MW]
200
150
100
without control
50
0
-50
10
time [s]
15
20
Figure 8.56: Active power flow (line 3) responses to a three-phase fault with and without SVC
damping control.
-161-
Chapter 8 The use of Power Electronic Devices for Damping Inter-area oscillations
8.6 Conclusions
In this Chapter, a process for designing inter-area oscillation damping controller using
power electronic devices is presented. The results of the damping analyses performed
here, in both the frequency and time domain, demonstrate that the proper control of
HVDC, TCSC and SVC installed in the inter-area power transmission corridor can
significantly improve the damping of the inter-area oscillation mode. The conventional
modal analysis carried out in the frequency domain can be used to find the optimum set
of parameters for the system controllers, i.e. the operation point with maximum
damping. Nonlinear simulations can be used to assist the conventional eigenvalue
analysis. These simulations confirm the ability of the damping controllers, designed in
the frequency domain, to provide additional damping to the system robustly.
The selection of the input signals that feed the damping controllers is not unique; it is
dependent on the observability of the inter-area oscillation mode extracted from the
selected input signals. In this chapter, the frequency difference and voltage angle
difference across the inter-area power transmission corridor were tested as the input
signals for the damping controllers. In practical implementation, these wide area signals
can be successfully captured by PMUs and sent to the centralized control centre via high
speed communication network.
The robustness of the damping controllers was only tested through a single large
disturbance at one operating condition. However, the damping controllers designed
based on the conventional linear control theory often only work within a limited
operating range. For real power system operation, variable operating conditions and
different contingencies may reduce the effect of the existing damping controllers, and
allow lightly damped or even unstable inter-area oscillations to exist. Therefore, for real
implementations, a large number of simulations should be performed to confirm the
robustness of the damping controllers at variable operating conditions and for different
contingencies.
-162-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
Figure 9.1: 500 kV HVDC links and 400 kV Series Compensators that are installed in the GB
power system (vision 2015).
As part of vision 2015, two Monopolar 500 kV CSC-HVDC links are installed between
the 400 kV Substations at Hunterston and Deeside, to enhance the power transfer
capability of the transmission corridors between Scotland and England. In addition,
eight Series Compensators (SCs) are installed into the 400 kV AC transmission lines
connecting SHETL and NGETL. At heavy load condition, these two HVDC links
-164-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
transfer 1900 MW of active power from Southern Scotland to Northern Wales, whilst
2400 MW of active power is transferred over the AC transmission lines. Figure 9.1
presents the layouts of the 500 kV HVDC links and 400 kV SCs. The two CSC-HVDC
links use the control system introduced in Chapter 8, i.e., constant current control for the
rectifier (power sending terminal) and constant voltage control for the inverter (power
receiving terminal). The block diagrams and parameters of the HVDC control system
are included in Appendix F.
-165-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
Figure 9.3: Three large generators selected in Scotland for monitoring inter-area oscillations.
Figure 9.4: Three large generators selected in central England for monitoring inter-area
oscillations.
-166-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
Figure 9.5: Two large generators selected in the South of England for monitoring inter-area
oscillations.
Figure 9.6 presents the oscillatory inter-area power flow (over the Harker-Hutton line)
caused by the large disturbance. As seen from the response of the inter-area power flow
to the disturbance, the inter-area oscillatory mode is well damped in the GB power
system. Figure 9.7 shows the system frequency responses to the large disturbance. The
frequencies measured in Scotland (PEHE, LOAN and HUER) were closely coupled and
swinging around the frequencies measured in England.
1300
line Harker-Hutton
1200
1100
P [WM]
1000
900
800
700
600
500
6
time [s]
10
12
Figure 9.6: The oscillatory inter-area power flow on the Harker-Hutton line after a large
disturbance.
-167-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
PEHE
50.3
LOAN
HUER
50.2
EGGB
WBUR
RUGE
SIZE
50.1
DUNG
50
49.9
0
4
time [s]
To create more oscillatory behaviour for observing the inter-area oscillations between
Scotland and England, 68 conventional PSSs were removed from service. Appendix F
lists the PSSs that are in the service. The same disturbance (a three-phase short-circuit
fault on the Torness-Eccles line occurring at 1 s and cleared after 100ms) was simulated
to provoke a lightly damped inter-area oscillation. Figure 9.8 presents the oscillatory
inter-area power flow transferred over the Harker-Hutton line. Comparing this response
to that of the original system, it was seen that the damping of the inter-area oscillation
mode was significantly reduced.
1300
original system
PSSs-reduced system
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
10
time [s]
15
20
Figure 9.8: The oscillatory inter-area power flow caused by a large disturbance in the original
and PSSs-reduced GB system.
-168-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
Figure 9.9 presents the system frequency variations caused by the large disturbance in
the PSSs-reduced system. As seen from the simulation results, the inter-area mode
dominated the system frequency variations, i.e. the system frequency variations in
Scotland were nearly in anti-phase with the frequency variations in England. The interarea oscillation associated with the generators in Scotland swinging against the
generators in England was clearly observed, even though the inter-area oscillation was
also influenced by local oscillation modes at the beginning of the dynamic period.
