Chapter 1: Introduction to Heat Transfer

- Fouriers law ( T T (x) ): q!!x = k

dT
[Wm-2]
dx

- Newtons law of cooling: q!! = h(Ts T ) [Wm-2]

- Stefan-Boltzmann law: Eb = Ts4 [Wm-2] where = 5.67 10 8 Wm-2K-4

- Conservation of energy: E in E out + E g = E st [W]

Chapter 2: Introduction to Conduction
- Fouriers law ( T T (x, y, z) ): q!!x = k

- Thermal diffusivity: =

T
T
T
, q!!y = k
, q!!z = k
[Wm-2]
x
z
y

k
[m2s-1]
c p

- Heat diffusion equation (Cartesian):

" T % " T % " T %

T
$ k ' + $ k ' + $ k ' + q = c p
x # x & y # y & z # z &
t

Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction

3.1 Plane wall without heat generation
- Heat equation ( T T (x) ):
d ! dT $
#k
&=0
dx " dx %
- Equivalent thermal circuit:

qx =

T,1 T,2
1
L
1
+
+
h1 A kA h2 A

- Composite wall:

qx =

T,1 T,4
1
L
L
L
1
+ A + B + C +
h1 A kA A kB A kC A h4 A

3.2 Cylinder without heat generation

- Heat equation ( T T (r) ):
d ! dT $
# kr
&=0
dr " dr %
- Equivalent thermal circuit:

qr =

T,1 T,2
1
ln(r2 / r1 )
1
+
+
h1 2 r1L
2 kL
h2 2 r2 L

3.3 Plane wall with heat generation

- Heat equation ( T T (x) ):
d ! dT $
#k
&+ q = 0
dx " dx %
- Temperature distribution:

q L2 " x 2 % Ts,2 Ts,1 x Ts,1 + Ts,2

T (x) =
+
$1 ' +
2k # L2 &
2
L
2

Chapter 5: Transient Conduction

- Biot number: Bi =

hLc
, where Lc = V/As
k

- Lumped capacitance method (Bi < 0.1):

) # hA & ,
T T
=
= exp + % s ( t .
i Ti T
* $ Vc ' where T T (t)
- Total energy transfer up to some time t [J]:
(
" t %+
Vc
Q = ( Vc) i *1 exp $ '- where t =
hAs
# t &,
)
Chapter 6: Introduction to Convection
- Definition of heat transfer coefficient:
h=

k T y y=0
Ts T

- Reynolds number (flat plate):

u x u x
Re x = =

- Prandtl number: Pr =

hx
= f (x *, Re x , Pr)
k
hx
- Average Nusselt number: Nu x =
= f (Re x , Pr)
k
- Local Nusselt number: Nux =

Chapter 7: External Flow

7.1 Flow over a flat plate
- Critical Reynolds number:
u x
Re x,c = c = 5 10 5

- Convection correlations (properties evaluated at Tf = (T + Ts ) / 2 ):

Laminar flow over

an isothermal flat
plate
Turbulent flow
over an isothermal
flat plate

Local Nusselt number

Nux = 0.332 Re1x 2 Pr1 3

Average Nusselt number

Nu x = 0.664 Re1x 2 Pr1 3 = 2Nux

Pr 0.6

Pr 0.6

Nux = 0.0296 Re 4x 5Pr1 3

Nu L = (0.037Re 4L 5 A)Pr1 3

0.6 Pr 60

0.6 Pr 60
Re x,c Re L 108

A = 0.037Re 4x,c5 0.664 Re1x,c2

Note: A = 0 if fully turbulent

7.2 Cylinder in cross flow

- Critical Reynolds number:
VD
Re D,cr =
= 2 10 5

- Average Nusselt number:

hD
Nu D =
= C Re mD Pr1 3, Pr 0.7
k

Chapter 8: Internal Flow

8.1 Hydrodynamic considerations
- Mean velocity (tube of circular crossr
2 0
section): um = 2 u(r, x)r dr
ro 0

- Mass flow rate: m = um Ac

um D

- Critical Reynolds number: Re D 2300 Laminar flow

Re D 10, 000 Turbulent flow
!x $
- Hydrodynamic entry length for laminar flow: # fd,h & 0.05Re D
" D %lam
- Reynolds number: Re D =

