Solutions Manual to

accompany

Principles
of Digital Communication

and Coding

Andrew J.Viterbi
Jim K.Omura

Solutions Manual to

accompany

Principles
of Digital Communication

and Coding
Andrew J. Viterbi
LINKABIT Corporation
Jim

K.

Omura

University of California

Los Angeles

McGraw-Hill Book Company

New York St. Louis San Francisco Auckland

Bogota Dusseldorf
Johannesburg London Madrid Mexico Montreal New Delhi Panama
Pans S3o Paulo Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto

Solutions Manual to accompany

PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
AND CODING
1979 by McGraw-Hill,

Copyright
Printed

in

Inc. All rights

reserved.

The contents, or
use with

the United States of America.

may be reproduced for

PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
AND CODING
by Andrew J. Viterbi
and Jim K. Omura
parts thereof,

provided such reproductions bear copyright notice, but may not

be reproduced in any form for any other purpose without
permission of the publisher.

0-07-067517-1

1234567890 WHWH 7832109

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Graduate students Dariush Divsalar, Enyltho Coelho

Filho, and Pil Lee have made significant contributions
to this

solution manual.

CHAPTER

iii)

(d)

i)

ii)

H&)

in

1-3

log

log

.77 bits

H(fair die) = log

6 =

P(k) = kC

k = 1,2,3,4,5,6

2.58 bits

cx;

k = i

>

c =

J-

k=i

X) 2^ lo

= 2 39 bits

k=l
1.2

Inequality (1.1.8) gives

2u
-E
Choose

Q N (u) -

TT
n=l

P (u)lo g
N

-^-rV ~;
N

P (u)log -r-r-rM

(u

(= iff Q

where

(-)

= p

(.))

(n)
("

=Z Z

n = 1,2,..., N

N (u)

are the marginal probability distributions.

TT

"

Then

p( n

\~~i
\n=l

(,,
^

>

n=l\ u

n=l

N
with equality iff

(U)

JJ*

*^\

(l4 w^

nr|
1.3

(a)

Given discrete random variables x,y e

^Tx^with

joint

probability P(x,y), we can define marginal probabilities

P(x) =J^P(x,y), P(y)
y

P(y/x) = P(x,y)/P(x).

and conditional probability

=^P(x,y)

Then using inequality (1.1.8),

p y

x
(1)

Now fix N and consider sequences

(k)

ue^

=ty/

x...x^

where

is the alphabet of the k tn term in the sequence.

>,

<%/

Using

the relations

u
i,

P(UN
N
u

TTPCu.n

1,

n=2

n 1

P(u l )

we have
(2)

and
(3)

n=2

Note that from (1) we have

(A)

where the second equality comes from the stationary property.

(3)

Hence

is bounded by
(5)

Using

(5)

in (2) gives

or
(6)

Then

(b)

for k

n
This

<

n.

follows directly from the proof of Theorem 1.1.1

when we define
S(N,

and use lim F

N-K)

=u
~

<P

(u)
H
M ~n

<

from (1.1.31) to (1.1.33).

1.4 (a) a

= E{(x-m)

= E{(x-m)

jx-ml

x-m

E{(x-m)
>

x-m

E{(x-m)

>

<

e} Pr{|x-m

e} Pr{ |x-m

e} Pr{|x-m|
e}

>

>

>

e}

<

e}

Pr{|x-m

>

Var/1
N
(b)

(N

n=l

Z|

e>

1.5

For ue S(N,e)

we have 1

n=l

Hence,
r-4-

Fj

= ^r P

T^

N (u)
ue S(N,e)
+
S

<

rA

E
^n=l

N (u)2
ue S(N,e)
+

[E

n -N(H+e)J

-N(H+e)

--

= 2 -NG(

where

G(s

= s(H+e) - log

= s(H+e)

-log
k=l

and

G(0) = 0.

Next note that

dS

<_

1-S

l
z ~ N (H+e)

>

0.

e}.

^
n=l

nf

where
dG(5)

= e

>

dS

5=0
and

(a

k ) log P

k-l

<V.

<

since this is negative of the variance of log

with respect to

distribution
1-3

P(u)

Q (u) =
5

k-1
Thus, there is a unique maximum of G(s) for some
G(S*)

>

0.

Then we have F*

1.6

**

where

= F

G(s"~)

+
N

2~

-f

FN

<

0.

>

where

Similarly we get

Then

2~ NG(S) + L2-

Multiply the inequalities

log

(u)

<

and sum over all ue^.

by P xN,(u)
~
~
NT
<L

But from (1.1.14),

(c)

1G ^ S

$*>

note that in

H(^ N

(a)

Then

>

N
=
>

NH(^) giving

us (a) and (b)

the inequality log

-^-r-

Hence we satisfy the Kraft-McMillan inequality,

~
2

(u)

p( u ) = 1.

