Perceptrral a n d A*lotor Skills, 1964, 19, 463-499.

@ Southern Universities Press 1964

Monograph Supplement 2-V19

THE

MARIANNE

FROSTIG DEVELOPMENTAL TEST OF

1963 S T A N D A R D I Z A T I O N '

VISUAL PERCEPTION,

MARlANNE FROSTJG
PHYLLIS MASLOW
Marianne Frostig School of Educational Therapy, Los Angeles

D. WELTY LEFEVER
Universiry of Southern California, Los Angeles

J O H N R. B. WHITTLESEY
Brain Research Institute
Universiq of California. Los Angeles

History
. . of Construction and Description of Test Statlstlcal Information .
Reliability and Validity Smdies .................
Proposed Further Work on Test Standardization
Overview
References .

463
467
488
497
498
498

Summary.-This monograph summarizes statistical data on the 1963 srandardization sample of over 2100 unselected nursery school and public school
children bernreen the ages of 3 and 9 yr. who were tested with the Marianne
Frostig Developmental Test of Visual Perception. The rest contains five subrests, assessing relatively distinct functions. It may be administered either
individually or to groups. Reliability and validity studies support use of the
test as the basis for remedial training programs in visual perception.

HISTORY
OF CONSTRUCTION
AND DESCRIPTION
OF TEST?
Intelligence tests, if the tests are to be useful in identifying children whose
IQs deviate from the norm, milst be standardized for normal children. In the
same way, it was necessary to map the normal development of visual perception
as the first step coward establishing a "perceptual quotient" for individual children. Ic was then possible to use the test to detect those children whose percepnial abilities were retarded in comparison with the norm.
Test construction was preceded and accompanied by several years' observation of children who were referred to the Marianne Frostig School of Educational Therapy because of learning difficulties. A large number of the children
had been diagnosed as having minimal brain damage, but whatever the diagnos'The standardization of the test and the research undertaken with it were brought to
the current level with the help of many people. The research was supported in part
by funds from the Rosenberg Foundation. In addition, we are most grateful to Mr. Jack
Hoffman, Mr. Saul Braverman, and many other contributors too numerous to name,
for their generous financial support. Special thanks are due to the reachers and administrators in the following school systems, who have permitted us to test their children
and freely given time, advice, and active help: Compton, Covina, Culvet City, Entetprise, Glendora, Hermosa Beach, Hudson, Inglewood, Los Angeles City, Palos Verdes,
and Santa Monica. W e also wish to express our appreciation of the selfless efforts of
the members of the Board of the Foundation of Educational Therapy, who, both as a
group and individually have provided continual moral and financial support.
"vailable from Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, California.

464

P. MASLOW, ET AL.

tic category, most of the children were found to have visual or auditory perceptual disturbances as measured by such tests as the Bender-Gestalt, Goodenough, Wepman Test of Auditory Discrimination, and tests of aphasia.
Disturbances in visual perception were by far most frequent symptoms and
seemed to contribute to the learning- difficulties. Children who had difficulty in
writing seemed to be handicapped by poor eye-hajzd coordi?zation, and children
who could not recognize words often seemed to have disturbances in figareground perceptzo?z. Other children were unable to recognize a letter or word
when it was written i n different sizes or colors, or when it was printed in uppercase print and they were used to seeing it in lower-case. I t was postulated that
these children had poor form constancy. Like everyone else who has worked
with young children, we noticed thac many children produced letters or words
in "mirror writ:ng." Such reversals or rotations indicated a difficulty in perceiving position in space, while interchanging the order of letters in a word
suggested difficulties in analyzing spatial relationships (as well as indicating the
possibility of auditory perceptual difficulties). As a rule, these latter children
could neither read nor spell longer words. It was also observed thac many of
the children with evident disabilities in visual perception had difficulty in paying sustained attention and/or showed behavioral deviations.
Dr. Marianne Frostig has attempted to construct a test to explore further the
development in these five areas of visual perception, postulating, on the basis of
experience, as well as findings of others, such as Thurstone ( 1 9 4 4 ) , Wedell
( 1960), Cruickshank ( 1957 ), that each of the five abilities developed relatively
independently of the ochers, and that there should be specific relationships between them and a child's ability to learn and adjust. It was never believed that
these five visual perceptual abilities were the only ones involved in the total
process of visual perception, but they were conceived to be important parts of
the process, seemed to have particular relevance to school performance, and were
therefore studied.
The preliminary construction of the test was begun in 1955. A baseline
was first established for the test by determining which items could be used with
nursery school children. The simplest items that could be devised were included. I n testing eye-hand coordination (Subtest I ) , for instance, the child was
first required to draw a line within a straight broad band. Subsequent bands
became increasingly narrow and also included angles or curves. T h e items used
to assess figure-ground perception (Subtest 11) involved distinguishing a single
figure on a shaded background, and progressed to differentiating between intersecting figures. Later the children were asked to outline hidden figures. The
items employed to tap nascent form constancy (Subtest 111) were simply circles
and then squares. T h e easiest items pertaining to position in space (Subtest
IV) were exercises to test the ability to detect a figure that faced a different di-

FROSTIG TEST STANDARDIZATION

465

rection from the majority; these were followed by finding figures positioned
identically. Reversals were regarded as more easily perceived than rotations. In
testing for early perception of spatial relationships (Subtest V ) , the copying of a
vertical or horizontal line by connecting two docs was found to be the simplest
item. This task was followed by copying an oblique line, and so on.
l
with visual-motor skills, an
T o avoid contamination of p e r c e p t ~ ~ atasks
attempt was made to differentiate cests of copying from those of recognition.
Subtests 11,111, and I V require only recognicion. Subtest I requires simple motor
skills, and Subtest V requires copying.
T h e pilot s n ~ d y ,using the preliminary test, was conducted in 1959. The
findings
- indicated that all items of Subtest I were of sufficient value to be rerained, as were the first six icems of Subtest I1 and the first two icems of Subtest
IV ( t h e latter with slight modifications). Subtest I11 needed to be changed
completely. In a continuation of the pilot work, new items and combinations
of items from Si~btest111 were administered to several groups of a hundred or
more school children during this year, in order to find out which were most
efficient in differentiating between age levels.
The first formal version of the tesc seemed unsatisfactory primarily because
the ceiling was too low. In the second version of the test, prepared in January,
1960, a few new items were tried on each subtest, and Subtesc 111 was changed
again. All the items in Subtescs 11, 111, and IV which involved copying were
eliminated. The second version was used only with a few hundred children.
Because i t was designed solely to bring to light further flaws, the results were
not included in the standardization studies to be reported here. O n the basis of
an item analysis of this version, Subtest 111 was found to be in need of further
revision; easier items were added to Subtest V; and the order of two items in
Subcest I was changed. A t the same time. new scoring and evaluation methods
were developed. T h e concepts of the "perceptual quotient" and the "percepn~al
age" were introduced. All of these changes were incorporated into the present
version of the tesc, published in March, 1961, and referred to as the "Third
Edition.''
T h e criteria used for the final selection of items in each subtest area were
good age progression ( i n the five areas of visual perception tested, clear evidence
of age progression was found from three years of age LIP co about seven and a
half, but with little development after that age) and low degree of contamination with other abilities (different visual perceptual abilities seem to be
disturbed relatively independently of each ocher). The items which were
most difficult to construct were those relating to form constancy, which had not
been used in other cests before this one. Eight different versions of this subtesr
were constructed and tested as well as single icems, before one was found which
was regarded as satisfactory.

