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Article history:
Received 22 July 2013
Accepted 16 August 2013
Recommended by Astol Alessandro
Available online 16 September 2013
In this paper, we study battery sizing for grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) systems. In our setting, PV
generated electricity is used to supply the demand from loads: on one hand, if there is surplus PV
generation, it is stored in a battery (as long as the battery is not fully charged), which has a xed
maximum charging/discharging rate; on the other hand, if the PV generation and battery discharging
cannot meet the demand, electricity is purchased from the grid. Our objective is to choose an appropriate
battery size while minimizing the electricity purchase cost from the grid. More specically, we want to
nd a unique critical value (denoted as Ecmax ) of the battery size such that the cost of electricity purchase
remains the same if the battery size is larger than or equal to Ecmax , and the cost is strictly larger
otherwise. We propose an upper bound on Ecmax , and show that the upper bound is achievable for certain
scenarios. For the case with ideal PV generation and constant loads, we characterize the exact value of
Ecmax , and also show how the storage size changes as the constant load changes; these results are
validated via simulations.
& 2013 European Control Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
PV
Grid
Battery
Optimization
1. Introduction
Installations of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems have been growing
at a rapid pace in recent years due to the advantages of PV such as
modest environmental impacts (clean energy), avoidance of fuel
price risks, coincidence with peak electrical demand, and the ability
to deploy PV at the point of use. In 2010, approximately 17,500 megawatts (MW) of PV were installed globally, up from approximately
7500 MW in 2009, consisting primarily of grid-connected applications [2]. Since PV generation tends to uctuate due to cloud cover
and the daily solar cycle, energy storage devices, e.g., batteries,
ultracapacitors, and compressed air, can be used to smooth out the
uctuation of the PV output fed into electric grids (capacity rming)
[14], discharge and augment the PV output during times of peak
energy usage (peak shaving) [16], or store energy for nighttime use,
for example in zero-energy buildings.
In this paper, we study battery sizing for grid-connected PV
systems to store energy for nighttime use. Our setting is shown in
Fig. 1. PV generated electricity is used to supply loads: on one
hand, if there is surplus PV generation, it is stored in a battery for
later use or dumped (if the battery is fully charged); on the other
hand, if the PV generation and battery discharging cannot meet
the demand, electricity is purchased from the grid. The battery has
0947-3580/$ - see front matter & 2013 European Control Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejcon.2013.08.002
Load
Solar Panel
25
2. Problem formulation
Electric Grid
Battery
Note that in [17], we study battery sizing for net-metered systems under
more relaxed assumptions compared with this work.
2.3. Battery
A battery has the following dynamic:
dEB t
P B t;
dt
26
(i) At any time, the battery charge EB(t) should satisfy EBmin r
EB t r EBmax , where EBmin is the minimum battery charge, EBmax
is the maximum battery charge, and2 0 o EBmin rEBmax .
(ii) The battery charging/discharging rate should satisfy P Bmin r
P B t r P Bmax , where P Bmin o 0, P Bmin is the maximum battery
discharging rate, and P Bmax 4 0 is the maximum battery
charging rate.
P B ;P gp ;P gd
t0
P pv t P gp t P gd t P B t P load t;
s:t:
dEB t
P B t; EB t 0 EBmin ;
dt
EBmin r EB t r EBmax ;
P Bmin r P B t r P Bmax ;
P gp t Z 0; P gd t Z 0;
where t0 is the initial time, T is the time period considered for the
cost minimization. Eq. (3) is the power balance requirement for
any time t A t 0 ; t 0 T; in other words, the supply of electricity
(either from PV generation, grid purchase, or battery discharging)
must meet the demand.
2.6. Battery sizing
Based on Eq. (3), we obtain
EBmax EBmin
;
2
P gp t P load t P pv t P B t P gd t:
ut P B t, and
Emax
P B ;P gd
t0
dEB t
P B t; EB t 0 EBmin ;
s:t:
dt
EBmin r EB t r EBmax ;
P Bmin r P B t r P Bmax ;
P gd t Z 0:
EBmax EBmin
:
2
Note that 2Emax EBmax EBmin is the net (usable) battery capacity,
which is the maximum amount of electricity that can be stored in
the battery. Then the optimization problem can be rewritten as
Z t0 T
C gp max0; P load P pv u d
J min
u
t0
dxt
ut; xt 0 Emax ;
s:t:
dt
jxtj r Emax ; P Bmin r ut r P Bmax :
2
Usually, EBmin is chosen to be larger than 0 to prevent fast battery aging. For
detailed modeling of the aging process, refer to [16].