To show
J

(u)

<=>

<

P( u )

The solution is best understood in terms of a tree d /agram where

left directed branches correspond to

"0"

and right to

Each

"1".

node corresponds to a binary sequence so that code words can be

represented as nodes in a tree such as

11

000

111

110

101

100

001

If node (a) is selected as a codeword of length 2, then in order

that no other codeword have 01 as a prefix no nodes that branch out

Hence we can ter

from node (a) can ever be selected as a codeword.

minate the branching at this node.

Thus uniquely decodable codes

with the property that no codeword is a prefix of another codeword

corresponds to nodes in a tree where no codeword node branches out
from a shorter codeword node.

In general, let JL

_;...,. be the
A

set of codeword lengths where

...

JL

JL
<_

<_

..
_<

If

V*
/.

-i

then we can easily find such a code with these lengths where all

branch paths of the code tree terminate in a codeword node. If

A
1 then some branch paths can continue forever without
53 2~
"

<

encountering a codeword node.

Let

X.-i

be any node sequence with

JL

branches leading to it and denote it the first codeword.

main

There re-

1-1 unterminated nodes at the same level that can be a code

word or a prefix of a codeword.

If

choose any one of these

remaining nodes as the codeword node of sequence

then use any one of these as a prefix and

X_

If

proceed along any

>

JL

^t

additional branches to find a codeword node of X

_L

There now remains

A*
o

(2 * -1)

1-1 nodes at the level

that can be a codeword or a

Continue in this manner until X. is selected.

A

prefix of a codeword.

If at any point this procedure cannot be completed because of no

A
remaining nodes then

I0r

1.7 (a)

But

H(^T^)
)

(b)

2^

*)

*gy )

(x)

(see 1.1.9) so

I(^T;^)

H(^T) and by symmetry

1
Use P(x,y) = P(y)q(x|y) in
P(x,y)

x y

E EP(x,y)iog
*

which is a contradiction.

1,

>

P(y.x)lo 8

*>

>_

Ex EP(x,y)iog
y

P(0) = q(l-p)

P(E) = p

(l-q)p log

qp log

1
= TT
maximizes J*f(q)
/

(b)

C = 1-P.

so

1/2

o<

iog

f- K3T;^)

+ (1-q) log

q log

y logl-^MV

Hence C = log

l-.

/-M
U-q/

1 =

=>

Since the encoder keeps sending the information symbol until an

unerased channel output is achieved there is no error and P

=0.

The probability that n channel symbols are transmitted for an infor

=

mation symbol is P
is thus

(l-p)p

oo

oo
%

= 1

n-1

^-^

Thus R =

The average length of a codeword

-p bits per channel use

is the rate which also equals

the channel capacity (see problem 1.8a).

1-10

Here

There are two coins G

=

q(C^)

q(C)

and C
2

where P(H|C

=
|-

and P(H|C ) =
2

-|.

y are tne probabilities of selecting each coin.

We can interpret this as a BSC with p =

-7-

as follows:

3/4

(a)

I(C

I;

3/4 =
3
bit
H) = log
log

1/4 =
1
= - 1 bit
I(C ;H) = log
log
y
2

f^-

(b)

I(T;30

= 1

-J?z

bits

1.11 (a) There are 13 ways one coin may be heavier, 13 ways one coin

may be lighter, and the possibility that all coins weigh the same.
Thus we are attempting to determine one of 27 possible situations

using a balance and a known standard coin.

We are thus asked to ob

tain at most log 27 = 3 log 3 bits of information on the average.

Each weighing has

possible outcomes (left, right, balance) and

provides at most log

has

tion.

bits of average information.

possible outcomes and at most

log

Two weighings

bits of average informa

Three weighings has 27 possible outcomes.

Clearly two weigh

ings cannot guarantee determining one of 27 possible situations

while with three it may be possible.

(b)

The maximum amount of average information from three weigh

ings is log 27 which is achieved if all 27 weighing sequences are

equally probable.

This means that we must choose a weighing strategy

where the outcomes of each weighing are equal probable and each
weighing outcome is independent of other weighing outcomes.

Clearly

each weighing must reduce the number of possible cases by 1/3.

Strategy:

Let

denote the standard coin, C denote a coin that can

be heavy, light, or normal, h denote a coin that is heavy or normal,

and
an

denote a coin that is light or normal.

We start with 13C and

S.

1st Weighing: Set aside AC and place 5C on the left pan and 4C +

on the right pan.

Balance

==>

Left

=>

Right

=>

remain

4C

remain

5h,

5,

4h remain

Note that for each of the three possible outcomes we have

remain

ing unknown possibilities to be resolved with two more weighings.

2nd Weighing When 1st Outcome is Balanced; Of the 4C set aside C

and place 2C on the left and C +

on the right.

Balance

=>

Left

Right

remain

=>

2h,

remain

===>

2,

h remain

2C

Note that here each outcome leaves only 3 remaining unknown possi

bilities to be resolved with one more weighing.

given the 2nd weighing outcome is as follows:

10

The third weighing

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

Balance:
Left:

Place C on the left and

on the right,

Place h on the left and h on the right,

Place

Right:

on the left and

on the left and 2h +

on the right.