P. MASLOW, ET AL.

T h e present standardization is based on the responses of over 2100 children tested with the 1961 (third) edition.
As in the previous versions, the child is required to attempt carefully graded
tasks in the five areas of visi~alperception enumerated above. In eye-hand
coordination, the child's task is to draw straight
and curved lines between increasingly narrow boundaries or to draw a straight line to a target. I n figureground perception the child is asked to discriminate between intersecting shapes
and to find hidden figures. In the form constancy subtest, the task is to discriminate circles and squares in different shadings, sizes and positions, among
other shapes on the page. The fourth subtest measures perception of position
in space (directionality). T h e child is required to differentiate between figures
in an identical posit:on and those in a reversed or rotated position. In the
subtest of spatial relationships, the task is to copy patterns by linking dots.
TABLE 1

NUMBERS
OF CHILDREN
IN HALF-YEAR
AGE GROUPS,1963 STANDARDIZATION
Age Level
3

-3%

3 M-4
4 -4%

444-5
5 -5%
5%-6
6 -6%
6%-7

Number of Children
107
127
170
164
142
229
232

-7%
7 $5-8

240
185
214

179

-8%

8%-9
127
Total
2116::
*This number includes all children used in this present standardization. Some additional
calculations (those for Tables 5 and 6 ) are based on a somewhat smaller sample, since
two items of Subtest 11 were not administered to a few of the children, and the scores of
this latter group were not included in the statistical analyses mentioned. Their scores on
Subtests I, 111, IV and V, however, were used in the standardization.

T h e scoring procedure adopted in 1961 allowed a maximum possible score

of 30 points for Subtest I, 1 0 for Silbcest 11, 17 for Subrest 111, 8 for Subtest IV,
and 8 for Subtest V. Suggestions were made in personal communications from
Dr. M. L. J. Abercrombie, Guy's Hospital, London, England, and Dr. David
Freides, Lafayette Clinic, Detroit, Michigan, that certain changes in scoring
might enhance the diagnoscic value of the test.
To explore these suggestions, all 1548 test booklets from the standardization
sample for children aged 5 yr. or older were rescored for Subtests I1 and V

FROSTIG TEST STANDARDIZATlON

467

during 1963. For Subtest 11, each figure outlined correctly in each item was
scored; the maximum possible score thus increased from 1 0 to 2 0 points. For
Subtest V, Items 1 through 6 continued to be scored as either entirely correct
( 1 point) or incorrect ( 0 score). Item 7, however, was scored as 2, 1, or 0, and
Item 8 as 4, 3, 2, 1, or 0. W i t h chis scoring, the child could therefore receive a
maximum of 12 o n Subtesc V.
The revised scores were analyzed using an IBM 7090 computer program
at Western Data Processing Center. The new scoring procedure for Subtest I1
proved helpful, in that it increased the reliability of this subrest and permitted a
larger number of discrete steps in the percepn~alage equivalents. T h e 1963
standardization, therefore, utilizes this revised scoring procedure for Subtest 11.
The proposed scoring for Subtest V, however, did not raise the ceiling for
this subtest, as had been expected, nor were a larger number of points obtained
on the standardization curve. The proposed revision also lowered scoring reliability. For these reasons, the 1961 scoring for Subtest V has not been
changed.
The time required for group administration of the test is less than 1 hr.;
individual administration takes about 30 to 45 min. Administration and scoring
are described in manuals accompanying test materials. Scoring is objective, and
requires 5 to 10 min.
The test has proved usef~llas a screening tool with groups of nursery school,
kindergarten, and first grade children, since i t permits identification of those
children who need special perceptual training. I t is also valuable as a clinical
tool with children of later age-even
those attending junior or senior high
school-whenever there is evidence of severe learning difficulties.
T h e norms which are described in this paper are based o n nursery school
and public school children who lived in Southern California and who were between the ages of 3 and 9 yr. Normative curves drawn from the standardization
sample indicate that maximum perceptual development in the areas measured
occurs between the ages of 4 and 7, with less growth after the age of approximately 71/2, when cognitive functions begin to predominate. T h e test, therefore, is designed mainly for use with young children.
STATISTICALINFORMATION
Public schools and nursery schools in which the standardization sample
was obtained were selected for three main considerations: the actempc to get a
stratified socio-economic sample of children, the willingness of the schools to
cooperate, and the proximity to the research center. (Financial considerations
made it impossible to conduct testing at great distances.)
The sample which was used in the statistical analysis is far from perfect.
Geographically, as well as socio-economically, i t is deficient because it was
necessary to draw from a restricted area and because exact information on the

468

P. MASLOW, ET AL.

socio-economic status of the children was not available. A t the present time
most schools in Southern California d o not obtain this information routinely,
and those that do are often unwilling to release it.
In the Spring of 1961, the socio-economic status of various schools and
districts was rated by school principals and district psychologists. A n attempt
was made to tesc an approximately equal number of children from schools drawing pupils from low, middle, and upper class neighborhoods. However, mosc
schools were rated as middle class, not only because of the prevalent culcural
bias, but because the schools frequently draw students from an economically
mixed area. The 1962 public school sample was secured from seven schools,
which might be characterized as representing low-middle to upper-middle class
socio-economic straca.
Our present public school standardization sample, cherefore, is overwhelmingly middle class in nature. Only one school could be said to have pupils
from a very high socio-economic area and three from low socio-economic straca.
Of the toral sample of public school children, only about I 5 % come from
homes which are likely to reflect a high socio-economic level, 5.2% low; and
the remaining 9396, in the absence of more adequate informacion, come from
middle class homes. A few Mexican-American and still fewer Oriental children
were included in the standardization sample; Negro children, however, were
not included.
An attempt was also made to stratify roughly the socio-economic status of
children in the nursery school sample by drawing from cooperative nursery
schools, child care centers, and private nursery schools. However, it was soon
found that no reliable estimate of socio-economic stacus could be made from
this classification. Private nursery schools often duplicate the hours, services,
and rates of the city-operated day care centers, and draw from the same type of
population. Moreover, the tocal time a child attends nursery school and the
program he is offered may be reflected to a much greater degree in perceptual
tesc results than his socio-economic stacus. A careful analysis of these factors
should be made o n a large preschool sample, with all relevant information available for each child. T h e sample should also include a significant proportion of
children who d o not attend any nursery school at all.
Standardzzatior~Procedures
Examiners were trained at the Marianne Frostig School of Educational
Therapy. N o tests were included in the standardization sample given by persons not [rained at che Frostig School. All tests were scored and rescored there
also.
Kindergarten and elementary school children were rested in their regular
public school classrooms. T h e children were seaced facing the examiner and a

469

FROSTIG TEST STANDARDIZATION

chalkboard. A divider formed by stapling together two file folders was used
to disco~lrage copying when two children were seated close together. Each
testing group consisted of no fewer than 15 children. Instructions were given
by one administrator; an additional person, either a teacher or trained aide,
served as proctor. Administration procedure adhered to the instructions in
the administration manual. For kindergarten and first grade children, a 5- to
10-rnin. break was given after completion of Subtest 11.
Nursery school children were tested in groups of 2 to 8 children, depending
on age. One administrator only worked with 2 to 3 children; an administrator
and proctor worked with 4 or more children. Administration procedure adhered to the instructions in the administration manual, with adjustments for
preschool children as noted in the manual.

Units of Measurement Used in the Scale: 1963 Standardization

T h e concept of perceptual age level.-The percepn~alage level for each
subtesc was defined in terms of the performance of the average child in the
corresponding age group (see Table 2 and Figs. 1 through 5 ) .
TABLE 2

CONVERSION
OF R A W SCORES
INTO AGE EQUIVALENTS,
1963 STANDARDIZATION^
Raw
Score

-2-91
2
3
4
5+--0-5-06
7
8
9
1011
12
13
14
1
7-5
16

Subtesr (Yr.-Mo.)
111
IV

I1

3-0
3-3
3-6
3-9

2--2-G2---03-0
3-0
3-3
3-6
3-6
4-0
3-9
4-6

4-3
4-3
4-6
4-6
4-9
4-6
5-0
4-9
5 - 3 4 - 9 5-9
5-0
6-0
5-3
6-3
5-3
6-9
5-6
-05-97-3
6-0
17
7 -9
6-6
18
8-6
7-0
19
9-6
8-3
20-30 -lo+
8-3

3-3
4-9
4-0
5-0
4-9
5-6
5-0
6-0
5-G6-66-3
7-6
7-0
8-3
8-9
8-3

5-6
6-0
6-3
6-9
7

Raw
Score

0
1
2

3
4
5

G
7
8
9
10

7-6
8-3
9-0
9-0
9-0
9-0
9-0

+Fourth preliminary standardization of the Marianne Frosrig Developmental Test of

Visual Perception on 2116 unselected school children at the nursery school, kindergarten,
first, second and third grade levels, October, 1963.

