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CHAPTER 25
MODELING RECOMMENDATIONS
25.1 Choosing element types, defining boundary conditions and
assigning DOF constrains
The finite element model can be a 2-dimensional or a 3-dimensional one,
according to the problems significant dimensions. It is always
recommended to create a 2D model when the main hypotheses allow such a
simplification. In either 2D or 3D space, the model can be made of point
elements, line elements and/or solid elements, according to the structures
make up. The integration of different kinds of finite elements in the same
model should be made carefully, in order to maintain the appropriate
compatibility among their degrees of freedom.
The element type should be chosen according to the required refinement of
the finite element model. For example, the model of a roof beam made of
assembled steel components may be represented roughly by pin-jointed
truss elements, or in detail, using shell elements for meshing each steel
component and its assembling features. In the first case only the overall
results are available (joint displacements, axial strains and stresses, axial
forces), while in second case a finer distribution of results is achieved,
emphasizing those regions where each component or assembling detail may
be improved.
The most convenient method for model generation is also important when
choosing the element types.
Frame and truss structures are usually modeled using various types of line
(or so called one-dimensional) elements, such as trusses, beams or pipes, in
both 2D and 3D space. Two examples of modeling one-dimensional
member structures are given in figures 2.1 and 25.1. Solid elements in the
2D space are used for thin planar structures working in plane stress state or
for analyzing constant cross sections of long structures which fulfill the
plane strain hypothesis. The 2D model of an embankment cross section is
represented in figure 25.2. The embankment is considered long enough to
provide plain strain conditions for the transversal cross section. The 2D

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solids are used as well as half cross sections of axial-symmetric solids

(when loads and boundary conditions accomplish the same symmetry
conditions).

Fig. 25.1 3D frame structure model made of various beam and truss elements

Fig. 25.2 Embankment cross-section in plain strain conditions modeled with 2D

solid elements

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When all three dimensions of structural bodies become significant 3D solid

elements should be used (thick structures, variable cross sections, no
symmetry). An example of modeling an arch dam and the corresponding
foundation mass using 3D solid elements is represented in figure 25.3. Shell
elements are used for more or less thin 3D structural components as floor
plates or diaphragm walls, subjected to bending and/or membrane type of
behavior.

Fig. 25.3 Dam-foundation interaction analysis modeled with 3D solid elements

The boundary conditions are usually applied on selected groups of nodes

with similar constrains (not as individual node constrains). Therefore, the
geometry of the model should take into account the selection facilities of the
computer code, in order to simplify the constraining commands. Nodes
lying in orthogonal planes (which can be selected using the coordinates
criterion) or nodes attached to areas or surfaces (when solid modeling is
used) are easier to be selected. The finite element model shown in figure
25.3 is delimited by orthogonal planes cutting the foundation mass. These

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limits, placed far enough from the dam-foundation interaction region, where
chosen on purpose parallel with the global Cartesian coordinate system, in
order to simplify the constrain procedure.
A special care should be taken when joining elements with different number
of DOF per node, because inconsistencies will be expected at their interface.
In case of inconsistency, some of the corresponding nodal forces or bending
moments will be not transferred from one element to the other. To be
consistent, the joining elements must have the same DOF (for example
displacement DOF and rotational DOF) and, furthermore, these DOF must
be continuous across the element boundaries.
Suppose the 2D structure made of a diaphragm wall and some planar frames
shown in figure 25.4. Modeling the diaphragm wall by using 2D linear solid
elements with 2 DOF per node (displacements along x and y axes) and the
frames by using 2D elastic beam elements with 3 DOF per node
(displacements along x and y axes and rotation around the normal axis to the
xy plane), the bending moment at common nodes will be not transferred
from the beam elements to the diaphragm wall. Consequently, the joints will
act like hinges between the beam elements and the solid elements.
A

Connection detail A

uy u
x

2D solid with
2DOF/node

z
ux u
y
2D beam with
3DOF/node

Fig. 25.4 Connecting elements with different DOF per node

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In order to embed the beam into the diaphragm wall, two possibilities are
available. The first one is represented in figure 25.5, where the beam is
extended over the diaphragm in order to connect both element types in at
least 2 common nodes (3 nodes recommended). Although the embedment
bending stiffness is not identical with the real one, acceptable overall results
are expected (including the bending moment and shear force at the left hand
side of the beam).

2 DOF/node: ux, uy
3 DOF/node: ux, uy, rotz
i

2D elastic beam elements

2D linear solid elements

Fig. 25.5 Embedment of 2D elastic beam element into a diaphragm wall modeled
with 2D linear solid elements

An alternative solution for connecting element types with different number

of DOF per node is to assign local boundary conditions using constrain
equations. The rotational degree of freedom of node i, z,i, (see figure 25.6)
can be expressed as the ratio between the horizontal components of
displacement u of nodes m and n and the vertical distance between the same
nodes:
u x, m + u x, n
z ,i =
[rad]
ym yn
In order to embed 3D beams into diaphragm walls modeled with shell
elements, similar methods should be used as for the 2D example shown
before.