Of the 5h and 4

2nd Weighing When 1st Outcome is Left;

set aside h +

remaining

on the right.

Balance

=>

h,

Left

=>

2h,

remain

Right

=>

2h,

remain

2h +

2h +

One more weighing easily resolves the

remaining unknown possibili

That is, if

ties by placing the same type of coin on the balance.

remain then place h on the left and h on the right.

2h,
(c)

remain

Without a standard coin we cannot always reduce the number of

unknown possibilities by 1/3 with each weighing.

sary requirement
1.12

This is a neces

Using (1.1.8) we have

Hence

1.13

AH.

Let p(y) =

Then (1.1.8) gives

27TQ

11

(u)
]

log

00

00

p(y)log

-^y

dy

dy =

p(y)log

log e +
L

= 1

T2 log

+ -log
2

27TQ

dy

2
2 \ = 1
/
27iea
-log
I
y
/
\
J
I

2a

with equality when p(y) = p(y) or y is a Gaussian random variable

For the additive Gaussian noise channel we have

p(y|x)

With input probability density q(x), the average mutual information

is

dy -

dx
_OO

CO

But

bo

dy =

/P (y

4-

x)

og (27ra)dy

2a
2

(27rea

Using this plus the above bound we have

with equality if and only if y is a Gaussian random variable.

Gaussian if

t
N
q(x) =

o
with the result that a z =

+ a

Hence

12

It is

!#; ^

max

\ = 1.

^B

-y- j

flog ^-

n
l

which is channel capacity.

From problem 1.6(b) we have inequalities

1.14
-

log P N (U)

(u)

- log P (U)
N

<

1.

Thus
- log

P(u)

and
- log P (U)
N

(u)

- 1

x
"

"

"

I(u)

(u)

log P N (u)

But

M
P

(U)

f]"p(u

n=l

= p(u *xN
)

iTT p(u

n =l

and

N log P(u*)

log P (u)

Hence

N log P(u*)
and
1

+
<_

N log P(u

If H

= 1 for all N then

Hence P (u)=

1.
<_

log P (u)
N

(u)

N
for all N which is possible only if P N (U)

and the source is a BSS.

13

1.15

For u e S(N,e),

N[H(?/) +

e]

N[H(W

e]

(u)

<

N[H(<aO

N[H(W

e]

and
--

log P N (U)

e]

Thus for u e S(N,e),

- e]
e]

For u e S(N,e)

(u)

N log A

N log A + 1

(u)

and
- N
log P(u*)
**
P(u)

where

= min P(u)
u

>

log P N (U)

Thus for u e S(N,e),

0.

N
N log A + 1

Define F

= Pr

e S(N,e)

^ -

N [ H-

>

+ N[H+e]

- N

Iog-P(u**)
N log A

>

and using the form

log P N (u)

we have from inequalities

H

(u)

|u

- N
log P(u**)

n _ rF

and (2),

(1)

- N log P(u*)
N log A + 1

N;
"

"nee

los

^"

14

,
-*

log P (u)
-

and
- N log P(u**)

Hence for any

>

H - e
<

log P(u**) F
N
log A

0,

lim

<

or

lim
N

H,,-!.

-*

15

CHAPTER

The noise compo

2.1 (a)

nents in the per

pendicular coordi
nate directions are

independent with

variance NL/2.
Let q =

Pr{n>a}

16
(a)

= Pr{n

= P

P.

<a,n

<a}

= 10a

= (1-q)*

16
- P

r
L

= P
6

- P

= P

= P
C

10

C
9

r
L

= P
C

= P

12

Pr{-a<n

=*P

= Pr{n

=
1

<a,-a<n

<a}

Hence
P

=
C

8d-q)(l-2q) + 4(l-2q)

16

)(l-2q) + (l-2q)

-i

2
]

2
]

[a-,)

and

(b)

Rotation and translation does not change P

JL

16

<a,-a<n

<a}

(1-q) (l-2q)

2.2 (a)

(b)

m=

the optimum decision boundaries.

We

2
S

{y:
4

ly-x
n--

C Am m

<

|
>

|
i

= 1,2,. ..,7

Hence
x

;
m -m

n
= Pr

>

x
-m

<

^1=

<f

and
P

^E

^
m=l
>

<

17

m - 1,2,. ..,7

are

P_(m-m

<

where

m
s -s

-m -m

,
1

Here we have

ysr

S -S
-2 -m

= 2,
3,...,

,
1

= 3,7

= 4,6

= 5

= P

By symmetry P

= P

= P
4

= P

E
5

= p

E
6

<

E
7

E
i

Hence
E

2N

A.
4N,
<4JN

rom

problem 2.2 we have P

which is

"exponentially"

the

same since Q(x) is bounded as shown in

(2.3.18).
2.4 (a) Choose

basis.