470

P. MASLOW, ET AL.

Perceptual age level wis retained i n the present standardization, buc m a y

bypassed by the use of suitable conversion tables ( f o r converting r a w scores
t o scale scores (see Tables 3 a to 3 p ) .

be

TABLE 3a
CONVERSION
OF RAW SCORESTO SCALESCORESA N D SCALESCORESTO PQ:
CHRONOLOGICAL
AGES 4-0, 4-1, 4-2
Conversion: Raw Scores co Scale Scores
Raw Scores by Subtest
Scale
I
I1
111
IV
V
Score

Conversion: Scale Scores to PQ

Below Average
Above Average
S Scale PQ
Z Scale PQ
Scores
Scores

39

68

*Enter a scale score of 10 to the sum of Subtesrs I to 1V.

TABLE 3b
CONVERS~ON
OF RAW SCORESTO SCALE SCORESA N D SCALESCORESTO PQ:
CHRONOLOGICAL
AGES 4-3, 4-4, 4-5
Conversion : Raw Scores co Scale Scores
Raw Scores by Subtest
Scale
1
I1
III
IV
V
Score
14+
13
11-12
7-10
7-8

18+
17
15-16
14
11-13
7-10

4-5
2-3
1
0

4 5
2-3
1
0

9+
8
7

7-8
6

'

16+
15
14
13
12
11
10

50
49
48
47
46
45
43
42
41
40

5-6

5
4

3
2

8
7
6
5

Conversion : Scale Scores to PQ

Below Average Above Average
2 Scale PQ
Z Scale PQ
Scores
Scores

44

39
38
37

*Enter a scale score of 10 to the sum of Subtests I to IV.

100
98
96
94
71
88
85
82
77
76
73
69
67
68

50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59

100
103
105
108
110
114
116
119
121
123

47 1

FROSTIG TEST STANDARDIZATION

TABLE 3c

CONVERSION
OF RAW SCORESTO SCALESCORES AND SCALE SCORES TO PQ:
CHRONOLOGICAL
AGES4-6, 4-7, 4-8

15+
14
13
11-12
10
8-9
7
5-6
3-4
1-2
0

Conversion : Raw Scores to Scale Scores

Raw Scores by Subtest
Scale
11
I11
1V
V
Score
18+
17
15-16
12-14
9-11
7-8
5-6

3-4
1-2
0

10
9
8
7
5-6
4

7-8

6
5
3-4

2
1
0

1
0

16+
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5

Conversion : Scale Scores to PQ

Below Average Above Average
X Scale PQ
E Scale PQ
Scores
Scores
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37

102
100
97
95
93
90
87
84
82
78
75
72
70
66

49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59

100
102
105
107
109
112
114
116
119
121
123

'CEnteca scale score of 10 to the sum of Subtests 1 to 1V.

TABLE 3d

CONVERSION
OF RAW SCORES TO SCALESCORESAND SCALESCORES TO PQ:
CHRONOLOGICAL
AGES 4-9, 4-10, 4-11
Conversion: Raw Scores to Scale Scores
Raw Scores by Subtest
Scale
I

I1

17+
15-16
14
12-13
11
9-10
8
6-7

19-20
18
17
16
14-15
11-13
9-10
6-8
4-5
2-3
1
0

4-5
2-3
0-1

111

10
9
7-8
5-6
4
3
2
1
0

1V

8
7

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

16+
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5

'Enter a scale score of 10 to the sum of Subtests I to IV.

Conversion : Scale Scores to PQ

Below Average
Above Average
Y Scale PQ
X Scale PQ
Scores
Scores
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37

100
99
97
94
92
90
87
85
83
80
76
72
68

49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59

100
103
106
108
109
112
114
115
118
119
121

472

P. MASLOW, ET AL.

TABLE 3e
CONVERSIONOF RAW SCORESTO SCALESCORESAND SCALESCORESTO P Q :
CHRONOLOGICAL
AGES 5-0, 5-1, 5-2

Conversion: Raw Scores to Scale Scores

Raw Scores by Subtest
Scale
11
111
IV
V
Score

Conversion : Scale Scores t~ PQ

Below Average
Above Average
Z Scale P Q
\' Scale PQ
Scores
Scores

TABLE 3f
CONVERSIONOF RAW SCORESTO SCALESCORESAND SCALESCORESTO
CHRONOLOGICAL
AGES 5-3, 5 4 , 5-5

Conversion : Raw Scores to Scale Scores

Scale
Raw Scores by Subtest
I1
111
IV
V
Score

PQ:

Conversion : Scale Scores co PQ

Below Average
Above Average
Z Scale PO
Z Scale PO
Scores
Scores

473

FROSTIG TEST STANDARDIZATION

TABLE 3g
CONVERSIONOF RAW SCORESTO SCALESCORESAND SCALESCORESTO PQ:
CHRONOLOGICAL
AGES 5-6, 5-7, 5-8

Conversion : Raw Scores to Scale Scores

Raw Scores by Subtest
Scale
I1
111
IV
V
Score

Conversion : Scale Scores to PQ

Below Average
Above Average
Z Scale PQ
Z Scale PQ
Scores
Scores

TABLE 3h
CONVERSIONOF RAW SCORESTO SCALESCORESA N D SCALE SCORESTO PQ:
CHRONOLOGICAL
AGES 5-9, 5-10, 5-11

Conversion : Raw Scores to Scale Scores

Raw Scores by Subcest
Scale
I1
I11
IV
V
Score

19-20
18
19-20
16-17
1615
13
11-12
9-10
7-8
4-6
2-3
0-1

18
17
14-16
11-13
7-10
4-6
2-3
1
0

13
12
11
10
8-9
7
5-6
4
3
2
1
0

8
7-8
6
7

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

5
3-4
2
1
0

16-k
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4

Conversion : Scale Scores to PQ

Below Average
Above Average
Z Scale P Q
2 Scale PQ
Scores
Scores
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34

100
98
96
94
92
91
89
87
85
83
82
80
78
76
73
71

49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59

100
102
104
106
108
110
111
113
115
116
118

474

P. MASLOW, ET AL.

TABLE 3i
CONVERSIONOF R A W SCORESTO SCALE SCORESA N D SCALESCORESTO PQ:
CHRONOLOGICAL
AGES GO, 6-1, 6 2

I
19-20

19-20
18
17
15-16
12-14
7-11

5-6
3-4
1-2
0

16-k
15
14
13
12
11
10

1-2
0

8
7
6
5
4

13
18
17
15-16
14
11-13
10
7-9
5-6
3-4
0-2

Conversion : Scale Scores to PQ

Below Average
Above Average
X Scale P Q
Z Scale PQ
Scores
Scores

Conversion : Raw Scores to Scale Scores

Scale
Raw Scores by Subtest
I1
111
1V
V
Score

7-8
6

12
11
9-10

7
5

6
5
3-4
2

6 7
4-5
3
2
1
0

1
0

50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34

loo

50

loo

98

51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59

102
103
105
107
108
110
113
114
116

96
94

93
91

89
87
85
83
81
79
77
76
74
73
70

TABLE 3j
CONVERSIONOF RAW SCORESTO SCALE SCORESAND SCALE SCORESTO PQ:
CHRONOLOGICAL AGES 6 3 ., 64.
, 6-5 -

-~

Conversion : Raw Scores to Scale Scores

Scale
Raw Scores by Subtest
I1
I11
IV
V
score

Conversion : Scale Scores to PQ

Below Average
Above Average
Z Scale PQ
Scale PQ
Scores
Scores

FROSTlG TEST STANDARDIZATlON

475

TABLE 3k
CONVERSION
OF RAW SCORESTO SCALE SCORES AND SCALESCORES TO PQ:
CHRONOLOGICAL
AGES6-6, 6 - 7 , 6-8

Conversion: Raw Scores ro Scale Scores

Raw Scores by Subtest
Scale
I1
111
1V
V
Score

Conversion Scale Scores lo PQ

Below Averggc
Above Average
Z Scale PQ
Z Scale PQ
Scores
Scores

TABLE 31
CONVERSION
OF RAW SCORESTO SCALESCORESA N D SCALESCORESTO PQ
CHRONOLOGICAL
AGES 6-9, 6-10, 6-11

Conversion : Raw Scores to Scale Scores

Raw Scores by Subtest
Scale
I1
111
IV
V
Score

Conversion : Scale Scores to PQ

Below Average
Above Average
2 Scale PO
Z Scale PQ
Scores
Scores

476

P. MASLOW, ET AL.

TABLE 3m
CONVERSIONOF RAW SCORES TO SCALE SCORES A N D SCALE SCORES TO P Q :
CHRONOLOGICALAGES 7-0, 7-1, 7-2

Conversion: Raw Scores to Scale Scores.