(iii) 8 t 1 A S1 , 8 t 2 A S2 , t 2 ot 1 , where
S1 ft A t 0 ; t 0 TjP pv t P load t 4 0g;
and
Z
27
t0 T
t0
10
28
P pv (W )
P load (W )
t(h)
tsunrise
tsunset
24
t(h)
24
Fig. 2. Ideal PV generation and constant load. (a) Ideal PV generation for a clear day. (b) Constant load.
and
Z
24
B1
t2
P pv (W )
A1
B1
P Bmax
P Bmin
t(h)
t1
t2
24
Fig. 3. PV generation and load, where P Bmax (or P Bmin ) is the maximum charging
(or discharging) rate, and A1 ; B1 ; t 1 ; t 2 are dened in Proposition 6.
P max
pv .
and rewrite B1 as
Z 24
B1
min P Bmin ; max0; P load P pv t dt;
t max
12
B1
2
A1
2
c
Pload
max
Ppv
Pload (W)
Ppv (W)
A2
5. Simulations
B2
PBmax
PBmin
t1
t(h)
t2
24
t3
48
Fig. 5. PV generation and load (two days), where P Bmax (or P Bmin ) is the
maximum charging (or discharging) rate, and A2 ; B2 ; t 1 ; t 2 ; t 3 are dened in
Proposition 8.
and
Z
t3
B2
t2
29
1500
24
A2
0
t max 24
t max
500
PBmax
PBmin
0
Jul 13, 2010
13
and rewrite B2 as
B2
Ppv (w)
14
1000
900
Fig. 6. PV output for July 1316, 2010, at La Jolla, California. For reference, a constant
load 200 W is also shown (solid line) along with P Bmax P Bmin 200 W. The shaded
area above the 200 W horizontal line corresponds to the amount of electricity that can
be potentially charged to a battery, while the shaded area below the 200 W line
corresponds to the amount of electricity that can potentially be provided by
discharging the battery.
800
700
Load (w)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Time (h)
30
0.6
1.2
0.58
1.15
1.1
Minimum Cost ($)
0.56
0.54
0.52
0.5
1
0.95
0.48
0.9
0.46
0.44
1.05
500
1000
1500
0.85
500
1000
1500
Emax (wh)
Emax (wh)
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.1
2
1.9
1.8
500
1000
1500
Emax (wh)
Fig. 8. Plots of minimum costs versus Emax obtained via simulations given the load prole in Fig. 7 and P Bmax 200 W. (a) One day. (b) Two days. (c) Four days.
SDG&E (San Diego Gas & Electric) [19]. For the battery, we choose
EBmin 0:4 EBmax , and then
Emax
EBmax EBmin
0:3 EBmax :
2
0.18
31
0.4
0.17
0.35
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.13
0.12
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.11
0.1
0.1
0.09
500
1000
1500
0.05
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
Emax (wh)
Emax (wh)
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
500
1000
1500
Emax (wh)
Fig. 9. Plots of minimum costs versus Emax obtained via simulations given P load 200 W and P Bmax 200 W. (a) One day. (b) Two days. (c) Four days.
4
The step size for Emax is 10 W h, so the difference between the value obtained
via simulations and the theoretical value is expected to be within 10 assuming the
theoretical value is correct.
32
700
Minimum cost
J
1.8
600
max
1.6
1.4
Cost ($)
400
Emax (wh)
500
300
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
200
0.4
100
0
0.2
0
500
1000
1500
Load (w)
1500
4
3.5
1000
Minimum cost
Jmax
3
800
2.5
Cost ($)
1000
Load (w)
1200
Emax (wh)
500
600
2
1.5
400
1
200
0.5
500
1000
1500
Load (w)
500
1000
1500
Load (w)
1200
8
Minimum cost
Jmax
1000
6
5
Cost ($)
Emax (wh)
800
600
4
3
400
2
200
500
1000
Load (w)
1500
500
1000
1500
Load (w)
Fig. 10. Ecmax (left), and costs (both J max and the cost corresponding to Ecmax , right) versus the xed load obtained via simulations for P Bmax 200 W. (a) One day. (b) Two days.
(c) Four days.