Figure 9.10 presents the system frequency variations measured from the substations
Hunterston (HUNT) and Deeside (DEES). The inter-area oscillation mode was also
clearly observed i.e., the frequency variation measured in the HUER substation was
more or less anti-phase to the frequency variation measured in the DEES substation.
PEHE
LOAN
HUER
50.3
EGGB
50.2
WBUR
RUGE
SIZE
50.1
DUNG
50
49.9
49.8
0
10
time [s]
15
20
Figure 9.9: System frequency variations caused by the large disturbance in the PSSs-reduced
system.
HUER
DEES
frequency [Hz]
50.2
50.1
50
49.9
49.8
10
time [s]
15
20
Figure 9.10: System frequency variations measured in substations HUER and DEES in the
PSSs-reduced system.
-169-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
As seen from these simulation results (Figures 9.8-9.10), after a number of PSSs were
removed from service, the damping of the inter-area oscillatory mode was significantly
reduced. This operational condition will probably emerge in the future as the system
inertia will be significant reduced due to the integration of a large mount of offshore
wind farms [57]. Because offshore wind farms will connect to the power grid using
back-to-back Voltage Source Converters [63], they will not provide inertia to the system.
Coupled with the increasing replacement of conventional generators with the offshore
wind farms the inertia of the future UK power system will be largely reduced.
A number of power electronic devices such as HVDC and TCSC will be installed to
strengthen the Scotland-England interconnection (see Figure 9.1), there is an essential
need to establish a wide-area inter-area oscillation control system to extract maximum
benefit from these power electronic devices and improve the system damping.
There are twelve PMUs in the synchronized data acquisition system. Two PMUs are
installed in the 400 kV substations Harker (HARK) and Hutton (HUTT). The inter-area
active power flow over one of the transmission lines connecting the two substations can
be captured by the two PMUs. The NTA is used to process the active power flow for the
real time inter-area oscillation damping assessment. Eight power stations (See Figures
9.3-9.5) are equipped with PMUs to measure system frequencies. The mode shape of
the inter-area oscillation mode can be obtained by processing the system frequencies
with NTA.
-170-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
The monitoring and control centre is the core of the WAMCS. It receives synchronized
data streams and processes the data to serve real time applications. For real time interarea oscillation damping assessment, the wide-area oscillatory signals are collected in
WAMCS centre. This real time data is then processed by the NTA-based small signal
stability assessment software. The software alerts system operators by issuing an alarm
when the oscillatory damping is unsatisfactory. Then system operators will not allow
the inter-area transmission lines to carry more active power flow. For the real time interarea oscillation damping control scheme, the WAMCS centre uses the real time interarea oscillatory signals to calculate the parameters of the firing angle control of the
HVDC system, then the DC power flow is modulated to stabilise the inter-area
oscillations.
Real time control execution system
The real time control execution system consists of several execution units installed at
the AC/DC and DC/AC converter stations of the HVDC link. An execution unit is a
GPS-synchronized device, which receives commands regarding the adjustments to the
HVDC converter firing angles from WAMCS centre and transmits these commands to
the power converters. In addition, the start/stop of the whole damping control system is
controlled by the execution units.
-171-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
Figure 9.11: Architecture of the wide-area inter-area oscillation monitoring and control system
in GB.
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
6 s-20 s were processed. In Figure 9.13, the magnitudes and phase angles of the
dominant oscillatory component of each oscillatory signal are presented in a polar
diagram. Here, the estimation results were updated every one second. The polar diagram
provides a very clear view of the shape of the inter-area oscillatory mode in the GB
system. The phase angles of the change of system frequencies (measured at PEHE,
LOAN and HUER) in Scotland are nearly in anti-phase with the change of system
0.65
0.6
0.55
Frequency (Hz)
frequencies in England.
10
12
14
16
18
20
14
16
18
20
t [s]
10
5
0
10
12
t [s]
0.4
120
60
150
30
0.3
0.2
0.1
180
330
210
PEHE
LOAN
HUER
EGGB
WBUR
RUGE
SIZE
DUNG
300
240
270
-173-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
the HUER and DEES substations allowed clear observation of the inter-area mode (see
Figure 9.10). Therefore, the difference between the two frequencies was used as the
input signals for the HVDC damping control system. The signals, I s, generated by
the damping controllers were added to the current references of the rectifier controllers
to dynamically modulate the DC power. Expression (9.1) gives a transfer function of the
HVDC damping controllers. In this case, the parameters of the HVDC supplementary
damping controllers were determined by trial and error method.
I max
kd
1
1 + sTm
sTw
1 + sTw
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
I meas
I max
f DEES
kd
1
1 + sTm
sTw
1 + sTw
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
kp
I
I min
f HUNT
I ref
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
I ref
ki
s
kp
I
I min
I meas
ki
s
max
1
1 + sT f
min
max
1
1 + sT f
min
-174-
(9.1)
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
To check the abilities of the HVDC damping controllers to improve the damping of the
inter-area mode, a same disturbance was used as before. At 1 s, a permanent three-phase
short-circuit fault was simulated at the mid-point of one of the transmission lines
connecting substations Torness and Eccles; after 100 ms the faulted line tripped.