Raw Scores by Subtest
Scale
I1
111
IV
V
Score

19-20
18
17
14-16
12-13
10-11
8-9
5-7
2-4
0-1

19-20
18
1617
12-15
9-1 1
5-8
3-4
0-2

13
12
11
10
8-9
5-7
3-4
2
0

8
7-8
6
7
6
5
3-4
2
1
0

4-5
3
1-2
0

14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4

Conversion : Scale Scores to P Q

Below Average
Above Average
2 Scale PQ
\' Scale P Q
Scores
Scores

50

49
48
47
46
45
44

43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34

100
98
95
94
92
90
88
85
82
80
78
76
74
72
70
68
66

50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58

100
103
105
108
110
113
116
118
122

TABLE 3n
CONVERSIONOF RAW SCORES TO SCALE SCORESA N D SCALE SCORESTO PQ:
CHRONOLOGICALAGES 7-3, 7 4 , 7-5

Conversion: Raw Scores to Scale Scores

Scale
Raw Scores by Subtest
I1
111
IV
V
Score

Conversion : Scale Scores to P Q

Below Average
Above Average
2 Scale PQ
Z Scale P Q
Scores
Scores

FROSTIG TEST STANDARDIZATION

477

TABLE 30
CONVERSIONOF RAW SCORES TO SCALE SCORES A N D SCALE SCORESTO PQ:
CHRONOLOGICALAGES 7-6, 7-7, 7-8

Conversion : Raw Scores to Scale Scores

Scale
Raw Scores by Subtesr
II
111
IV
V
Score

Conversion : Scale Scores to P Q

Below Average
Above Average
Z Scale P Q
Z Scale PQ
Scores
Scores

TABLE 3p
CONVERSIONOF RAW SCORES TO SCALE SCORES A N D SCALE SCORES TO PQ:
CHRONOLOGICAL AGES 7-9, 7-10, 7-11

Conversion : Raw Scores to Scale Scores

Raw Scores by Subtesc
Scale
11
I11
1V
V
Score

Conversion : Scale Scores to P Q

Below Average
Above Average
Z Scale PQ
Z Scale P Q
Scores
Scores

478

P. MASLOW, ET AL.

T h e five perceptual age levels and the five scale scores (one for each of
the subtests) indicate the child's development in each visual perceptual ability.:'
Scale scores.-Scale scores are the perceptual ages divided by the chronological age, multiplied by 10, and adjusted to the nearest whole number.
Percepiual quotient.-The
perceptual quotient is a deviation score obtained from the sum of subtest scale scores after correcting for age variation.
For each age group, the perceptual quotient has a median of 100, a lower quartile of 90, and other percentile points consistent with the IQ values of the
WISC (see Table 4 ) .
I t was found empirically that for the test as a whole the perceptual quotient
is a better prognostic indicator than the p e r c e p t ~ ~ aage.
l
The perceptual age
shows the developmental level of a child but not in relation to his chronological
age, and therefore does not indicate his ability to profit from the customary
learning situation in p ~ ~ b l school.
ic
I t seems plausible that a child who is retarded in his percepn~alabilities does not profit from everyday experiences as
much as does a child with normal perception, and will continue to show this
characteristic also in the school situation. H e will tend, therefore, to evidence
learning difficulties even after he has reached the perceptual level necessary for
beginning academic learning ( a perceptual age of 6 to 6% yr. on each of the
subtests). Indeed, the clinical material of the authors abounds with children in
third, fourth, fifth, and later grades who have reached a percepnial age level
TABLE 4

EQUIVALENT
PERCENTILE
RANKOF CORRECTED
PQ SCORES
Percentile Rank

Perceptual Quotients

"In planning an instructional and remedial program, the highest and the lowest scores
made by a parricular child are of major importance. The child's perceptual assets can
be used to master new material. The abilities in which he is most deficient will, of
course, be the focus of remedial training.

FROSTIG TEST STANDARDIZATION

479

of more than 6 yr. but cannot learn to read despite the absence of IQ deficit
or other evidence of retardation or emotional disturbance.
Since the I Q is a widely used measure of intelligence, the PQ will have a
familiar connotation for persons using a measure which compares the child's
level of abilicy with that of his peers. In addition, ic has been found very helpful to use a perceptual quotient of 90 as the cut-off point in the scores of kindergarten children, below which a child should receive special training. At the
time of beginning academic learning, this point seems to separate those children
who may need specific training in visual perception from those who need no
special emphasis on a particular sense modality.
Concerning the construction of these measures, i t should be noted that,
although the scale scores for the subtests are defined in terms of a ratio (perceptual age divided by chronological age, wich a score of 10 set roughly equal
to the mean for each age g r o u p ) , the total "perceptual quotient" is not defined
as a ratio, but in terms of constant percentiles above and below the median.
In the earlier 1961 standardization the perceptual quotient was calculated
merely as a sum of five scale scores. Now, however, a table may be used to
convert the scale score sum to a PQ value, the significance of which now remains
constant for differenc ages (see Table 5 ) . For ages 5 and above this table
is entered with the sum of the five subtest scores, while for children below
5 yr., only the first four subtests are given, and the table entered wich the sum
from these four subtests plus 10.
For children 10 yr. or older it is felt, at present, that perceptual quotients
or scale scores should not be used. Rather, these children should be studied
solely in terms of their subcest perceptual age equivalents.
The three measures, perceptual quotient, subtest perceprual ages, and scale
scores, are all retained in the present standardization because each of them
contributes to the understanding of the test results; however, no one of them is
entirely satisfactory when used alone.
The concept of "mental age" has sometimes been questioned because children with the same mental age but differenc chronological ages will perform
differently. For instance, a child with a chronological age of 4 yr. and a mental
age of 6 yr. will perform in a different way from a somewhat retarded child
whose mental age is also 6, but whose chronological age is 8 yr.
A similar reservation applies to the subtest percepn~alage. The provision
of scale scores for each of the subrests eliminates the difficulty. However, the
subtest perceptual ages still have considerable practical use in many school situations. A teacher who is told that a subtesc scale score of 8 indicates the need
for special training will be far less impressed than if she is told, "Eight-year-old
Johnny cannot differentiate position in space (Subtest IV) as well as a 6-yr.-old
boy is expected to do." Teacher education emphasizes the need for a child's

480

P. MASLOW,

I
T

AL.