!x $
- Hydrodynamic entry length for turbulent flow: # fd,h & 10
" D %turb
8.2 Thermal considerations
- Mean temperature (tube of circular
r
2 0
cross-section): Tm =
uTr dr
um ro2 0

!x $
- Thermal entry length for laminar flow: # fd,t & 0.05Re D Pr
" D %lam
!x $
- Thermal entry length for turbulent flow: # fd,t & 10
" D %turb
- Fully developed thermal conditions:
dTm
0 and h f (x)
dx

- Total heat rate in the tube [W]: q = m c p (Tm,o Tm,i ) where Tm,o and Tm,i are the mean
temperatures at the outlet and the inlet of the tube, respectively.
8.3 Boundary condition 1: Constant surface heat flux
- Total heat rate in the tube:

q = m c p (Tm,o Tm,i ) = q""s PL , where q!!s is

the known surface heat flux, P is the

perimeter of the tube, and L is the length
of the tube.

- Mean temperature as a function of x: Tm (x) = Tm,i +

q!!s x

m cp

8.4 Boundary condition 2: Constant surface temperature

- Mean temperature as a function of x:
"
%
Ts Tm (x)
Px '
$
= exp h
$
'
Ts Tm,i
# m cp &

- Total heat rate in the tube: q = m c p (Tm,o Tm,i ) = hAs Tlm

where Tlm =

To Ti
with To = Ts Tm,o and Ti = Ts Tm,i
ln(To / Ti )

8.5 Convection correlations (fully developed region)

- All properties are evaluated at the average mean temperature: T m =

Laminar flow,
constant surface
heat flux
Laminar flow,
constant surface
temperature
Turbulent flow,
constant surface
heat flux and
constant surface
temperature

Tm,i + Tm,o
2

Nusselt number ( NuD = hD / k )

NuD = 4.36
NuD = 3.66

NuD = 0.023Re 4D 5Pr n

0.6 Pr 160
Re D 10, 000
L / D 10
n = 0.4 if Ts > Tm and n = 0.3 if
Ts < Tm

Chapter 11: Heat Exchangers

11.1 Overall heat transfer coefficient and energy balance
1
1
1
- Overall heat transfer coefficient U [Wm-2K-1]:
= Rtot =
+ Rw +
UA
(hA)c
(hA)h
where the subscripts c and h refer to cold and hot side, respectively, while Rw is the wall
thermal resistance by conduction.
- Total heat rate [W]:

q = m h c p,h (Th,i Th,o ) = m c c p,c (Tc,o Tc,i )

- Heat capacity rates [WK-1]:

Ch = m h c p,h and Cc = m c c p,c

11.2 LMTD method: Parallel-flow heat exchanger

- Total heat rate: q = UATlm where

T2 T1
ln(T2 / T1 )
T1 = Th,1 Tc,1 = Th,i Tc,i
T2 = Th,2 Tc,2 = Th,o Tc,o
Tlm =

11.3 LMTD method: Counterflow heat exchanger

- Total heat rate: q = UATlm where

T2 T1
ln(T2 / T1 )
T1 = Th,1 Tc,1 = Th,i Tc,o
T2 = Th,2 Tc,2 = Th,o Tc,i
Tlm =

11.4 NTU method

- NTU (number of transfer units): NTU =

UA
Cmin

- Effectiveness of a heat exchanger: =

- Heat capacity ratio: Cr =

qmax

Cmin
Cmax

q
Cmin (Th,i Tc,i )

- Effectiveness-NTU relations: = f (NTU, Cr )

- Effectiveness-NTU relations: NTU = f (, Cr )

- Effectiveness-NTU relations in graphical forms:

Parallel-flow heat exchanger (Eq. (11.28))

Counterflow heat exchanger (Eq. (11.29))

Shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one shell and

any multiple of two tube passes (Eq. (11.30))

Shell-and-tube heat exchanger with two shell

passes and any multiple of four tube passes (Eq.
(11.31) with n = 2).

10

Single-pass, cross-flow heat exchanger with both

fluids unmixed (Eq. (11.32)).