<|>

(t)

(t)

Then x
UU.1

The decision boundries

m - 1,2,..., M as the orthonormal

m,n = 1,2,..., M and

become

for all

(Z5m i-)

for

m =

for

Hence by symmetry,
P

= P

= l

for

E;L

18

2
|

|x
_JQ

for all m.

(b)

Given x

was sent we have probability density functions for the

*^X

independent random variables y

2>

...,yM given by

N
p..

m = 2,3,. .,M

(y)

7TN,

Hence
Pr{y

<y

for all m 4

l|

]}

CO

/Pr{y

(a) da

for all m4l|x..,y =a) p

<a

+/

j_

CO

(c)

Using

S. log-M, the fact that as e gets small In(H-e)

2
b
2

Q(x) behaves like e

behaves as e, and

lim

logM/N

lim (M-l)
ln["l-

M-H

= -lim

M exp

= -lim

<f

M exp

<

v logM/N_

x+ ^2

<

N.

N ln2
= -lim

/--

ix

M^<

f logM/N
() jl
b

<

x+x/2

Q.

x/2
Q(x+
\

M-x

for large x,
1M-1

Inl-

= -lim

-x /2

C5

1_

19

b logM/N Q

Hence
rr-

llm

1-

<

In2

But

Pr{y

for

<a

x-jy =a}

M
Tl

msi
M-l

Hence
N,

da

P_ =

*
_

.5

K =

(a)

-1]

and (x n ,x ) =
/
l

Let h^
~Jx

M-l

= 0.

[1 1]

-1

denote the i

"

row of

J.

The codewords of length M =

and h

the i

are given by

for all i

=)=

<

K~ 1

Then

aU

i +

for all i,

<

K-l

and
=

20

<

K-l

row of

yields

f*\

-sM

for

Note that

(b)

(i)\
J
=

(i)

/
I

h^

6...

h^

Hence if we subtract the 1

st

product term of this inner product we have

A_ll

= _

M
Let a = v/^M

(c)

[100

...

0]

&

!
,

__

- k

M-l

JL

Then the orthogonal signal set

and the simplex signal set are essentially related by a simple

translation of the signal set given by,

1
J
-a
x=h^
~i
~K
)

(Since the 1

st

i=l,2,...,29

component of x. is always

"0"

we can ignore it.)

This

means the error probability of the orthogonal signal set of energy

G =

./
f

<5

is the same as the error probability of the simplex signal

set of energy
(d)

Let W =
**

<f

M
X)i x 1-r

Then

01

(W,W) =

(X.,x
i

S
J=i

or

21

(x. tX

(x

,x

or

AV
ifj

<fM(M-l)

(e)

Let

,z_,...,

Then (z ,z.)

M be an orthogonal signal set of energy

*<<$...

Let

M
a
i=l

and consider the translation set formed by

Then
(y^.y,,)

= (z.-a z.-a)
i ~,~j

/M)

-2a)/M
Choosing
and a to satisfy the equations,
=

2
<?(l-2a/Mfa

/M)

and

yields a signal set

the signal set {x

{y^}
.

with the same energy and inner products as

It then has the same error probability and

)e

-e

sinTrWt
TTWt

-TrW

22

y(t)

-h(t-T)z(T)dT

dt

In Figure 2.9, y

(c)

(t)<J>

2^

is integrated over

(t)

(n-l)T/N,nT/N]

where

Thus

2n

y(t)

\/2

sinw

8in[5w(t

-|J]

dt

(n-l)T/N

Replace the integration over

(n-l)T/N,nT/N

to

[0,) we obtain
dt

which is the process in Figure 2.11.

2.7

(a)

t
_<

_<

Here y(t) = y
(t) where $ (t) = x/2N/T sin
n
n n
4>

co

n t for

nT/N whereas we compute

nT/N
y

f y(t)

<|>

(t)dt

(n-l)T/N

where
(t)

/2N/T sin[a)+Ao))(t-(n-l)T/N) +

(n-l)T/N<t<nT/N.

23

0]

(n-l)T/N

T /N

0)

Using

J/

cos[(2( o n +Aw)t+(|)]dt =

-~

since

nT/N
we have

yn = y

^nCO

<l>i(t)dt

(n-l)T/N

nT/N
=

yn

^/

(2N/T)sin

co^t

sin[

(w_+A(jo)

(t-(w-l)T/N)+d)]

(n-l)T/N

T/N
= y
n

(2N/T)sin

u^t sin[ (WQ+AOJ) t-h})]dt

T/N

f {cos(Acx3t+0)

/xT/mx

yn (N/T)

j/

cos[(2a)A+Au))t+<6]}dt

T/N-

= y
n (N/T)y

c
cos(Aa)t+(f))dt

T/N
=

y (N/T)

{cos

Atot

+/

We assumed here that coJT/N is a multiple of

we have sin Awt =

for

<

<_

T/N

- sin Awt
sin({)}dt

cos({)

IT.