TABLE 5
CONVERSION

2 Scale
Scores

TABLEFOR FINDINGPERCEPTUAL QUOTIENT

FROM SUM
OF SUBTEST
SCALE
SCORES
Chronological Age*

3-6

4-0

4-6 1 5 - 0

5-6

6-0

6-6

7-0

7-6

thru

thru

thru

thru

thru

thru

thru

thru

thru

*Table to be entered to the left of the vertical line with the sum of scale scores, Subcests I
through IV,
10; table to be entered to the right of the line with sum of scale scores,
Subtests I through V.

developmental age to be 6 or 6 yr., 6 mo. or G yr., 7 mo. (depending on the

opinion of the local department) before he will be able to learn to read. The
extension of this assertion to a perceptual age level is easily concepnlalized.
The concept of a perceptual quotient also has its disadvantages. First, because the similarity between the terms of PQ and IQ may lead to a misconception of the PQ as a measure of a fixed ability. This is often the way the IQ is
understood. Thus, a low intelligence quotient is accepted as a valid explanation
of why a child cannot progress in learning. Such treatment of the findings in a
perceptual test would be of no help to the child. A low PQ indicates not only

FROSTIG TEST STANDARDIZATION

48 1

low visual percepn~alability, but also that help is needed. T h e authors' experience indicates that such help can often be given, and given successfully, in
the form of perceptual training. Thus, the PQ should nor be regarded merely
as a new label4
This is not the only disadvantage of the PQ measure. T h e use of any unitary measure of perceptual function may suggest that it expresses some common
trend or factor. But the five subtest scores are based on the assumption that
essentially five different and relatively independent abilities are tested and may
subsequently be differentially trained. The test's diagnostic value would be restricted if only the total PQ were reported.
Testing of these different abilities not only permits the measuring of specific assets and liabilities but also allows the exploration of the relationships between these abilities and school achievement. Moreover, the relationship of
these abilities to each ocher and to various personality measures may prove to
be of diagnostic significance.
Standasdizatiolz curve^
Figs. 1 to 5 show the 1963 standardization curves for the individual sub-

t e s t s . Y h e actual number of children in each half-year age group is given in

Table 1. In the figures the shaded region down the center of each curve indicates the mean and median raw scores for each age group. The mean scores
are plotted against mean age in each group (upper edge of gray area), and
the median scores are plotted against the median age (lower edge). The width
of the gray area is the difference between these rwo estimates, which is usually
quite small. Passing through the gray area is a curve with solid black dots on
it. This is the standardization curve, which was fitted visually (except at the
upper end where corrections were calculated so as to minimize the relevant
scale scores). The dots allow one to find, for each separate raw score, the equivalent quarter-year perceptual age for each subtest. (Ages are given along the
bottom of each graph; the raw scores along the left side.) Above and below the
standardization curve are dotted lines which represent estimates for the upper
and lower quartiles. Note that the data points for these dotted curves-the
small hollow circles-scatter more than do those for the gray
area. This is be.
cause, for a given sample size, the estimates for the upper and lower quartiles
are less stable and reliable statistically than the median or mean.
'The authors have found n o indication u p to now, that above average scores on the perceptual test, in contrast to above average scores on intelligence tests, are of predictive
value for school achievement. Low scores on the perceptual test, however, at the age
of beginning school entrance (kindergarten or first grade) are likely to be reflected
in poor school adjustment and difficulties in beginning reading (see below, pp. 492, 493,
dc)5
. / / I

'These curves were calculated using the IBM 7090 computer at Western Data Processing
Center, University of California at Los Angeles, on the basis of a sample collected over
a 3-yr. period.

AGE IN Y E A R S
AGE IN YEARS

FIG. 1. Standardization

curves for Subtest

Frc. 2.

Standardization curves for Subtest 11

FROSTIG TEST STANDARDIZATION

P. MASLOW, ET AL.

SUBTEST

P-

SPATIAL RELATIONS

l P O S S l B L E SCORE 0 - 8 1

' A G E IN YEARS

FIG. 5. Standardization curves for Subrest V

Standardization based on the present sample has allowed us to obtain entries for Table 5 which appear to be relatively reliable for PQs between 85 and
110. However, outside this range there is less certainty because of the limited
sample.
Table 5 is constructed so that the median PQ score (for our standardization
sample) will fall at a PQ of 100, the lower quartile at 90, the upper quartile at
110, etc. For a normal (Gaussian) distribution these would correspond to a
standard deviation of about 16 PQ points (as in the case with the WISC).
Table 6 presents the mean, the upper and lower quartiles, and the standard
deviation for each subtest and for each half-year age group 5 through 8.
Tables 7 and 8 present subtest intercorrelations by grade levels, based on
scale scores, 1961 standardization. In order to explore whether the sex of the
child influenced test results, the kindergarten sample was first sorted by sex and
correlations then obtained. It was believed that any difference due to sex
would be most pronounced at the younger age level. Since no significant differences were found, sorting by sex was not continued at the other grade levels.

FROSTIG TEST STANDARDIZATION

TABLE 6
MEANS, STANDARDDEVIATIONS,
AND 751b AND 25"' PERCENTILES*
FOR EACH SUBTEST BY HALF-YEAR
AGE LEVELS

Subtest I

5 -5%
51/24
6 -6M
6%-7
7 -7%
7 %-8

10.11
9.78
9.98
9.93
9.90
10.36

5 -5%
5 $4-6
6 -6%
695-7
7 -7%
7%-8

10.19
10.2 1
10.38
10.09
10.14
9.69

6%-7
7 -7%
7 195-8

9.69
9.56
10.40
9.78
10.20
10.07

5 -5%
5 $5-6
6 -6%
6%-7
7 -7%
7 1/24

10.00
9.92
10.31
10.15
9.97
9.76

5 -5%
5%-6
6 -6%
6%-7
7 -7%
7 %-8

9.84
9.95
10.00
10.36
10.04
9.96

11.7
11.3
11.2
11.3
11.6
(13.4)

8.7
8.5
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.5

2.24
2.38
2.31
2.48
2.27
2.50

8.1
8.3
8.8
8.5
8.3
8.4

2.50
2.03
1.98
2.37
1.52
1.36

8.8
8.2
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7

2.71
2.68
2.19
2.46
2.30
1.74

8.6
8.4
8.6
8.5
8.5
8.2

2.42
1.74
2.22
1.87
1.90
1.50

8.2
8.6
8.8
8.9
8.8
8.7

2.16
2.06
1.98
1.69
1.35
0.99

Subtesr I1

11.0
11.3
11.2
11.3
11.4
10.6
Subrest I11

-5%

5 1/24

6 -6%

11.4
11.3
11.4
11.5

11.9
12.2
Subrest
11.3
11.5
11.6
(10.7)
(12.1)
(11.4)

IV

Subrest V

11.0
11.0
11.2
11.2
(11.4)
(10.8)

'Means and upper and lower quarriles expressed as scale scores.

" 'Computed from frequency tables.
tDerived from standardization curves. Numerals in parenthesis computed from frequency
tables.

P. MASLOW, ET AL.
TABLE 7

Subtest

11

1.00

.25
1.00

I1
111

IV

Subrest
111

IV

Girls ( N = 1 6 9 )
.20
.22
.42
.32
1.00
.48
1.00

v
.25

.35
'37

.54
1.oo

PQ
I
11
I11
IV

1.00

.26
1.00

v
PQ

Boys ( N = 2 1 6 )
.14
.12
.43
.33
1.00
.31
1.00

.27
.38

.27
.42

1 .oo

Total
PQ

.48
.67
.74
.76
.7 5
1.oo

.47
.74
.69
.67
.7 1
1 .oo

"Based on scale scores, 1961 standardization.

As shown in Table 8, in general the size of che inter-subtesc correlations

tends to diminish with advancing age. Probably this is due to progressive differentiation of perceptual ability. It could be congruent with Werner's (1957)
theory that the development of mental functions proceeds with increasing differentiation and progressing hierarchization.
The relatively high correlations between Subtests I1 and 111 at the younger
age levels may be explained in the following manner. Constancy refers to the
ability to perceive an object as belonging to a certain class. A square is recognized as a square, despite changes in retinal image associated with changes in
size, color or direction, and despite change of surrounding field or context. At
younger age levels, a child is unable to cake the field into account (e.g., a car
seen far away appears smaller to a child than one close by because his ability
to maintain size constancy is as yet poorly developed). This poor perception of
figure-ground relationships may influence scores on S ~ ~ b t e sI11
t (form constancy) to a relatively greater degree at the younger age levels.
Corah and Powell (1963) report subtest intercorrelations as shown in
Table 9. They used raw scores for the individual subtest corre1at:ons; as noted,
Table 8 is based on scale scores. Their data were obtained for 40 children, ranging in age from 50 to 76 months, with a mean age of 63.2 mo. The mean age
of the 385 kindergarten children of Table 8 is 67.9 mo. For a sample of 40,
the 75% confidence band around a correlation of .50 extends from .25 to .70.