700
33
9
8
600
7
500
Error (wh)
Emaxc (wh)
6
400
300
5
4
3
200
Theoretical
Simulation
100
0
2
1
500
1000
1500
Load (w)
1200
500
1000
Load (w)
1500
500
1500
9
8
1000
7
6
Error (wh)
Emaxc (wh)
800
600
5
4
3
400
Theoretical
Simulation
200
2
1
500
1000
0
0
1500
1000
Load (w)
Load (w)
1200
70
60
1000
50
Error (wh)
Emaxc (wh)
800
600
40
30
400
20
Theoretical
Simulation
200
10
500
1000
Load (w)
1500
500
1000
1500
Load (w)
Fig. 11. Plots of Ecmax versus the xed load for the theoretical value (the curve with the circle marker) and the value obtained via simulations (the curve with the square
marker). (a) One day. (b) Two days. (c) Four days.
34
6. Conclusions
In this paper, we studied the problem of determining the size of
battery storage for grid-connected PV systems. We proposed an
upper bound on the storage size, and showed that the upper
bound is achievable for certain scenarios. For the case with ideal
PV generation and constant load, we characterized the exact
storage size, and also showed how the storage size changes as
the constant load changes; these results are consistent with the
results obtained via simulations.
There are several directions for future research. First, the dynamic
time-of-use pricing of the electricity purchase from the grid could be
taken into account. Large businesses usually pay time-of-use electricity rates, but with increased deployment of smart meters and
electric vehicles some utility companies are moving towards different
prices for residential electricity purchase at different times of the day
(for example, SDG&E has the peak, semipeak, offpeak prices for a day
in the summer season [19]). New results (and probably new
techniques) are necessary to deal with dynamic pricing. Second, we
would like to study how batteries with a xed capacity can be
utilized (e.g., via serial or parallel connections) to implement the
critical battery capacity for practical applications. Last, we would also
like to extend the results to wind energy storage systems, and
consider battery parameters such as round-trip charging efciency,
degradation, and costs.
Acknowledgments
This work was funded by NSF grant ECCS-1232271.
35
Rt
where J 0 01 C gp P load P pv d is a constant which is independent of the control u, and
Z 24
J 1 min
C gp max0; P load P pv u d:
t1
t2
t1
24
t2
If
and
Z
B1
24
t max
max
max
Therefore, f P max
pv A1 P pv B1 P pv o 0. In addition, since f is
an integral of a continuous function of P load , f is differentiable with
respect to P load , and the derivative is given as
df
dA1
dB1
:
dP load dP load dP load
Since for P load A 0; P max
pv ,
Z 24
dA1
1 I 0 o P pv t P load rP Bmax dt
dP load
0
o 0;
and
dB1
dP load
4 0;
24
t max
1 I 0 o P load P pv t r P Bmin dt
36
J J0 Ji Jk ;
i1
k1
Li Lk ;
i1
where
Z t 2i 1
C gp max0; P load P pv u d;
Li
t 2i 1
for i 1; 2; ; k 1, and
Z t2k 1
C gp max0; P load P pv u d:
Lk
t 2k 1
Note that given a certain Emax , if the battery charge at the end
of the rst battery operating cycle is larger than 0 (i.e.,
xt 3 4 Emax ), then Emax 4 Ecmax . This can be argued as follows. If
the battery charge at the end of the rst cycle is larger than 0 (this
also implies that the battery charge at the end of the ith cycle is
also larger than 0 due to periodic PV generations and loads), i.e.,
there is more PV generation than demand in the time interval
t 1 ; t 3 , then Emax can be strictly reduced to a smaller capacity so
that xt 3 Emax without increasing the electricity purchase cost
in the interval t 1 ; t 3 . Due to periodicity of the PV generation and
the load, the smaller Emax can be used for the interval t 2i 1 ; t 2i 1
for i 2; ; k 1 without increasing the electricity purchase cost.
Therefore, this Emax must be larger than Ecmax . In other words, if
Ecmax is used, then xt 2i 1 for i 1; 2; ; k 1 has to be Ecmax , i.e.,
no charge left at the end of each operating cycle. Now we only
consider Emax such that at the end of each operating cycle
xt 2i 1 Emax for i 1; 2; ; k 1 (necessarily, Ecmax is smaller
than or equal to any such Emax ). For such Emax , the control actions
t2
t1
t3
t2
and
Z
Bk
t 2k 1
t 2k
37