Figures 9.15-9.16 present the responses of the generator rotor speeds to the large
disturbance with and without the additional HVDC damping control system. Figure 9.17
shows the response of the inter-area active power flow over the AC transmission line
HarkerHutton to the large disturbance. As confirmed by these simulation results, the
HVDC damping controllers allow the system to be stabilized much more quickly after
the inception of the large disturbance.
1.005
no control
1.005
with control
PEHE
0.995
10
15
with control
LOAN
0.995
20
no control
time [s]
10
15
20
time [s]
1.002
no control
1.005
with control
HUER
no control
with control
1.001
1
0.999
EGGB
0.995
0
10
15
20
time [s]
10
15
20
time [s]
Figure 9.15: Responses of the generator rotor speeds (PEHE, LOAN, HUER and EGGB) to the
large disturbance with and without the wide area HVDC damping control.
-175-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
1.002
no control
with control
1.001
WBUR
0.999
10
15
with control
1.001
1
RUGE
0.999
20
no control
1.002
time [s]
10
15
20
time [s]
1.002
no control
no control
1.002
with control
1.001
1
0.999
0.998
SIZE
0
10
15
with control
1.001
1
0.999
20
DUNG
0
time [s]
10
15
20
time [s]
Figure 9.16: Responses of the generator rotor speeds (WBUR, RUGE, SIZE and DUNG) to the
large disturbance with and without the wide area HVDC damping control.
1600
without HVDC damping control
with HVDC damping control
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
10
time [s]
15
20
Figure 9.17: The response of the inter-area power flow on the Harker-Hutton line to the large
disturbance, with and without HVDC damping control.
The oscillatory power flow (from 3 s to 10 s) over the Harker-Hutton line was processed
using NTA with the sampling frequency f s = 100Hz and the data window size Tdw = 3s .
The estimated inter-area oscillation mode, shown in Figure 9.18 has confirmed that the
-176-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
Frequency (Hz)
0.65
0.6
0.55
0.5
6.5
7.5
8
time [s]
8.5
9.5
10
8.5
9.5
10
40
without HVDC damping control
with HVDC damping control
30
20
10
0
6.5
7.5
8
time [s]
Figure 9.18: Inter-area oscillation mode identified by NTA in the GB system, with and without
HVDC damping control.
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
Figure 9.19: An illustration of the time delay involved in the data transmission in GB WAMCS.
Figure 9.20 gives a block diagram of HVDC damping controllers, in which the time
delay of the transmission of the input signals is taken into account. The element e sT
represents the effect of time delay; T represents the time delay in seconds [91]. In these
tests, the time delays in different signal transmission channels are assumed to be
constant.
I max
f HUER
kd
e sT
1
1 + sTl
sTw
1 + sTw
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
I
I min
I max
e sT
kd
f DEES
1
1 + sTl
sTw
1 + sTw
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
I min
Figure 9.20: A block diagram of HVDC damping controllers (with time delay).
Figure 9.21 presents the effects of different time delays in the wide area control system,
ranging from 50 milliseconds to 200 milliseconds. The effect of wide area HVDC
control was gradually reduced when the delay time increased. In addition, when the
time delay increased to 150 ms, a high frequency oscillatory component appeared [91].
-178-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
800
790
780
770
760
no latency
latency=50ms
latency=100ms
750
latency=150ms
740
730
latency=200ms
10
12
14
16
18
20
time [s]
Figure 9.21: The effect of time delay in the wide area damping controllers (50 milliseconds to
200 milliseconds).
Figure 9.22 presents the effect of the time delay in wide area control system, from
300 milliseconds to 700 milliseconds. As seen from the simulations, when the time
delay increased to 300 ms, the high frequency oscillatory component disappeared [91];
and the inter-area oscillation became unstable as the time delay approached 700 ms.
1300
latency=300ms
1200
latency=400ms
latency=500ms
1100
latency=600ms
1000
latency=700ms
900
800
700
600
500
0
10
time [s]
15
20
Figure 9.22: The effect of time delay in the wide area damping controllers (300 milliseconds to
700 milliseconds).
-179-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
1.005
no control
1.005
with control
PEHE
0.995
10
with control
LOAN
0.995
15
no control
no control
1.005
with control
0.995
HUER
0
15
time [s]
time [s]
10
10
15
time [s]
no control
1.001
with control
0.999
EGGB
0
10
15
time [s]
Figure 9.23: Responses of the generator rotor speeds (PEHE, LOAN, HUER and EGGB) to the
large disturbance (all PSSs in service).