487

FROSTIG TEST STANDARDIZATION

TABLE 8
PRODUCT-MOMENT
CORRELATIONS
OF SUBTESTSCORES*BY GRADELEVEL
Subtest

I
11
I11
IV

11

1.00

.26
1.00

1.00

.26
1.00

Subtest
111
Kindergarten
.17
.42
1.00

IV

(N=385)
.16
.26
.33
.37
.39
.31
1.00
.48
1.oo

Total PQ
I
II
111
IV

First Grade (N=334)

.28
.36
.28
.41
.30
.34
1.00
.31
.3S
1.00
.41
1.oo

Total PQ
I
I1
111

1.00

Second Grade
.30
.30
1.00
.29
1.00

Iv

(N=381)
.27
.21
.29
.26
.32
.30
1.00
.37
1.oo

Total PQ

I
I1
111

1.00

.28
1.00

Third Grade
.21
.31
1.00

IV

Total
PQ

.47
.7 1
.7 1
.7 1
.7 3
1.00
.62
.69
.7 1
.69
.69
1.OO
.60
.59
.67
.63
.54
1.OO

(N=173)
.22
.15
.30
1.00

.25
.01
.20
.32
1.oo

Total PQ

.62
.SS
.66
.64
.55
1.OO

'Based on scale scores, 1961 standardization.

TABLE 9
CORAHAND POWELL'S(1963) INTERCORRELATION
MATRU BASEDON RAW SCORES*

Su brest

Subtest
I
11
111
1V
V

11

I11

IV

Total
PQ

1.00

.50
1.00

.18
.49
1.00

.51
.31
.34
1.00

.53
.53
.34
.57
1.OO

.63
.63
.60
65
68

"Reproduced with permission of authors and publishers.

488

P. MASLOW, ET AL.

TABLE 10
- -

BY GRADE L E V E L

Grade Level
N
Subtest I with sum of
Subtests 11, 111, IV, V
Subtest I1 with sum of
Subtests I, 111, IV, V
Subtesc 111 with sum of
Subtests I.. 11.. IV.. V
Subtest IV with sum of
Subtests I, 11, 111, V
Subtest V wit11 sum of
Subtests I, 11, 111, IV

385

334

381

173

.39

.52

.52

.52

.62

.60

.53

.46

.62

.62

.59

.55

.63

.60

.57

.53

.64

.61

.50

.43

Thus, the a ~ ~ t h o rfeel

s that there is remarkable agreement among Corah and
Powell's data and their own, particularly for Subtests 11, 111, IV, and V.
Table 10, based on the same data as Table S, presents the correlation between each subtest at each grade level, and the sum of the other subtests.
It should be noted that Tables 6 , 8, and 10 do not give data for preschool
children. Samples for these age levels may be biased, representing as they do
only children attending nursery school.

REL~ABILITY
AND VALIDITYSTUDIES
Reliability
Test-retest reliability.-A

reliability study on a small sample was made in

1960 and reported in a paper by Frostig, Lefever, and Whittlesey (1961). Testretest reliability coefficients were computed for 50 children with learning
difficulties. The average interval between test administrations was approximately 3 wk. Tests were administered individually by the same trained psychologist. Based on the PQ, the product-moment coefficient of retest reliability
was .98 using the full range in ages.
In a reliability study conducted in the Spring of 1961, the Frostig test was
administered 2 wk. apart to 2 groups of 35 first graders and 2 groups of 37
second graders. Two administrators were used, one a psychologist specially
trained in giving the test, the other a trained psychologist, experienced in test
administration, familiar with the Frostig test and the administration manual,
but with no experience in administering the test. Each group had a different
administrator on each occasion, and different people scored the tests on each
occasion.
The test-retest reliabiliry estimate, a product-moment correlation coefficient
for the perceptual quotient for the entire sample, was .SO. Subtest scale score
test-retest correlations ranged from .42 (Subtest 11) to .SO (Subtest 111).

FROSTIG TEST STANDARDIZATION

4 89

To determine test-retest reliability when the instrument is used by people

trained in giving the Frosrig tesc, bur who are not psychologists or psychomecrists, a further reliability smdy was conducted in the Spring of 1962.=
T h e test was given to three kindergarten and three first grade classes. T h e
administrators had been trained at [he Frostig School and had served as proctors
before being allowed to give the tesc; their first administration was supervised
by a trained test administrator.
Retesting was done 14 days after the initial testing by a different administrator. Retesting was done only a week before the school closed for sllrnmer
vacation, so that the children may be presumed to have been somewhat excited
and the schoolroom routine somewhat disrupted.
Scoring and rescoring of both initial tests and retests was done at the
Frostig School by a trained ream of scorers, none of whom had administered the
test.
T h e results are summarized in Table 11.
TABLE 11
TEST-RETEST
PRODUCT-MOMENT
COEFFICIENTS,
1961 STANDARDIZATION
Subtest
I
II

Raw Score

Scale Scores

Kindergarten (N=55)
.33
.46

111

.83

IV

.61

.66

Total
First

I
11
111
1v

Grade ( N = 7 2 )
.40

.42

.67
.63
.59

Total
Since Subtest I assesses visuo-moror functioning, test-retest correlations may
be expected to be low. This subtesc is affected much more than the ocher subtests by the physical condition and emotional state of the child existing at the
moment of testing, as well as by environmental influences.
Table 11 is based on 1961 scoring procedures; it is probable that new
scoring procedures would raise the test-retest reliability of Subtesc 11.
'Mrs. Edith Millsap, Principal, Lassalette School, Hudson School District, La Puente,
California, and her staff extended to us every courtesy in completing this study.

490

P. MASLOW, ET AL.

Test-retest correlation coefficients, when retesting is done after a long

d
be low
interval, or if training is interpolated between tests, w o ~ ~ lcertainly
l
which seems to be
because of the rapid development of v i s ~ ~ aperception,
more strongly influenced by experience than is thought to be the case with
intelligence.
Split-half reliability.-An
item analysis was done on all tests of children
in the sample aged 5 yr. or older. Items were then paired for comparable difficulty within each subtest. Table 12 shows the matched items, labelled Groups
A and B. Items 7 and 8 of Subtest V were omitted, since the level of difficulry
of these items showed considerable disparity from the other 6; moreover, these
two items are not administered to kindergarten children. The correct items for
Subtest 111 were paired; the incorrect items were matched separately.
Four different paired matching combinations of items from Groups A and
B were formed for each subtest. Whether each subtest item in a given combination would be taken from Group A or from Group B was determined by a
flip of a coin. Thus, for example, one matching combination for Subtest IV
was ABAA matched against its mirror image BABB (i.e., Items 1, 4, 5, 8 from
Subtest I V matched against Items 3, 2, 6 , 7 ) ; a second combination matched the
images BBBA and AAAB.
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were then calculated between these split-halves for each subtest, and the results averaged for the four
different random selections. The Spearman-Brown correction was then applied.
In order to obtain the split-half reliability for the test as a whole, the following procedure was utilized. For a given randomized combination of items,
the score for the left half of Subtest I was added to the sum for the left half of
Subtest 11, Subtest 111, etc. to obtain a total left-half score. Similarly a total righthalf score was obtained for this random selection of items. The process was
repeated on each of the other three random combinations. Thus, a split-half
reliability correlation coefficient was obtained for each random colnbination. As
before, these were then averaged and corrected by the Spearman-Brown formula
(see Table 13).
Split-half reliability correlation coefficients for the total test decrease
slightly with increasing age, as might be expected. Reliabilities are relatively
lower for Subtest I; as previously discussed, physiological factors play a significant role in visuo-motor abilicy. T h e sharp decline in the value of the correlation coefficients for Subcest IV as age increases may reflect in part the fact
that the perception of position in space reaches its peak of development somewhat earlier than other abilities assessed by the test. In addition, Subtest IV
calls for recognition, not copying; this, combined with the small number of
items, affords greater opportuniry for careless marking and for guesswork.

FROSTIG TEST S T A N D A R D I Z A T I O N
TABLE 12
SUBTESTITEMS, MATCHEDFOR COMPARABLED ~ F F I C U L ~ *
Subtest
I

111, Positive

Group B

Group A
1

17
15

19
20

32
14
1

5
I6
31
19
11
26
23
111, Negative

1v

28

3
10
13

30
27

21
8
7
25
17
18
20

9
6
12
22

24

1
2

3
4
6
7

5
8

v
*Raw Scores, 1963 scoring-Age

4
2
5
groups 5 co 9 yr. ( N

3
1

= 1459).