Single-pass, cross-flow heat exchanger with one

fluid mixed and the other unmixed (Eqs. (11.33)
and (11.34)).

Chapter 12: Thermal Radiation: Processes and Properties

12.1 Solid angle, emissive power, irradiation and radiosity
- Electromagnetic spectrum:

- Net radiative heat flux from a surface

(outgoing energy incoming energy)
[Wm-2]:

!! = J G
qrad

11

- Solid angle [sr]: d =

dAn
= sin d d
r2

- Intensity: I (, , ) =

dq
[Wm-2sr-1m-1]
dA1 cos d d

- Total, hemispherical emissive power

[Wm-2]:
2 2

E=

,e

(, , )cos sin d d d

=0 =0 =0

- Diffuse emitter: I ,e f ( , )

- Total, hemispherical irradiation

[Wm-2]:
2 2

G=

,i

(, , )cos sin d d d

=0 =0 =0

- Diffuse incident radiation: I ,i f ( , )

- Total, hemispherical radiosity [Wm-2]:

2 2

J=

,e+r

(, , )cos sin d d d

=0 =0 =0

12

- Diffuse reflector and diffuse emitter: I ,e+r f ( , )

12.2 Blackbody radiation
- Blackbody spectral emissive power
[Wm-2m-1]:

E ,b (,T ) = I ,b (,T )
- Wiens displacement law:
maxT = 2898 m K
- Stefan-Boltzmann law [Wm-2]:

Eb (T ) =

,b

(,T )d = T 4

=0

12.3 Band emission

- Fraction of blackbody emissive power contained between 0 and :

F(0 ) =

,b

,b

- Fraction of blackbody emissive power contained between 1 and 2:

2

F( 12 ) =

1
,b

E
0

,b

,b

d
= F(02 ) F(01 )

13

14

12.4 Emissivity
- Calculated at the surface temperature
- Spectral, directional emissivity:
I (, , ,T )
, (, , ,T ) = ,e
I ,b (,T )
- Spectral, hemispherical emissivity:
2
E (,T ) 1 2
(,T ) =
= , (, , ,T )cos sin d d
E ,b (,T ) =0 =0
- Total, hemispherical emissivity:

E(T ) =0
(T ) =
=
Eb (T )

(,T )E ,b (,T )d
Eb (T )

12.5 Absorptivity
- Calculated using the temperature of the source
- Spectral, directional absorptivity:
I
( , , )
, (, , ) = ,i,abs
I ,i (, , )
- Spectral, hemispherical absorptivity:
2 2

G ( ) =0 =0
( ) = ,abs
=
G ( )

(, , )I ,i (, , )cos sin d d

2 2

,i

(, , )cos sin d d

=0 =0

- Total, hemispherical asborptivity:

G
= abs = =0
G

( )G ( )d

G ( )d

=0

15

12.6 Kirchhoffs law

- Equality always applicable: , = ,
- = if either of the following conditions is satisfied:
(1) The irradiation is diffuse ( I ,i f ( , ) )
(2) The surface is diffuse
- = if condition (1) or (2) is satisfied, and if either of the following conditions is
satisfied:
(3) The irradiation corresponds to emission from a blackbody at the surface
temperature
(4) The surface is gray
Chapter 13: Radiation Exchange between Surfaces
13.1 View factors
Fij =
Fji =

1
Ai
1
Aj

cos i cos j
dA j dAi
R2

cos i cos j
dA j dAi
R2

Ai A j

Ai A j

- Reciprocity relation: Ai Fij = A j Fji

N

- Summation rule (enclosure of N surfaces):

ij

j=1

16

=1

- View factors for common geometries:

17

18

View factor for aligned parallel rectangles.

View factor for coaxial parallel disk.

View factor for perpendicular rectangles with a common edge.

19

13.2 Blackbody radiation exchange

- Net heat rate between two surfaces i
and j:
qij = qi j q ji = Ai Fij (Ti 4 Tj4 )
- Net heat rate from surface i due to
exchange with N surfaces within an
enclosure of N black surfaces:
N

qi = Ai Fij (Ti 4 Tj4 )

j=1

20