Hence
T/N
=

y^(N/T)cos0
n

/cos

+s

/sin(AcoT/N);
(

(b)

Here

(AcoT/N)

nT/N
y

y(t) \/2N/T

(n-l)T/N

24

Aoot

dt

Also since Ao)T/N

nT/N
2N/T cos(o)

t+<J>)dt

(n-l)T/N

where
X

::

y(t)

"

(t)

2n *2n

2n+l *2n+l

(t)

nT/N
Y 2n = X 2n

Thus

(2N/T)sin w Q t sin(u
(n-l)T/N

+t(J>)dt

//

nT/N
/

(2N/T)cos w n t sin(oj n t+<l))dt

(n-l)T/N

nT/N

nT/N

cos<J>

dt + x-

(N/T)

dt

(n-l)T/N

(n-l)T/N
i

Similarly
y 2aH
(c)

2n

Sln * + X

2n+l

S<t>

The four possible phases are given by

Suppose x 2

=
v<^,

servables become

4.1

= 0.

Then the signal components in the

=
cos<f>,

25

=/^

sin

ob-

2n+l

26

The error probability is the probability that the noise components

cause the observable vector to lie outside the correct decision re

gion.

Hence
P

= l - p

d
2

Pr
= 1 -

1-

.f-

m
(a)

The boundries

of the optimum de

cision regions are

shown as radial
lines.

Each deci

sion region is a
cone of

27

radians.

The distance from any signal vector to the boundary is d =

(b)

sin(ir/16).

Suppose x =( Y<^0) ^ s tne transmitted vector and n 1 and

are the two noise components that are perpendicular to the two

Then an error occurs if the event {n

nearest boundries.

_>

no

&} occurs.
P

d}

Hence
= P {{n.
r

>

d} \J(n
/

>

d}}

In general n. and n~ are not independent.

Pr{n.

d}

>

1~

<

P_
1-

<

Pr

{n,1-

>

However we have the bounds

d}

+ Pr(n_
f.

>

d}

or
P

<

2P

where
P = P^(n n

>

d}

is the probability that the noise forces the observation vector to

lie in the shaded region above.

(c)

In problem 2.1 the average energy is

&

= lOa

or a =

The error probability is

-I Q

which is generally smaller than P =

Hence the signal set of Figure

2. 12 (a)

Figure 2.12(b).

28

(.20)1.

is superior to the set of

2.9 (a)

Before quantization the random variable y has conditional

probability density

p(y|a

k = 1,2

The transition probabilities to the quantized outputs b^,

b

are given by

k =

8.

where
a,

a.

4a - ja

= 1,2,. ..,7

5a - ja

= 2, 3,.. .,8

ft.
JL

Let x = (x- ,x_,

(b)

and
z

(z

e{b- ,b
1
z

,z_,...,z
, . . .

,b

}.

. . .

,3O be any sequence

of N symbols from {a. ,a

be a sequence of N quantized outputs where

Then the maximum likelihood (optimum) estimate

29

of x e

= {x-,x , ..
2

is given by

,2^}

x = max
x

N (z- |x)
>T

= max -1

n=l

P( z

x
1

n)

= max -1.log

P(z

_!J,
n=l

|x
1

N
=

max

logP(z

|x

n=l

where y(z x) = - log P(z x)

2.10 (a)

Let u(z) =

Then if u(z)

<

f(z) for all z, we have

Pr{zX)} = E{u(z)}
(b)

Since u(z)

e pz

Pr{zX)}
(c)

E{e

E{f(z)}.
for all

_>

pZ
}

_>

Note that
1

= Pr{z(y|x )
~
m

E
30

>

0}

(d)

Let

= 1 - p in

and we have

(c)

V?
(e)

= 00 ...

For x

and x

=11

...

y = 11 ...

elsewhere

we have
1

where w(y) =

//

of

"1"

in y.

Hence the Chernoff bound is

The bound is minimized by maximizing (1 - p) or letting

N

Then

)
<_

~m

if y = 11

1;

otherwise choose x
~m

occurs with probability P (m+m

If

then G =

:L-K

Oil
101
110
111

=>

31

choose

Then an error occurs

is the output which

The Bhattacharyya bound is

[I

P]

Here

= 0.

The maximum likelihood rule is simply:

= 11 ...
only when x~m is transmitted and y
~

2.11 (a)

G =

1000011
0100101
0010110
0001111

Rows of H

(b)

possible binary sequences

The rows of H

except the all zero sequence.

single

L K
""

consist of all

having more than a

Then G =

form the rows of the matrix P.

"1"

P]

[l

is the

generator matrix.
f~

Let h. be the

(c)

Vi

row of H

~i

T
is a codeword if

Then v =

vH

Y* v

or

(v_
1

..., v

h. = 0.

Since no two rows of

n=l
T
H are the same, v must have weight of at least 3.
Since the sum
~

of any two row vectors of H

be a row vector of H

If

form a non zero vector which must also

we see that there are

Hence d

(modulo-2) to 0.
~
2.12 (a)

n ~i

rows that sum

mm =3.

is the energy per bit then for K bits there is a

total of

<f

K units of energy.