P. MASLOW, ET AL.

TABLE 13

Age Group

5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9

(60-71 mo.)
(72-83 mo.)
(84-95 mo.)
( 9 G 1 0 7 mo.)

3 64
441
379
275

11

.59
.60
.59
.GO

.93
.9l
.91
.9G

Subtest
111

.67
.72

.77
.72

1V

Toral
Score

.70
.59
.48
.35

.85
.84
.74
.65

.89
.88
.82
.78

*As expressed by Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients corrected by the Spearman-Brown formula. Based on raw scores, 1963 scoring.

Vrtlidity : Correlation Studies

Clas~roomadjustment.-The correlation found between teacher ratings of
classroom adjustment and scores on the Frostig Test (1961 standardization)
suggests the correctness of the hypothesis that disturbances in visual perception
during the early school years are likely to be reflected in disturbances in classroom behavior. Results are shown in Table 14.
TABLE 14
PRODUCT-MOMENTCORREZAT~ONS
AND CHI-SQUARE
COMPARISONS
BETWEENSCORES

FROSTIG
TEST*A N D TEACHER
RATINGS
OF CLASSROOM
ADJUSTMENT,
A N D INTELLECTUAL
FUNCTIONING
FOR A SAMPLE
MOTORCOORDINATION,
OF 374 KINDERGARTEN
CHILDREN

ON THE

Rating
Classroom Adjustment
Motor Coordination
Intellectual Functioning**

.44 1
.502
.497

xzt
45.6t
37.5t
41.9$

These findings are congruent with the contention of Knobloch and Pasamanick (1960) that a Iack of integrity of the nervous system is most clearly expressed in the main developmental task during any phase of development. T h e
development of perceptual skills is a child's main developmental task between
3% and 7 or 7% yr. of age, when judgment and intellecnlal development take
over. This change has been observed and analyzed in a masterly way by Piaget
(1952). After 7 yr. of age, the child becomes more independent of immediate
perceptions as he learns to link events of the past with the present and future
and to develop causal thinking. However, clinical case studies show that children with severe perceptual disturbances are often unable to overcome their

FROSTIG TEST STANDARDIZATION

493

perceprual handicaps sufficiently by intellectual means to progress satisfactorily

in their academic learning.
Goodenoz~ghtest.-The Goodenough test may be used as an indicator of
intellecnial functioning, of perceptual development (particularly of body image)
and as a projective technique.
T o explore the relationship between the factors measured by the Frostig
test and chose assessed by the Goodenough, product-moment correlation coefficients were obtained between the percepnial quotient and the Goodenough intelligence quotient. Results are given in Table 15. Sprague ( 1 9 6 3 ) found
a correlation coefficient between the Frostig and the Goodenough of .235 for
111 kindergarten children, and .273 for the same children a year later.

CORRELATIONS
BETWEEN SCORES'

TABLE 15
FROSTIGTESTA N D

ON THE

Kindergarten
First Grade
Second Grade
'Scale scores, 1961 standardization.

THE

GOODENOUGH
TEST

299

.460

202
214

,318
.3GG

The relatively low correlation coefficients indicate that the two tests
measure factors relatively distinct, but that there is some degree of overlap, most
evident at the lower age level. These low coefficients may also reflect in part
the relatively low reliability of the Goodenough Intelligence Quotient, which
is reported by Goodenough (1955) as .77 (computed by the split-half method)
for ages 5 to 10 taken separately. T h e standard deviation in terms of mental age
months is 12.3 mo. for Age 5, 14.1 mo. for Age 6, and 15.6 mo. for Age 7.
Factor analytic s!udies.-The
present authors have not attempted a factor
analytic srudy. The reader is referred to Corah and Powell (1963) and to
Sprague ( 1963 ) .
Universily Elementary School S/udy.-That a child's ability to learn to read
is affected by his visual percepnial development has been demonscrated by an
experiment initiated in May, 1962, at the Universicy Elementary School,' University of California, Los Angeles, under the direction of Mrs. Edith Appleton,
Kindergarten S~ipervisorof University Elementary School. A group of 25
children between the ages of 4% and 6% were to be exposed to reading material but not forced to use it. All who used it were to be given training in word
attack skills, phonics, observation of configuration, and use of contextual clues.
T h e Frostig test was administered in July, 1962, and eight of che children were
'University Elementary School is the training school for teachers, University of California
at Lor Angeles.

494

P. MASLOW, ET AL.
TABLE 16
FROSTIGTEST SCORESA N D READINGLEVELS,KINDERGARTEN-FIRST
GRADE
CHILDREN,UNIVERSITYELEMENTARY
SCHOOL

Name

Aget
I

I1

Frostig Test$
111
IV

Total

Reading5
Level

THOER
FRIJU
WALDA
WOLKA

THOBR
BLUVA
NAGCH
NIMAD

BLOKA
PEAKY

MOWA
FELBE
WALRO
PRIDO
GARSC
MARJO
HOKJO
(continued next page)
"Indicates a raw score of 0.
""Child evaluated as to reading level at end of kindergarten, summer session, at which
time was just beginning pre-primers.
tChronological age of the child at time Frostig rest was given, July, 1962, Kindergarten,
Summer Session.
$The first row of figures for each child represents the perceptual age equivalent for
that subtest; the second row represents the scale score (1961 standardization).
SData obtained by Mrs. Edith Appleton, Supervisor, Kindergarten, University Elementary
School, Univer. of California a t Los Angeles. The levels were assigned each child at the
beginning of the Fall Semester, 1962. A reading level of 3 denotes a non-reader; 2, a
child reading at a pre-primer level; 1, a child reading from a first grade primer or ar
a higher level.

495

FROSTIG TEST STANDARDIZATION

TABLE 16 (CONT'D)
FROSTIG
TESTSCORES
A N D READING
LEVELS,
KINDERGARTEN-FIRST
GRADE
CHILDREN.
UNIVERSITY
ELEMENTARY
SCHOOL
-

Name
GREJO

Aget
5-1

LESBE

5-4

KELCH

5-7

GOLAN

6 1

FUNJO

5-9

MORGR

6-1

CLACA

5-11

KlKAN

6-2

Frosrig Test$
IV

I1

111

5-6
11
5-0
10
6-3
11
8-6
13
5-6
9
9-0
14
6-6
11
7-6
12

GO

5-7
11
6-9
13
7-3
13
8-3
13
5-9
10
8-3
13
6-3
11
7-9
12

11
5-6
10

7-7
14
6-9
11
6 9
12
9-9
15
7-7
13
10+
15

6-3
12
G3
12
5-0
9
7-9
12
lo+
17
7-9
12
7-7
14
10+
15

6-7
13
7-6
14
6-9
12

Total

Readings
Level

116

118

118

118

122

124

124

132

GO
10
7-6
13
4-9
8
7-6
13
7-6
12

found to have visual percept~lalquotients of 90 or below. It was predicted that

these eight children would not attempt to learn to read because of their difficulties. This prediction proved to be highly accurate (see Table 1 6 ) . In
October, 1962, the children were rated for reading achievement. None of the
children wich a visual p e r c e p t ~ ~ aquotient
l
below 90 had begun to read; of the
two children wich a perceptual quotient of 90, one had learned to read very
well, while the other had not. Only one of the children with a PQ above 9 0
showed reading difficulties.
Research in other beginning reading situations in which the children were
regidired to read, showed a correlation coefficient of between .4 and .5 between
the visual perceptual test and reading s c o r e s . V h e s e findings are in agreement
with those of Goins (1958).
Sprague ( 1963) found that 40, or 36%, of her sample of 111 children in
the second semester of first grade had percepn~alquotients of 9 0 or less on
the Frostig (1962 standardization). Of chese, 23, or 70%, fell below the midpoint in the Reading Achievement Test.
Pilot training s t d y . - A
pilot training project was conducted to assess
methods of alleviating difficulties caused by faulty visual perception. All children (193) in the kindergarten classes of the five schools of Hermosa Beach
School Districtn were given the Frosrig test in January, 1962. Forty-six had
This research was done at Hermoss Beach by the Frostig School, in Solano County by
Mrs. Charlotte Berkov, and in Glendora by Mrs. Karen Waxrnan.
"Dr. Dale Glick, Superintendent, Mr. Henry Levy, District Psychologist, and Mr. Lyle