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m ux,m

z,i

i
n

ux,n
Fig. 25.6 The procedure of assigning constrain equations

Another example is represented in figure 25.7. It is a 2D frame structure

combined with truss elements. While the 2D elastic beam elements
modeling the frame allow a continuous deformation of the framed region (in
terms of equal displacements and rotations of all cross sections converging
into a node), the truss elements, with only 2 DOF per node (displacements)
suffer only axial deformation (the nodal rotation being free). Thus, at the
common nodes 4 and 14, the trusses are always pin-jointed to the frame
(although the continuity of the frame in these nodes)*. Obviously, no
coincident nodes are necessary for a hinge type connection between beam
and truss elements and no DOF coupling.
Joining elements with the same number of DOF can also be inconsistent.
The 2D elastic beam and the 3D membrane shell have both 3 DOF per node.
However, the shell element has three displacement DOF (on x, y and z
directions) while the beam element has a rotational DOF which will be not
transferred to the shell element, so the interface will behave as a pinned one.
Sometimes, although the same DOF are present for both elements joining a
specific node (as number and type), the consistency of such merging is not
guaranteed. The 3D beam element and the 3D bending shell element have
both 6 DOFs per node (3 translational DOF and 3 rotational DOF). Hence,
the rotational DOF around the normal axis n of the shell (the so called
drilling mode) is associated with the in-plane rotational stiffness, which is a
fictitious one (it is not a true DOF).
*Truss elements should always be used with care in order to avoid mechanism
type displacements. In order to avoid an insufficient constrained model, a
minimum number of bracings should be used (diagonals of rectangular panels).
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14

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Fig. 25.7 2D frame model connected with truss elements

Therefore, no consistency yields by connecting only one node of a 3D beam

element to only one node of a 3D bending shell element. Not any rotational
beam DOF corresponds to the rotational shell DOF around its n axis.
25.2 Taking advantage of symmetry
Structures or domains subjected to finite element analyses can exhibit
repetitive symmetry, reflecting symmetry or axial symmetry. When the
material properties, loads and constraints are also symmetric, it is useful to
take advantage of these properties with the aim of simplifying the model.
In case of repetitive symmetry, boundary conditions of the repetitive
patterns of the real object are not the same. Even if the geometry and loads
are preserved, the constraints are applied in only few regions of the object,
while corresponding points on similar patterns are free to move according to
the overall flexibility. In this case the sub-structuring (macro-elements)
method is the most convenient way to simplify the finite element model.
The substructure defines the repetitive pattern as a macro-element which is
further connected into the whole model. The steps to be followed are
presented in chapter 14.

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In case of reflecting symmetry, the real object can be divided into 2, 4 or 8

symmetrical parts, according to overall dimension of the problem (2D or
3D) and the number of symmetry planes accepted by the geometry. The
finite element model should define only the symmetric component of the
object. The correct behavior of the model, as part of a whole, is provided by
the appropriate prescribed boundary conditions along the symmetry planes.
Suppose a rectangular floor plate with fixed (embedded) perimeter subjected
to a uniform distributed load acting normal to its surface (see figure 25.8).

Mx

My
z
y
etr
mm e 1
y
S lan
p

My
L2

Sy
m
p l a me t
ne ry
2

Mx
L1

Constrained displacements
Constrained rotations

z
y

All DOF constrained

Fig. 25.8 Double symmetry of a floor plate. Finite element model.

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To create the finite element model, only a quarter of the floor plate should
be taken into account, with appropriate boundary conditions. There are two
symmetry planes, along the x and y axes. Points lying in the symmetry plane
x = 0 have zero displacements on x direction and zero rotation around the y
axis, while points lying in the y = 0 plane have zero displacements on y
direction and zero rotation around the x axis. The middle of the plate (in this
case corresponding to the coordinate system origin) has only vertical
displacement (both x and y displacements are zero) and no rotation at all. In
order to reproduce the correct behavior of the entire plate using the reduced
model with 3D shell elements (6 DOFs per node) the following boundary
conditions should be prescribed along the symmetry planes:
-

for all selected nodes with coordinate x = 0, prescribed displacements

ux = 0 and roty = 0;
for all selected nodes with coordinate y = 0, prescribed displacements
uy = 0 and rotx = 0.