-180-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
no control
1.0015
with control
1.001
1.0005
1
WBUR
0.9995
10
no control
1.002
with control
1.001
1
0.999
15
RUGE
0
time [s]
10
15
time [s]
no control
1.0015
with control
1.001
1.0005
1
0.9995
SIZE
0
10
15
time [s]
no control
1.0015
with control
1.001
1.0005
1
0.9995
DUNG
0
10
15
time [s]
Figure 9.24: Responses of the generator rotor speeds (WBUR, RUGE, SIZE and DUNG) to the
large disturbance (all PSSs in service).
As seen from the simulations results, the new wide area damping control system has
changed the dynamics of the original system (all PSSs in service). However, the
responses of the system are still well damped. The new HVDC damping control system
slightly improves the damping of the generators in Scotland (PEHE, LOAN and HUER).
The new HVDC damping control system did not introduce negative effects to other the
generators.
The oscillatory inter-area active power flows (over the Harker-Hutton line) caused by
the disturbance in the scenario with, and without HVDC damping control are shown in
Figure 9.25. The HVDC additional damping control has changed the response of the
inter-area power flow during disturbances. A larger deviation of the inter-area power
flow was introduced by the HVDC damping control system; the system with HVDC
damping control took longer time to stabilize at a new steady state after the large
disturbances.
-181-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
1300
without HVDC damping control
with HVDC damping control
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
6
time [s]
10
12
Figure 9.25: The influence of HVDC damping control on the inter-area power flow in complete
GB system.
9.4 Conclusions
In this Chapter, a proposed Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS),
designed for enhancing the small signal stability of a future GB power system, has been
presented.
A permanent three-phase fault was introduced to one of the inter-tie lines between
Scotland and England, to investigate the inter-area oscillations associated with the
generators in Scotland swinging against the generators in England. As seen from the
system response (inter-area active power flow) to the disturbances, the inter-area mode
was well damped in the original GB power system. However, after a number of PSSs
were removed from service, the damping of the inter-area mode was significantly
reduced.
To improve the small signal stability of the PSSs-reduced GB power system, two real
time SMT applications were introduced and tested through dynamic simulation with a
full GB system model. The NTA has successfully extracted the inter-area oscillatory
mode from the lightly damped oscillatory power flow transferred between Scotland and
England. The inter-area mode shape has been obtained through NTA processing of the
system frequencies across the GB power system. With this application, system operators
will be more confident to utilize the inter-area transmission lines, and to ensure the
system stay at secure level when they increase the inter-area power flow. The wide area
-182-
Chapter 9 Wide Area Monitoring and Control System (WAMCS) in the Future GB Power System
HVDC damping control system has shown that by dynamically modulating the DC
power flow it can be powerful tool for improving the damping of the inter-area
oscillatory mode. With this application, the power transfer capacity of the inter-area
transmission lines can be increased.
The influence of the time delay on the wide area control system has been discussed. The
effect of the wide area HVDC control system was gradually reduced when the time
delay increased. When the time delay increased to a certain range (approximately
150 ms-200 ms), a high frequency oscillatory component was introduced into the interarea oscillations.
Finally, the interactions between the HVDC wide area damping control system and the
conventional PSSs were investigated. The new wide area damping control system has
changed the dynamics of the original system. However, the responses of the system to a
large disturbance were still well damped. The damping of some of the generators has
been further improved by the wide area damping control system; and it did not
introduce obvious negative effects to other the generators.
-183-
The roadmap is divided into a short term and a long term strategy. In the short term, a
few (5-6) PMUs will be deployed in the GB power system. This is due to the
uncertainties related to the project and the financial limitations. These PMUs will be
distributed across the entire UK transmission network to form a wide area power angle
and frequency monitoring system, or the transmission corridor between Scotland and
England to monitor inter-area oscillations. In the long term, the methodology introduced
for increasing the number of PMUs deployed in the GB power system will allow a new
generation of real time wide area monitoring system to become available. Furthermore,
several SMT-based smart protection and control schemes have been proposed. For
example, a wide area inter-area oscillation control system is introduced. This new
control system uses wide area oscillatory signals as input signals, and produces dynamic
parameters for the control of HVDC or TCSC to stabilize inter-area oscillations. This
application has the potential to allow the conventional EMS-based open loop control to
be upgraded to a sophisticated wide-area closed loop control system.
The study performed to develop the GB WAMPAC roadmap highlighted that an
application that can perform real time inter-area oscillation monitoring and control
would be a valuable component of the future GB WAMPAC system. As a result of this,
the thesis moves to focus on using WAMPAC to enhance the small signal stability i.e.,
inter-area oscillation stability. For this purpose, a fundamental study of inter-area
oscillations is provided. Two classical methods were used to investigate the nature of
inter-area oscillations i.e., nonlinear simulations and modal analysis. Different types of
disturbance were used in the nonlinear simulations to observe the physical
characteristics of local modes and the inter-area mode. To accurately understand the
physical phenomenon behind inter-area oscillations, i.e. oscillation frequency, mode and
source, modal analysis was introduced. From this modal analysis, it was found that the
inter-area oscillatory mode is strong influenced by the inter-area power flow and
transmission network parameters. This means that the large increase in inter-area active
power flow caused by permanent faults may lead to inter-area oscillations becoming
unstable, particularly due to the increased loading of future power systems. Therefore, a
real time monitoring and warning system will become increasingly desirable to detect if
a lightly damped/unstable inter-area oscillation exists in the system.
