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The poets and song writers have always

characterized the heavens as unchanging.
The stars are immortal.
In contrast with the ordinary life
processes on Earth.
Daylilies and butterflies may be fleeting,
but the sun and stars will endure.
However, even the stars go through
definite life
cycles, and their story is a fascinating
one.
After all, every single atom of calcium in
every bone in our bodies
was produced inside an ancient star, which
then exploded and
added the processed material to the
interstellar medium, some of which later
went into forming our Sun, Earth, and
solar system, and finally, us.
Astronomically in human terms, the story
begins a mere 75 years ago.
Scientists at that time had
no real understanding of the energy
sources that allowed the stars to shine.
All the known possibilities, from chemical
reactions like burning wood in
a fire, to utilizing gravitational
potential energy stored in the star.
In other words, having the star contract
to smaller and smaller sizes
as it radiated, fell woefully short of the
required energy.
All these energy sources could power the
stars
for a mere 1,000 to possibly 10 million
years.
However, our knowledge of the age of the
rocks and
the earth indicated several billions years
of existence for the sun.
A crisis inevitably ensued.
Hans
Bethe, working at Cornell, showed that
nuclear physics provided the missing link
in
the chain of knowledge, which now
describes
the structure and evolution of the stars.
So many observational puzzles have been
explained,
once the hypothesis of nuclear burning was
adopted,
that there can be scarcely any doubt that
these enormous balls of fire and gas are
powered by insignificant sub-atomic
particles so small that it would take
about 1 trillion of them, lined up end to
end, to span
the head of a pin.

The universe is indeed a miraculous place.

The immense energies provided by the
nuclear furnaces in
the cores of stars are the result of one
way
transmutations of elements, beginning with
hydrogen to helium.
It is these processees which cause the
stars to evolve.
As the star cooks the elements from
hydrogen to helium, to carbon and oxygen.
There is progressively less and less
energy available to extract.
Once the core of the star reaches iron,
the jig
is up.
No longer can the star replenish its
expenditure
of radiation, and it must change its
structure radically.
Depending on its mass, it can either cool
down gradually, eventually
dying like an ember in a fire or go out in
a blaze of glory
with an utterly catastrophic explosion,
becoming a supernova.
During this explosion, which lasts only
minutes, the
released energy is so great that for a
short while,
the star outshines the entire galaxy of
which it is part.
Imagine an object shining brighter than
the sun by 100 billion times.
Although the actual explosion lasts for
less than a day,
the effects linger for centuries.
The gas from the explosion hurtles outward
at speeds approaching that of
light, and it begins to plow through the
space between the stars.
We can see the accumulation of material,
called a supernova remnant, still
expanding today, even when the original
explosion occurred thousands of years ago.
Here, you see a remarkable double exposed
photograph of the crab nebula, which was
first visible in the skies of 1054 A.D..
One image was printed as white.
The other, taken 14 years later, was
printed and superimposed black.
You can almost feel the seething cauldron
as it hurdles through interstellar space.
Here you see a composite photo of the same
object, using a Chandra x-ray
observation shown in blue, a Hubble
optical observation shown in
green and a Spitzer infrared observation
shown in red.
The engine that powers these nebulae are

often quite active, too.

Here we see a video of x-rays from Chandra
shown in blue and optic photons from
Hubble, shown in red of the
central part of the nebula.
This remarkable sequence
was taken like a slow-motion video over a
period of about 6
months in 2000 and 2001.
And don't forget,
all this started becoming visible almost
1,000 years ago.
Often, the explosion leaves behind a
strange object.
The very center of the region does not
disperse, but forms a neutron star.
We met this kind of object last week
in a different context when we examined
Senex 3.
This is a star that has more mass than
the sun, but occupies a volume no bigger
than the
city of Boston.
Its density is truly astounding.
One thimble full of its material would
weigh
as much as millions of full sized African
elephants.
It usually spins on it's axis ten to 100
times a second.
And it's called a pulsar.
Even though it doesn't pulse at all, but
as we've seen, rotates instead.
As the pulsar spins over the centuries, it
adds electrons and other charged particles
to the
interstellar soup, and provides the energy
we see
radiating towards us today, from parts of
the remnant.
Since such high energies and temperatures
are involved, it is not surprising
that these super nova remnants can radiate
copious amounts of X-rays.
The pictures we get from these objects
tell us many things.
Not only do we get an idea about the star
that
exploded, we also find out much about the
interstellar medium itself.
As the star's energy sweeps up and
accelerates, the once calm environment
surrounding the star.
The more detailed a picture we get
from these objects, the better our
understanding.
So we try to get data from
all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum,
including X-rays.
As we have seen, the problem is that

X-rays are hard to focus.