For the other boundaries (x = L1/2 and y = L2/2) all DOFs are prescribed
zero.
In case of axial-symmetric 3D objects (see chapter 13) the two dimensional
solution is available when taking into account some basic rules:
- if the axis of symmetry coincide with the global Cartesian y axis, negative
x coordinates are not permitted;
- when the global Cartesian y direction represents the axial direction and the
Cartesian x direction represents the radial direction, the global Cartesian z
axis corresponds to the circumferential direction;
- when the 3D axial-symmetric object has an axial hole, a distance equal to
the minimal hole radius should be provided from the y axis to the 2D axialsymmetric model.
25.3 The detailing level
A first important rule when creating the finite element model is to discard
all irrelevant details of the real object in order to maintain the model as
simple as possible. Small details that are unimportant to overall behavior
should not be included in the finite element model, because they create a
compulsory, local density of nodes. Small details which disrupt the overall
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object symmetry should be ignored, if possible, in order to use symmetry

benefits. However, details where interesting parameters (as stress or strain)
achieve maximum values or gradients which might be important to the
analysis objective, should always be included in the model (i.e. holes, inside
concave corners, joint pieces). Generally, it is up to the FEA user, after an
adequate understanding of the expected behavior, to make a decision
concerning the detail level of the model.
25.4 The appropriate mesh density
Concerning the element mesh refinement, in order to achieve reasonably
good results, there is no general available receipt. Mesh density is very
important because, if the mesh is too coarse, the results may contain serious
errors, while if the mesh is too fine, computer resources are wasted and
possible exceeded. Some techniques to be employed in order to solve this
problem are the following:
-

using the adaptive meshing capability of the computer code when

applying the solid modeling procedure; the technique is based on finding
a mesh that meets the energy error estimate criteria and is available only
for linear structural problems or steady state thermal problems;
comparing the analysis results with experimental or known analytical
results and refine the mesh in regions where the discrepancy is too large;
performing an initial analysis with a reasonable number of elements,
then refine the mesh in critical regions using twice as many elements;
after comparing the results, the mesh refinement stops or increases
depending on the encountered difference;
if only a small region of the model needs a mesh refinement, the use of
sub-modeling technique is appropriate.

25.5 Meshing principles

25.5.1 Node numbering
As it was shown before, the global characteristic matrix obtained by
elemental matrices assembly is always a symmetric matrix. The nonzero
terms of the matrix correspond to those degrees of freedom which are in
direct relationship due to elements which are connected to the same node.
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Thus, nonzero terms of the global matrix are usually grouped (confined)
along the main diagonal, within a band. The width of this band depends
on the nodal (or degrees of freedom) numbering*.
The main diagonal term i expresses the relationship between the
displacement along the degree of freedom i and the load applied on its own
direction, while the other nonzero terms corresponding to line (or column) i
express the relationships between the same displacement and the loads
applied on other degrees of freedom directions, belonging to elements
connected in the same node (or vice versa).
The band shape of the matrix is due to the fact that only a limited number of
DOFs can be connected through elements converging in the same node.
However, not only the possible number of connections are defining the band
width, but also the node (or DOF) numbering. Although the node numbering
can be arbitrary chosen (it does not affect the overall dimension of the
matrix nor the number of nonzero terms), different numbering schemes may
lead to different widths of the matrix band MB. Usually the lowest width is
obtained by numbering the nodes along the smallest dimension of the model
(that one to which a lower number of nodes is assigned).

MB = NDOF + NDOF abs (NNmax NNmin)

where NDOF is the total number of DOFs and (NNmax NNmin) the maximum
encountered difference between node numbering throughout all elements in
the mesh.
The matrix band width is important for computer memory saving when
storing the models database. Storing the characteristic matrix in band-shape
needs N MB locations, measured up to (N2 + N)/2 locations for the upperhalf of a symmetric matrix of order N. Moreover, important advantages arise
when solving the equation system. The number of operations (thus, the
computing time) decrease from N 3/6 for the symmetric matrix to N MB2/2
for the band-shape matrix. For large problems, MB can be hundred times
lower than N, so the computing time saving is evident.
Node numbering can also affect the solution precision. Typically, node
numbering coincide with the equation numbers in the system and therefore,
* Actually, the bands width refers to the semi-band, due to symmetry
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with the elimination sequence in the computation process. In order to reduce