The core of the research described in this thesis is to establish a real time inter-area
oscillation monitoring platform for estimating the dominant inter-area oscillatory mode
-185-
(frequency and damping) using the real time oscillatory signals captured by PMUs. This
thesis presented a novel NTA for the real time estimation of the dominant inter-area
oscillation mode. Two data sets were tested using the new algorithm; one data set was
taken from simulated models and the other from real-life data records. These tests have
shown that the NTA can reliably identify the oscillatory mode in static conditions for
both data sets and in the presence of white noise. The dynamic capability of the NTA
has also been successfully demonstrated by capturing the dynamic oscillatory mode
when the parameters of the test signal experienced a step change. In both cases the NTA
results were more accurate and stable than these using conventional Prony methods.
The NTA-based real time inter-area oscillation monitoring can be considered as a
suitable SMT application for deployment during the short-term phase of the GB
WAMPAC strategy proposed in this thesis. As part of the long term GB WAMPAC
strategy, this monitoring application could be extended into a real time wide area closed
loop control application. Detailing how this oscillation control application could be
created formed a key part of this thesis. Modal analysis-based linear control theory was
used to design a wide area damping control system that uses HVDC, TCSC and SVC
installed in an inter-area power transmission corridor, to stabilize inter-area oscillations.
Conventional modal analysis in the frequency domain was used to find the optimum set
of parameters for the system controllers, i.e. the operation point with maximum
damping. Nonlinear simulations were used to confirm the new controllers ability to
damp the inter-area oscillations.
The final part of this thesis proposes a Wide Area Monitoring and Control System
(WAMCS), designed to enhance the small signal stability of a future GB power system.
The operation of this WAMCS was evaluated using a full GB power system model
(vision 2015). When this system was in a vulnerable state, e.g. several PSS equipped
generators were removed from service; the WAMCS developed here was capable of
significantly increasing the damping of the lightly damped inter-area mode in the
system. This loss of PSS control, and the associated lightly damped inter-area
oscillation, will occur as the number of synchronous generators will be replaced by offshore wind generation that cannot provide inertia to the system.
Two real applications i.e. inter-area oscillation monitoring with New Type Algorithm
(NTA) and inter-area oscillation damping control with HVDC, were tested using
dynamic simulation with a full GB power system model. The NTA has successfully
-186-
extracted the inter-area oscillatory mode from a lightly damped inter-area oscillatory
power flow between Scotland and England. In addition, the inter-area mode shape was
obtained through NTA processing of the frequencies across the GB power system. A
wide area damping control system was added to the submarine HVDC link between the
SPTN and NGETN, to improve the damping of the inter-area mode. The input signal to
these HVDC supplementary damping control system is the frequency difference
between Scotland and England. This new damping control system modulated the DC
power flow to stabilize the inter-area oscillations. Simulation results have shown that
the damping of the inter-area mode has been significantly improved by the inclusion of
the supplementary damping control system.
One of most important issues in wide area control is the effect of any time delays. Here,
the influence of time delay in the range of 50 ms to 500 ms was investigated. It has been
concluded that the effect of wide area HVDC control system in damping inter-area
oscillations is gradually reduced when the delay time is increased. A time delay in a
certain range (approximately 150 ms-200 ms) introduces a high frequency oscillatory
component into the inter-area oscillations.
The additional HVDC damping control system has significantly changed the systems
dynamics and the interactions between this control system and the existing PSSs cannot
be ignored. Simulation results have shown that the additional HVDC damping control
system increased the damping of some generators and didnt introduce a negative effect
on the other generators. However, in a practical implementation the parameters of the
PSSs should be tuned to coordinate with the HVDC damping controllers to ensure
optimal system control.
only the use of HVDC in damping inter-area oscillations has been analyzed in a full GB
power system model. In the future GB power system, several TCSC and SVC will be
installed in the transmission corridors between Scotland and England to enhance the
power transfer capability of the existing transmission lines. The potential opportunity to
use TCSC and SVC to damp inter-area oscillations should also be evaluated in the full
GB power system model. Coordination between all of the controllers in a power system
is essential if system damping is to be optimized. Achieving this coordination should
form part of any future work. This will require the development of optimised methods
for the coordinated design and tuning of controllers; these methods should be evaluated
in the full GB power system model.
In this thesis, the wide area damping control schemes were designed using conventional
linear control theory. Therefore, these control schemes often only work within a limited
operating range. During power system operation, variable operating conditions and
different contingencies can reduce the effect of the damping controllers, and allow
lightly damped or even unstable inter-area oscillations to exist. Therefore, for practical
implementations, a robust control design method is needed to ensure that the damping
controllers are viable under a sufficiently wide range of operating conditions. A large
number of simulations should be performed in the full GB power system model to
confirm the robustness of the controllers for variable operating conditions and for
different contingencies.