If L = 2

binary symbols per code

word is used then each binary symbol has energy

=
<"

<f

K/L.

The

BSC formed by hard quantizing an AWGN has transition probability

p =

Let

1;

if an error occurs in the i

symbol

0;

if no error occurs in the i

symbol

Then E{e.)

Since

{.}

=p

E{

=p

and Var

are independent for

L
n

i=l

we have
L
=

E{e.}

..

32

Lp

.}

p-

p(l-p)

and

Var (n) =

Var {e.} = Lp(l-p)

1=1
(b)

Keeping

fixed, as K increases $

<>

For small x we have from

t

Q(x) =

dt

-*-."
/27T

and

dx

The expansion approximation

Q(x)

Q(0) +

-; Q(x)
x=0

or

Q(x)

h ~

Then

E(n>

= LQ

LfJs -

and

Var

= LQ

1 - Q

L. /5
VwN
V

L
4

33

=
.

@b K/L

decreases

(2.10.14) can be expressed as

(c)

(d

>

Pr(n

>

mm
.

l)/2>

mm /2}
.

mm

odd

mm

even

mm

odd or even,

or
P_,

<

Using d
P_

<

= L/2 for the

Pr(n
(d)

>

Pr(n

>

mm /2}
.

binary orthogonal codes of

(a)

L/4}.

The Chebyshev

inequality gives

Pr{|n-E{n}|

>

or for large K,

Pr{ n -

L/4} ,

>-

Hence
Pr(n

<

L/4} = Pr(n - L/2

^

<

Pr{ n -

- L/4}

<

~ (K ~ 2)
^>

Hence

Pr(n
2.13

(a)

>

L/4}

Let x =
^

(-2)

=/

Ar
34

^=

dy

we have

a+x

(-:

dy

-fr

n
l

-A

-^ y +
v N
\
/

= P

dy

1/2T
2

du =

"

r_i_
^^ x

i/2Tr

du

yzrr

""

du

e
/""

4+x y^F
= Q(x) Q(x

a)

dy

V/2TT

1)

du =

"

du -

/CO
X V/27T
co

du = Q(x - a) - Q (x)

-J

Jj(y

V^TT

35

x-a

"

^7 e

du = 1 - Q(x-a)

/"
i

d = -ln2[/P

(b)

For

<

/N

(2)P (-2) + /P (1)P (-1)]

o
o

we have x =

f(a) =

2.14
i

+ N/[Q(x-a)-Q(x)] [Q(x)-Q(x+a) ]}

-ln2{N/[l-Q(x-a)]Q(x+a)

=2

^^-

by solving

We find

2.

"a"

to minimize

^/[T^Q(2-a)]Q(2+a) + VfQ(2-a)-Q(2)

[Q(2)-Q(2+a>]

del

12

Since x n

(a)

"

observables

..., x__ are orthogonal the noise in the 2M

M

x_,

...

lndependent
Since we have noncoherent detection let

m =

1,

2,

M.

P(y 1

+ y )
*ms

/(7r~)(y
V
N
mc
o

\l

Assuming x 1 is sent then

=

|x 1 )

and

exp( - ym /2)

= 2

The maximum likelihood decision rule is simply:

m =

corresponding to the largest y

1m

= 1 P^
Pr{yc.,

- 1 -

r
I

>

2,

choose

x/s

that

Hence

M.

for all m # l|x n }

1

<7

Pr{y

1 x^)

r
= 1 -

1,

""

36

for all m

yl

i^lf

"0

<y-

p(y 2

x
l

x)

"i

M-l
dy i

M-l

(b)

dy.

Here
-y

(c)

2 /9

-y/2
dy 2 = 1 - e

Using the binomial expansion

2

1 - e

M-l

M-l

/2

=
)

13

(-:

j=0
2

\.

M-l

1 -

and the integral

we get

TTT e

=!

PE

= e

37

2 - 15

Define events A

(a)

{y

m =

y}

>

2,

M.

3,

Then

y for some m * 1 x

>

M
Pr{

m=2

AJx

= 1 - pr { n

m=2

M
- 1

-TT

PHAJV

A |x n }
m 1
/o\ M -l

!-(,. .T /)

M
Certainly

Pr{

A |x.}

ml

m=2

<

M
Pr{

m=2

and also

A
m

x1

<

m
2

(M - 1)

e -y

/2

Hence

y2/2

1 -

"

^^n

and for

<

<

y2/2

[(M-l)e-

l]

1
2

(M -

min

.-y /2
,

<

(min

(M -

V/2
(b)

Note that
00

P(y 1

|x

>

TO

r
-J

PCyJx^

38

for some m * 1

,1

- (M -

<

(c)

I)(

M-

IT

e- py l

/2

dy

-<?/N

P
(M - 1)

(M -

l)

_J_//d+P)N

exp

Although the signal phase is unknown, it is constant

during the signaling time.

As signaling time increases our know

ledge of the unknown phase increases and it can be estimated with

increased accuracy.