the numerical errors, node numbering should start from the most deformable
region of the model and end with the constraint (fixed) nodes.
Modern FEA computer codes have incorporated in the beginning of the
solution phase a special subroutine dedicated to node numbers reordering.
Having the whole picture of the database, the computer code finds the best
node numbering alternative in order to achieve the fastest solution. The new
assigned node numbers are only temporary ones, used in the solution
process. After solving the equation system, the results database is stored by
back transformation in the initial defined numbering system.
25.5.2 Elements class of continuity. Shape functions order.
Usually, field problems are solved by meshing the domain into C0 class
elements with linear or higher order shape functions. Choosing between
linear or quadratic type of elements is always a debate matter. While
quadratic elements lead to a better approximation of the unknown over the
domain, allowing a coarser mesh (with larger elements size), the computing
time necessary for elemental matrices and vectors assessment is
significantly higher than for linear elements. Moreover, using a finer mesh
with smaller linear elements, the same precision can be achieved, offering
an excess of information.
A rapid comparison is made in the following example. Suppose a
rectangular domain meshed uniformly in n2 linear isoparametric elements
(a) or in m2 quadratic elements (b), n > m. For k DOFs per node, the first
mesh leads to a round about number of equations N1 = kn2 and the band
width MB = kn, while for the second one there are N2 = 3km2 equations and a
band width MB = 3km. If the computing time is proportional with N MB2/2
then, for mesh (a) t1 k3n4/2 and for mesh (b) t2 27k3m4/2. Considering
equivalent computing times t1 t2 yields n 2,3 m. Thus, for equivalent
computing times, the number of linear isoparametric elements is 2,32 = 5,3
times larger then the number of quadratic elements. The conclusion extends
to 3D elements.
Generally, for stress field assessment problems, the experience shows that
the augmentation of the solution precision is more conveniently achieved by

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the lower integration order of a mesh with linear elements. Besides, for
quadratic or cubic elements, the load scheme due to elements own weight or
to distributed pressures is moving away from the engineering intuition,
which is also not convenient. In case of square linear elements, the nodal
forces are equal distributed, while for square quadratic elements, the load
distribution is consistent with the element shape function but is far from an
intuitive repartition. Higher order elements exhibit also some abnormal
behavior in the proximity of concentrated loads.
The users choice regarding the element type to be utilized should also take
into account the dominant stress or deformation trend. The linear element
with incompatible modes (or extra displacement shape) is appropriate for
solids subjected to pure bending, in order to reproduce this phenomenon
without false shear effects. However, the same element has a worse
behavior then the compatible linear element when used for modeling solids
subjected to only tension or compression.
The above examples denote the fact that no general or common rule exists
for choosing the element type. It is up to the user, knowing the capabilities
of the available elements, to find the most suitable ones for the specific
analysis.
25.5.3 Elements shape
The problem concerns only the 2D and 3D solid elements, whose geometry
is defined by the nodes position. Element shape distortion yields the
increasing of numerical errors. Roughly, the numerical errors are
proportional with the ratio (Lmax/Lmin)2m-1, where Lmax, Lmin are the maximal
and minimal dimensions of the element and m the order of the equation with
partial derivatives governing the phenomenon.
Obviously, elements with low distortion are recommended:
-

in 2D space, triangular elements should be as close as possible to

equilateral triangles and quadrilateral elements to squares;
in 3D space, tetrahedron elements should be as close as possible to
uniform tetrahedrons, and brick elements to cubes.

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Usually, the computer code procedures manual recommend an Lmax/Lmin

ratio lower then 5.
25.6 The adaptive mesh
Whatever the modeling procedure is used (solid modeling or direct
generation), the nodal points have some compulsory positions defined by
the domain geometry, limits of different materials, the position of
distributed or concentrated loads and the position of external constraints.
Usually, these characteristic points are called KEYPOINTS, for each one a
node being assigned. Starting from this minimal number of characteristic
points, the mesh is developed choosing the appropriate element size. The
mesh refinement is usually necessary:
-

to define curved edges when using linear elements;

to increase precision and the number information points in regions
with maximum values or high gradients of interesting parameters;
to define the boundaries of local regions where element material
properties are changing due to a nonlinear solution.

A typical question in civil engineering problems analyzing underground

structures, the ground structure interaction or seepage phenomena, refers
to the extent of the meshed domain. Because the boundary conditions (zero
prescribed displacements, flow rate, etc) are always applied on the domain
limit, the distance to this limit should be chosen so that the constraints have
a minimal influence on the results. Sometimes not only the distance to the
domain limit is important, but also the shape of the boundary surface. For
some stress assessment problems, recommendations regarding the relative
ratio between the structure and foundation-mass dimensions where defined,
based on the accumulated experience. In other cases, when no
recommendation exists or when the ground mass reveals large
heterogeneities, the distance to the models limit is found by several
attempts. The results are compared for subsequent analyses with increasing
distances to the domain limit. When the difference between subsequent
results becomes insignificant, the extent is far enough from the groundstructure interaction region.
Once the model extents determined, the mesh density is adapted to the
problems peculiarities in order to obtain the smallest amount of elements.
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Generally, the mesh is coarser at the domain limit (where the boundary
conditions are applied) while in the region of interest (close to the structure)
the minimal element size is used.
The elements size should change gradually according to the expected results
distribution. For example, in regions with steep stress changes, smaller
elements should be used. By contrary, in those regions where minor changes
in the stress distribution are expected or stresses are even constant, larger
elements are appropriate. In order to apply this rule, the models behavior
and a qualitative distribution of results should be anticipated, based on
experience and engineering judgment.

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