As this thesis presents, the inevitable time delay of the wide area signal transmission is
the main operational challenge for the implementation of a real time wide area control
system. It has been shown that the time delay can reduce the damping effect of the wide
area HVDC damping control system on inter-area oscillations, even allowing unstable
system operation to occur. The time delay is usually caused by a number of variables,
such as measurement processing times, the bandwidth of the communication medium
and geographic distance, the time delay of in different channels may be different and
variable. Therefore, another main aspect of the future work is developing a method for
compensating the negative effect introduced by time delay. The time delay
compensation method should be robust and flexible to deal with the variables;
furthermore, the compensation method should also concern the issues related to the
reliability of the
communication
network, GPS
communication challenges.
-188-
synchronization
and
other
This research has developed the essential applications and algorithms of wide area
monitoring and control for improving the inter-area oscillatory stability of the future GB
power system. As the other essential part of the future GB WAMPAC system, SMTbased system protection schemes should also be developed to optimize the existing
system emergency protection schemes, e.g. intelligent controlled islanding and wide
area adaptive under-frequency load shedding. In the future work, the essential
algorithms required for supporting these wide area protection schemes should be
developed; and the performance of these wide area protection schemes i.e., the key
factors that influence the performance of wide area protection schemes should be
evaluated in full GB system model.
-189-
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Appendices
Appendices
10.1 Appendix A
Rotor type
Round
Rotor
Round
Rotor
Round
Rotor
Round
Rotor
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
Bus
type
SL
PV
PV
PV
Rated power
(MVA)
900
900
900
900
Nominal voltage
(L-L kV)
20
20
20
20
Active power
output
750
700
719
700
-196-
Reactive power
output
185
235
176
202
Terminal
voltage (p.u.)
1.03
1.01
1.03
1.01
Appendices
Vref
Vmeas
1
1 + sTr
Vmax
K
1 + sTe
1 + sTb
1 + sTa
Vmin
Figure A-2: Block diagram of static exciter of G1, G2 and G3 and G4.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
second
p.u.
second
Second
Second
p.u.
p.u.
Tmax
1. 0
rotor
Pref
1
1 + sTs
1 + sT3
1 + sTc
1 + sT4
1 + sT5
Tmin
Figure A-3: Block diagram of speed governor of G1, G2, G3 and G4.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
No. of Transformer
Rated power (MVA)
Rated voltage (HV)
Rated voltage (LV)
Short circuit voltage (positive sequence %)
Short circuit voltage (zero sequence. %)
Winding connection (HV)
Winding connection (LV)
-197-
1
900
230
20
15
3
YN
YN
2
900
230
20
15
3
YN
YN
3
900
230
20
15
3
YN
YN
4
900
230
20
15
3
YN
YN
Appendices
7
230
10
8
230
25
0.0529
0.0529
0.529
0.529
3.3075
3.3075
No. of
Capacitor
1
2
3
Nominal
voltage
(kV)
230
230
230
-198-
Minimum
output
(MVar)
Maximum
output
(MVar)
100
100
50
600
500
500
Appendices
10.2 Appendix B
Figure B-1: A single line diagram of the two-area system with HVDC.
Table B-1: Synchronous machine parameters of G1, G2 and G3 and G4.
No. of Generator
1
2
3
Rotor type
Round
Rotor
Round
Rotor
Round
Rotor
Round
Rotor
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
Bus
type
SL
PV
PV
PV
Rated power
(MVA)
900
900
900
900
Nominal voltage
(L-L kV)
20
20
20
20
Active power
output
750
700
719
700
-199-
Reactive power
output
185
235
176
202
Terminal
voltage (p.u.)
1.03
1.01
1.03
1.01
Appendices
Vref
Vmeas
1
1 + sTr
Vmax
1 + sTc
1 + sTb
1
sTe
Ka
1 + sTa
Vmin
Ke
f ( E1 , Se1 , E2 , Se 2 )
Kf
1 + sT f
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Vref
Vmeas
1
1 + sTr
second
p.u.
second
second
second
second
p.u.
p.u.
second
p.u.
p.u.
p.u.
p.u.
p.u.
p.u.
Vmax
1 + sTb
1 + sTa
K
1 + sTe
Vmin
Figure B-3: Block diagram of static exciter of G2.
-200-
Appendices
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
second
p.u.
second
Second
Second
p.u.
p.u.
Tmax
1.0
rotor
Pref
1
1 + sTs
1 + sT3
1 + sTc
1 + sT4
1 + sT5
Tmin
Figure B-4: Block diagram of speed governor of G1, G2, G3 and G4.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
3
900
230
20
15
3
YN
YN
-201-
4
900
230
20
15
3
YN
YN
7
230
10
8
230
25
0.0529
0.0529
0.529
0.529
3.3075
3.3075
Appendices
max
kp
1
1 + sT f
I ref
I meas
ki
s
min
-202-
Appendices
max
kp
1
1 + sT f
Vref
Vmeas
ki
s
min
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
-203-
Appendices
No. of
Capacitor
1
2
3
Nominal
voltage
(kV)
230
230
230
230
-204-
Minimum
output
(MVar)
100
50
0
Maximum
output
(MVar)
600
500
125
125
Appendices
10.3 Appendix C
Figure C-1: A single line diagram of the two-area system with HVDC.