But about 20 years ago we learned how
to use grazing incidence mirrors for this
purpose.
The results were astonishing.
And the improvements kept coming until now
we have the superb optics of
the Chandra satellite.
We have looked at the CAS-A image before
in DS9, several times,
now we want to explore some of the physics
that give rise to this incredible picture.
Here we see the display of our image set
to emphasize the following discussion.
I urge you to play around with DS9 using
Obs ID 114,
which is the first data set listed when
you initialize the virtual
observatory.
First, you see portions of a rotated
square, which shows you the extent of the
Chandra satellite's field of view.
Also, you see a very bright almost white
lumpy
but somewhat circular region surrounding a
central point-like object.
Outside the lumpy region we see a fainter,
more wispy region.
What is all this telling us?
We have pieced together the following
story.
About 300 years ago, the star that is now
the central object, exploded.
Remarkably, this conflagration was not
seen by anyone, apparently.
Even though these explosions,
as we have seen, are usually large enough
so the radiation can provide enough light
for reading, even at midnight.
How then do we know when it happened?
Optical data shows material, via the
Doppler Effect, streaming
outward from the object, at thousands of
kilometers per second.
If we run this expansion backwards,
the material would get back to the center,
in about
350 years.
Thus, the object should have been visible,
around 1650 A.D. Since this remnant
has been expanding for over 300 years at
an incredibly high speed,
by now it is quite large.
As is usual with astronomical
objects, distances to supernova remnants
are very difficult to determine.
The best estimates come from the fast
moving knots of material that we
can actually see moving outwards through
the sky over a period of years.

We have just seen an example of this in

the Crab Nebula.
In the case of Cas-A, the bright spots you
see in the X-ray image,
are examples of some of these knots.
If we know how fast the knots are
moving through space, Doppler Shift again,
and we know
how far they move in angular extent across
the sky, we can compute the distance to
them.
In your assignment this week, you will,
you will be exploring this idea in depth.
The bright, almost circular, ring that we
see in this image of
CAS-A is the current position of the shock
debris from the explosion.
In reality, it's a large hollow shell with
very
little material in the interior region
near the pulsar,
since the explosion has swept up the
material much
like a snow plow does, when it drives
through snow.
Because the material is moving so rapidly,
a shock wave forms.
We see this as a faint outer shell outside
the main ring of ejecta.
The jet like structure, visible on the
left side of the remnant, may
indicate higher velocity material rushing
outward through
a rarefied part of the interstellar
medium.
If you look carefully at the shape of this
jet, you can see that when you follow
it back towards the center of the remnant,
it
seems to be aligned with that faint little
dot.
The central object in the very middle.
From your homework results this week, you
will see that the intensity of the
remnant, steadily increases from the
center until about 100 arc seconds
in radius, thereafter, the remnant gets
weaker and weaker.
This is what you might expect for a more
or less hollow ball with a dense outer
shell.
In fact, the exact nature of this emission
and its morphology, or shape, is a
subject of intense research currently.
By looking at profiles like these,
astronomers hope to gain some insight into
the nature of the original explosion, and
better understand the mechanisms by which
the
shock fronts form and travel through

space.
The best however, is yet to come.
Some of the most exciting data from this
object concerns
the energy spectrum of the X-ray light
from different parts
of the remnants.
Just as blue flame is hotter than a red
flame,
and sodium vapor lights are yellow, while
mercury lights are blue,
X-rays can tell us about the state of the
emitting regions
and what substances are present in each
part of the object.
And when you look at the energy of all of
the X-ray photons that Chandra can collect
from CAS-A, a remarkable picture emerges.
Superimposed on
a continuous background of X-ray light, we
detect the fingerprints of the elements.
Like that prism that takes sunlight and
makes a rainbow out of what we think is
only yellow light from the sun, so are the
detectors on Chandra examine X-rays.
And just as that rainbow
contains information about the chemical
composition of the sun, so the Chandra
energy spectrum tells us about the
recycled material from our supernova.
It's all there.
The building blocks of life, calcium,
oxygen, iron.
Let's go to DS9 and check this out.
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