496

P. MASLOW, ET AL.

scores of 9 0 or below. As 16 of this low-scoring group attended South School,

chis school was chosen for the pilot training project. All children in both the
morning and afternoon kindergarten classes were ranked according to their
scores on the Frostig test. They were marked off in pairs, and one child from
each pair was selecced for training by flipping a coin. Initial Frostig test scores
for the 20 training children ranged from 62 to 124, with 8 children scoring
below 90; the range for the 22 control children was 50 to 128, with 6 children
scoring below 90 and 2 receiving a score of 90.
A n experienced teacher from the Marianne Frostig School for Educational
Therapy, Los Angeles, met the two craining groups of 10 children each from
March 2 8 to May 18, 1962, for a total of 18 sessions of 85 min. each ( a period
which included milk time, recess, etc.), co provide visual perceptual training
by means of games, perceptual activities involving the perception of three-dimensional objects, exercises for body image and concept, and workbook exercises developed by Froscig and Horne ( 1964). T h e children in the control
group remained with their regular teacher at the time of the training sessions.
They followed the prescribed school c ~ ~ r r i a ~ l uwhich
m , inclitded some perceptual
exercises in all sense modalities.
Upon retesting, both groups gained on the Frosrig test, but the trained
group gained significantly more. Using the median gain of 15 points as the
cut-off, a two-by-two table produced a chi-square value of 9.9 ( f i = .005). It
should be noted thac all children in the trained group received a retest score of
90 or above (one girl received 9 0 ) ; 4 children in the control group fell below
90. A score of 9 0 is regarded as one below which children are unlikely to
learn to read, especially if caught mainly by visual methods (see University
Elementary School Snldy ) .
Tyson ( 1963) reports a pilot study of remedial visuo-motor and perceptual
training with 2 hemiplegic and 2 diplegic youngsters, ages 8-5 to 15-6, using
exercises, activities, and worksheets suggested by the Frostig Program for the
Development of Visual Perception. As controls, she used four children matched
for medical condition, degree of visual perceptual difficulty, and IQ, but not
matched exactly for age, sex, or class in school. The experimenter spent equal
amounts of time individually with members of the two groups; the control
children worked on cornmunicacion skills. A t the end of the three-semester
program, the experimental group had improved their scores on a battery of
visuo-motor and perceptual tests to a statistically significantly greater degree than
the control group. The author cautions making general inferences from the
results of so limited a study, but states thac it is her own view that the training
Smith, Principal, South School, extended their intelligent and generous cooperation in
this study.

FROSTIG TEST STANDARDIZATION

497

program "could be most valuable if adapted for use with younger cerebral palsied
and brain-injured children if there is a likelihood of visuo-motor and visual
perceptual difficulty, before they become too daunted by failure in the many
visuo-motor tasks chat are parc of the primary school programme."
Clinical school sanzp1e.-A survey of perceptual test scores in children wich
severe learning difficulties who were referred to the Marianne Frostig School
g
that among them was
of Educational Therapy for testing and t ~ ~ t o r i nrevealed
a very high proportion of children wich poor visual perception. Of a sample
of 53 referred children with IQ scores 76 or above, aged S yr., 11 mo. or younger,
29, or 55%, had scores falling below the 25th percentile o n the Frostig test
( 1961 standardization).
Neurologically handicapped samples.-Frostig,
Lefever and Whictlesey
(1963) have pointed out chat, in attempting co help a child with disabilities in
visual perception, it is far more important to know the extent and nature of
his sympoms than to know their etiology. Difficulties in visual perception may
arise from neurological handicaps, emotional dismrbances, or general delayed
maturation.
However, all research studies in chis area have reported an impressive correlation between perceptual disabilicies and neurological handicaps. I t has
therefore been postulated chat a test of visual perception might be a useful tool
i n a battery of tests for the diagnosis of brain damage.
Analysis of Frostig test scores given to 71 children with known learning
difficulties, a high percentage of whom had been medically referred wich a
diagnosis of "neurologically handicapped," showed a much greater scatter in
age equivalent subtesr scores than did those of normal children, and cheir total
scores were lower (Frostig, Lefever, 8: Whictlesey, 1961).
( Abercrombie, et al., 1964) report a study
Abercrombie and her colleag~~es
comparing the incidence of some aspects of perceptual and visuo-motor disorders within the main categories of cerebral palsy and investigating their relationships with motor handicap, strabismus, and somatic sensory disorders. T h e
Frostig test was used as parc of the assessment batrery. One of their findings
relates to strabismus. The rwo parts of Subtest I1 (intersecting figures and hidden figures) were scored separately, and the authors tentatively concluded that
strabismus increases the difficulty of perceiving hidden figures. These authors
found that disturbances of visuo-motor performance, as measured by one or more
of the tests in their battery, were associated with spnsticiry and not with athetosis;
the incidence in spastics was very high.
Sampling
Additional samples at the preschool age level are required. The nature of

498

P. MASLOW, ET AL.

the preschool sample already tested was dictated less by choice than by necessity.
The preschool children were selected at random from day care centers and from
private and cooperative nursery schools. Additional samples comparing the
norms of nursery school children with those in day care centers and those
children not attending any nursery school may shed light on the question of
differential performance at this age level.
National samples for all age levels tested would enhance the value of the
test. But this project would be so costly that it seems likely to remain an enchanting phantasy.
A careful individualized socio-economic rating for each child in a large
sample should be made by a competent sociologist.
T h e scores of children tested in a group should be compared with the scores
of the same children when tested individually.

OVERVIEW
Statistical data on the 1963 standardization sample of over 2100 unselected nursery
school and public school children berareen the ages of 3 and 9 yr. who were tested with
the Marianne Frostig Developmental Test of Visual Perception have been summarized.
The test contains five subtescs which assess relatively distinct functions: eye-motor coordination, perception of figure-ground, perception of form constancy, perception of
position in space, and perception of spatial relationships. It may be administered either
individually or to groups; scoring 1s objective. The child's raw score for each subtest may be converted to a perceptual aye equivalent, representing the age at which the
average child achieves this score. A total perceptual quotient can then be derived
in a manner similar to that used for determining an intelligence quotient. Means,
standard deviations, and upper and lower quartiles are recorded for each half-year age
level between 5 and 8 yr. Test-retest and split-half reliability coefficients are given.
Correlation studies are reported berween scores on the test and kindergarten teacher
ratings of classroom adjustment, reading achievement in first grade, and the Goodenough
tesr. Scores obtained by children referred to a clinical school because of learning difficulties and by children with clinical signs of brain damage are also reported.
Because of the importance of visual perceptual functions for school learning,
especially in the lower elementary grades, the test serves as an integral part of the
evaluation of children needing remedial or readiness school programs. A pilot scudy
of visual perceptual training with two public school kindergarten classes is described.
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SOLOMON, G . , & TYsON, M. C. Visual, perceptual, and visuo-motor impairment in physically handicapped children. Percept. mot. Skillr, 1964, 18, 561-625.
(Monogr. Suppl. 3 - V I 8 )
CORAH,N. L., 8i POWELL, B. J. A factor analytic study of the Frostig Developmental
Test of Visual Perception. Percept. mot. SRillr, 1963, 16, 59-63.
W. M..BICE, H. V., & WALLEN,N. E. Perception and cerebral palsy.
CRUICKSHANK,
Syracuse, N. Y. : Syracuse Univer. Press, 1957.
FROSTIG,M., & HORNE, D. T h e Frostig program for the developnzent o f visual perception. Chicago: Follett, 1964.

FROSTIG TEST STANDARDIZATION

499

FROSTIG,M., LEFEVER,D. W., & WHITTLESEY,J. R. B. A developmenral test of visual perception for evaluating normal and neurologically handicapped children.
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THURSTONE,L. L. A factorial study of perception. Psychometric ~Monog~.,
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~ .~ .Pilot study of remedial visuomoror training. Special Educ., 1963, 52, 22WEDELL,K. Variarions in perceptual ability among types of cerebral palsy. Cerebral
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