Table C-1: Synchronous machine parameters of G1, G2 and G3 and G4.
No. of Generator
1
2
3
Rotor type
Round
Rotor
Round
Rotor
Round
Rotor
Round
Rotor
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
Bus
type
SL
PV
PV
PV
Rated power
(MVA)
900
900
900
900
Nominal voltage
(L-L kV)
20
20
20
20
Active power
output
750
700
719
700
Reactive power
output
185
235
176
202
Vref
Vmeas
1
1 + sTr
Vmax
1 + sTb
1 + sTa
K
1 + sTe
Vmin
-205-
Terminal
voltage (p.u.)
1.03
1.01
1.03
1.01
Appendices
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
second
p.u.
second
Second
Second
p.u.
p.u.
Tmax
1.0
rotor
Pref
1
1 + sTs
1 + sT3
1 + sTc
1 + sT4
1 + sT5
Tmin
Figure C-3: Block diagram of speed governor of G1, G2, G3 and G4.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
No. of
line
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Rated voltage
(L-L kV)
230
230
230
230
230
230
230
230
3
900
230
20
15
3
YN
YN
-206-
4
900
230
20
15
3
YN
YN
Susceptance
(s/km)
3.3075
3.3075
3.3075
3.3075
3.3075
3.3075
3.3075
3.3075
Appendices
max
kp
1
1 + sT f
I ref
I meas
ki
s
min
-207-
Appendices
max
kp
1
1 + sT f
Vref
Vmeas
ki
s
min
-208-
p.u.
p.u.
p.u.
second
p.u.
degree
degree
Appendices
I ref
+
I meas
max
kp
+
1
1 + sT f
ki
s
(rectifier)
min
umax
Freq area 1
+
1
1 + sTm
kd
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
sTw
1 + sTw
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
Limit
umin
Freq area 2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
No. of
Capacitor
1
2
3
Nominal
voltage
(kV)
230
230
230
230
-209-
Minimum
output
(MVar)
100
50
0
Maximum
output
(MVar)
600
500
125
125
Appendices
10.4 Appendix D
Figure D-1: A single line diagram of the two-area system with TCSC.
Table D-1: Synchronous machine parameters of G1, G2 and G3 and G4.
No. of Generator
1
2
3
Rotor type
Round
Rotor
Round
Rotor
Round
Rotor
Round
Rotor
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
Bus
type
SL
PV
PV
PV
Rated power
(MVA)
900
900
900
900
Nominal voltage
(L-L kV)
20
20
20
20
Active power
output
750
700
719
700
reactive power
output
185
235
176
202
Terminal
voltage (p.u.)
1.03
1.01
1.03
1.01
Vmax
Vref
1
1 + sTr
1 + sTb
1 + sTa
Vmeas
K
1 + sTe
Vmin
Figure D-2: Block diagram of static exciter of G1, G2 and G3 and G4.
-210-
Appendices
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
second
p.u.
second
Second
Second
p.u.
p.u.
Tmax
1.0
1
1 + sTs
rotor
1 + sT3
1 + sTc
1 + sT4
1 + sT5
Pref
Tmin
Figure D-3: Block diagram of speed governor for G1, G2, G3 and G4.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Table D-5: The capacitor and reactor of TCSC under steady state.
1 Series capacitor
20 Ohm
2 Series reactor (in parallel with the capacitor) 35 Ohm.
xmax
xC xTCSC
xC + xTCSC
xTCSC
1
1 + sT f
xreactor
xmin
u max
kd
sTw
1 + sTw
1
1 + sTm
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
u min
-211-
Appendices
No. of Transformer
1
Rated power (MVA)
900
Rated voltage (HV)
230
Rated voltage (LV)
20
Short circuit voltage (pos. Sequ. %) 15
Short circuit voltage (zero Sequ. %) 3
Winding connection (HV)
YN
Winding connection (LV)
YN
No. of
line
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Rated voltage
(L-L kV)
230
230
230
230
230
230
230
230
230
230
2
900
230
20
15
3
YN
YN
3
900
230
20
15
3
YN
YN
4
900
230
20
15
3
YN
YN
Susceptance
(s/km)
3.3075
3.3075
3.3075
3.3075
3.3075
3.3075
3.3075
3.3075
3.3075
3.3075
No. of
Capacitor
1
2
Nominal
voltage
(kV)
230
230
-212-
Maximum
output
(MVar)
600
500
Appendices
10.5 Appendix E
Figure E-1: A single line diagram of the two-area system with SVC.
Table E-1: Synchronous machine parameters of G1, G2 and G3 and G4.