The maximum likelihood detector incorporates

this knowledge so that in the limit of large signal energy (and

corresponding signal duration) the noncoherent performance

approaches the coherent performance.
2.16 (a)

Add the first row of G to the second row to get the

standard form

Hence

which is a Hamming code.

39

[I p]

since

=(110)

yH

implies an error in the 3rd position

is the third row of H.

T

(c)

Hence

s =

(b)

yH

=(001)

v= (1111111)

Hence

implies an error in the 7th position,

v= (1001100).
d

(d)

2.17 (a)

=3

If x (t)

for Hamming codes.

is sent then

X-

Gaussian random variables where

See problem 2.11 (c)

...,

X,,

are independent

has mean b and unit variance.

All the other normalized observables have zero mean and unit

variance.

Hence

Pr(erasure) = Pr{A_i

all m

<

M
TT Pr{X^,
fn
1
m -!

6}

<

"

Pr{X

<

6}

Pr{X^i

6}

<

m ^m
i

M
Q(b - 6)[1 - Q(6)]

By symmetry assume xm is sent and Pr{correct decision} =

(b)

Pr{X

mm
>

for all m

# m,

= /

<

mm
>

a for all m

PrfX^,!

<

for all m

AO

* m,

m x

>

x ,X

m }p,A (a)da
m

= a}p,

(a)da

(g-b)
11
,M-1

"

= /*[!

-1-

QCa)]

-^7

da

v/2~TT

6-b

2.1

y =

Form observable

Then without loss in

/"

y(t)(j)(t)dt

o
optimality we have
H

y = n

x,n
H-

y = x + n

and

Since y is a Gaussian random variable with zero mean and unit vari
ance if H

and variance

if H n

The decision region of H is

o

given by
-

(y

Pl
1

= {y

(y

{y

<

(y)>

2
<

-y /2,

n4} = {y

-/n4

<

po

- 2 /4
e y

while A

(y)

and

>

-v^n4

<

/n4 }

Here we have error probabilities,

P_,
Ji,

Pr{y

}
o H,l

41

- 1 - Pr{y

11

Ajfl.

<

= 1 2Pr{y

= 1 -

>

2Q(/n2)

and
= Pr{y

P_,
Hi

J_

Hence

A.

2Q(An4)

= 2Pr{y

>

/J>n4|H

2.19

Simplex

The signal set is a Simplex signal set with M =

(a)

energy

<f

Orthogonal

and

This is merely a translation of an orthogonal signal

set of energy

= 3
y<.

Hence we can use the error probability

expression for orthogonal signals given by (2.11.1), to get the

desired result.

42

Since

(b)

there are only two signals of equal proba

Hence the error probability is

bility.

since

11

xn - x
1

= Q

Here we have two signals

(c)

X..

and x

-L

ties

1
= Tand

= 3

2.

with priori probabili-

Consider distances between these signals

and the decision boundary,

The point

z
~

between x
1

and x
2.

must satisfy

or
z

or

- x,

22

z - x
~
~ j.

||

= N

n3

= N

/N~

el

43

n3

m
2.20

Let

n(t) =

n
k=l

where

n(t)i|>

k = 1,2,..., m

(t)dt

and

n (t) = n(t) -

2xU
k-1

Then we see that

(t)dt =

k = 1, ..., m

and

E{n n.} = E

da
o o

T T

da
o o

). (a)ifj.

(a) da

Also

E{n.n (t)} = E
i r
in

E{n.n(t)} -

E{n.n
k-1

}T|;

(t)

(a)dan(t)

/
=

= ai|; (t) - a
i

all

are inde P endent of each

and n
k=l
other and there is no loss in optimality by considering only the

Hence the processes

observables,

y(t)i|;(t)dt

+ n
1C

k = 1,2,.
(a)

For y = (y.,,y
~
1
L

if

X - (t)
X

is sent

if

x(t)

is sent

1C

+ n
ix

we have

..., y

m)

2o,

k=l

/2TTQ,

and

^
k=l

P (y|

Hence
=

A
i

k=l

2a

45

k=l

2a;

m
-

-5T

Yi.

>

k=l

k=l

= P

By symmetry P

(b)

y,

JJL

= P

For x n (t) sent we have

Jl^

c.^

vi a^
k=l

a.

k=l

2
a.

where

m
E{N} =

E(r)

k=l

-T
a.

Hence

m
. Pr

v?
k-l

k~T
a
k

= Pr

-Q
k=l

N
For

2.21

-s-

(a)

a!

k=l

a;

and

<

we have

The union of events bound for any signal set over the

AWGN channel is (assuming

x.,

M
P

E
1

^
m=2

is sent)

/ii5..-;iii\
Q

46

But here
,

2<

k * 1

k *

and

x -

k =

4<?

^+

y+

Hence

(M - 1)Q (/*")
N /
o

<

which is the
(b)

Since

{ly
|y

events"

|>

bound for an orthogonal code.

A for more than one m} and {ly

m

<

A for all

are disjoint events

m}

= Pr{ y
m

A for more than one m} + Pr{|y

m

<

generality, suppose x- (t) is sent.