No. of Generator
1
2
3
Rotor type
Round
Rotor
Round
Rotor
Round
Rotor
Round
Rotor
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
6.5
0
0.0025
0.2
1.8
1.7
0.3
0.55
0.25
0.25
8
0.4
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
Bus
type
SL
PV
PV
PV
Rated power
(MVA)
900
900
900
900
Nominal voltage
(L-L kV)
20
20
20
20
Active power
output
750
700
719
700
Reactive power
output
185
235
176
202
Terminal
voltage (p.u.)
1.03
1.01
1.03
1.01
Vmax
Vref
1
1 + sTr
1 + sTb
1 + sTa
Vmeas
K
1 + sTe
Vmin
Figure E-2: Block diagram of static exciter of G1, G2 and G3 and G4.
-213-
Appendices
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
second
p.u.
second
Second
Second
p.u.
p.u.
Tmax
1.0
rotor
Pref
1
1 + sTs
1 + sT3
1 + sTc
1 + sT4
1 + sT5
Tmin
Figure E-3: Block diagram of speed governor of G1, G2, G3 and G4.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
No. of Transformer
Rated power (MVA)
Rated voltage (HV)
Rated voltage (LV)
Short circuit voltage (pos. Sequ. %)
Short circuit voltage (zero Sequ. %)
Winding connection (HV)
Winding connection (LV)
1
900
230
20
15
3
YN
YN
2
900
230
20
15
3
YN
YN
3
900
230
20
15
3
YN
YN
4
900
230
20
15
3
YN
YN
-214-
7
230
10
8
230
25
0.0529
0.0529
0.529
0.529
3.3075
3.3075
Appendices
No. of
Capacitor
1
2
Nominal
voltage
(kV)
230
230
Maximum
output
(MVar)
600
500
Vref
VSVC
Qmax
Qfixed
1
1 + sT f
1 + sTa
1 + sTb
Qmin
-215-
QSVC
Appendices
Vref
VSVC
Qmax
Qfixed
1 + sTa
1 + sTb
1
1 + sT f
Qmin
u max
Phase angle 1
+
kd
1
1 + sTm
sTw
1 + sTw
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
u min
Phase angle 2
-216-
QSVC
Appendices
10.6 Appendix F
Table F-1: DC transmission line parameters.
DC transmission line 1
Rated DC voltage (kV) 500
Rated current (kA)
3.6
Length (km)
200
Cable
Line type
0.0075
Resistance (Ohm/km)
Inductance (mH/km)
1
max
kp
1
1 + sT f
I ref
ki
s
I meas
min
-217-
Appendices
max
kp
1
1 + sT f
Vref
Vmeas
ki
s
min
1
2
3
4
5
6
-218-
Appendices
I ref
max
kp
1
1 + sT f
I meas
ki
s
min
umax
1
1 + sTm
kd
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
sTw
1 + sTw
1 + sTlead
1 + sTlag
umin
-219-
Appendices
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
NGET
ABBPSS
ABBPSS
ABBPSS
ABBPSS
ABBPSS
ABBPSS
ABBPSS
RYHPSS
RYHPSS
RYHPSS
RYHPSS
RYHPSS
RYHPSS
ST4PSS
ST4PSS
ST4PSS
ST4PSS
ST4PSS
ST4PSS
ST4PSS
ZVTPSS
ZVTPSS
ZVTPSS
ZVTPSS
ZVTPSS
ZVTPSS
ZVTPSS
ZVTPSS
ZVTPSS
-220-
DEES8A_1
DEES8B_1
DEES8S_1
KILL8A_1
KILL8B_1
KILL8C_1
KILL8F_1
KILL8D_1
KILL8E_1
RYEH8A_1
RYEH8B_1
RYEH8C_1
RYEH8S_1
BAGB8B_1
SHOS8A_1
SHOT8A_1
SHOT8B_1
SHOT8S_1
WBUR8A_1
WBUR8B_1
LITB8S_1
PEMB8A_1
PEMB8B_1
PEMB8C_1
PEMB8D_1
PEMB8E_1
SEAB8A_1
SEAB8B_1
SEAB8S_1
Appendices
10.7 Appendix G
10.7.1 Published journal papers
Paper 1. V. Terzija, D. Cai, V. Stanojevic, G. Strbac, Frequency and Power
Components Estimation from Instantaneous Power Signal, IEEE Transactions on
Instrumentations and Measurements. Vol. 60, no. 1, pp. 3640-3649, June 2011.
Paper 2. V. Terzija, G. Valerde, D. Cai, P. Regulski, V. Madani, J. Fitch, S. Skok,
Miroslav M. Begovic and A. Phadke, Wide-Area Monitoring, Protection and Control
of Future Electric Power Networks, IEEE Proceedings, vol. 99, No.1, pp. 80-93,
January. 2011.
Paper 3. S. Chakrabarti, E. Kyriakides, B. Tianshu; D. Cai, V. Terzija, Measurements
get together, IEEE Power and Energy Magazine, vol.7, no.1, pp.41-49, January 2009.
-221-