Without loss in
V

of

"Union

an d

ym

=nm

m =

2,

3,

A for all m}
Then

..., M/2,

and

Pr{ y
"

<

>

A for more than one m}

Pr{|y
7

A for some m

>

# 1}

M/2
Pr{

m=2

-=-

= MP.

Also

Pr{|ym

<

A for all m}

<

Pr{|y ln

A}

<

\v N
/

VN/N
\

= P
1

47

Hence
Next define events

all m

k}

k
k = 2, 3,

..., M/2

Since for k
-

yl

A}

<

we have

Pr(e

<

Pr{ y
fc

A, y

>

Pr{]y K

<

A)

A} Pr{y_
I

>

<

A} = 2P,P
1 z

Since

l+
+1

we see that the error event

other error event

must be less probable than any

e,

Hence
Pr{e

<

Pr{e

<

2P P

12

K.

and

M/2
P

= P

= Pr

M/2
e

Pr{e

k=l

MP P

<

X Z

k=l

nT

/*2n

(t

>*

=
2n+l (t)dt:

sin ^

11

COS ^

nr
=

/*
I

sin

(n-%)T

48

2co

dt

11

dt

nT

cos
_WO

[cos

20J n T

i-UU.-

- 3g)T - cos 2w nT]

U

200- (n

Thus

The performance would then

(t)} are orthonormal functions.

{(f)

K.

be the same as binary modulation of any set of orthonormal functions

such as those for QPSK modulation given by Table 2.1 (b)

K

<f>,

(t)

is merely the same as QPSK signals only staggered,

the spec-

It is the spectrum of the square wave f(t)

trum is the same.

shifted in frequency by
(b)

Since

OJ-.

y(t) - I x k * k (t) - I tx 2k * 2k (t) +

k
k

nT
i

y zn

.__

y(t)

I
i

sin

(o3_t

<b)dt

(n-l)T
^/

\"

2n-l

Sln(

cos

ut

+
sln(0)t
-*"^o

* )dt

(n-l)T

nT
:

2n

^^"

T /

(n-l)T

nT
X

y 2n+l

ij

2n+l

/*

//

Zn-l

sin

y(t)

49

""~

"0"

4>

+ x

Zn

cos

<()

Jg

4>)dt

1
zn-rl

sin

nT
1A

/
/I
^^

2n T
*

2n+l

(-

sin

(n+l)

cos (w n t +

4>)dt

COS

/
2

"n*

\J

(n

u)_l

J)T

/*

sin

(J)

+ x

cos

(j)

Jj

sin

x
2(n+1)

Note that
X
y 2n

2n

sin
(x 2n-l
n

if

C S *

4>

+ x_

2n

2n-l
cos
<{>

if x

cxi

(O

/* 2n

(t)

2ofl (t)dt

nT
=

7T

cos

[~(t-(n-J5)T)]cos[^(t-nT)]

(MOT
sin

03_t

cos

GO

tdt

cos

cos

nT
4

sin

-1

/*
I

2co

tdt

7T

cos [-(2t +

(MOT

50

JJT)]

sin

2co

tdt

2n-l

= x

2n+l

nT

= -

sin (27Tt/i) sin

I
I

tdt

2oj

+/

\J

II

[cos

(2a)

--

2ir/T)t

sin (2a)-2iT/T)t

cos

(2oj

sin (2oJ+27T/T)t

-27T/T)

(2G0

+ 2TT/i)t]dt
1

Again the signals

{<J>

,(t)} are orthonormil and binary modulation of

orthonormal waveforms give the same performance over the AWGN

channel.
(d)

For

(n -

^)T

2n*2n (t)

= X

2n -7-7t

2n+l

<

+ X

cos

<

nT we have

2n+l*2n+l (t)
FTT

(n -

sin

to

[T

7T

C S

(t

[f

- nT) COS
]

s
"0

But

cos

f (t

- (n -

Hence

51

= cos

= - sin

-(

- nr)

= v(t)

cos

[oj

where
V(t) =

-X

2//F

Sin(t ~nT)

2n+ l

and

2
:

= tan -I/
|

2n
X

riT,

(t - ni)

tan

2n+l

(TT/T) (t

,
COS prr (t
[7

2n+ l7F

- H

(TT/T)t + nTT

Hence
X

2n*2n (t)

+ X

2n+ l*2n+ l

(t)

(2/A) cos

(ir/T)t +

mrj

[co

(2//r) cos

(oo

7T/T)tl

(e)

f(t) =

(/2~sin (TTt/T)

- T/2

(0

otherwise

has spectrum
2
2

COS (03T/2)
2
a)

2
(TT/T)

//
52

<

<

T/2

(2,(.,& = -Ac Z.
V
X

3.1

6, (14)- -

y-MTMe/v-y
/

^4)

IA

^ A^P
r^

/Z~t

=.

(C)

ckanow

Is rwcA

swr>v\.tt-rc
ywr>v\.t

0*

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