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2000011081
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
Reports on the detailed use of the second law of
thermodynamics to study internal combustion engines
have been published for over 40 years. While the use of a
second law analysis is not necessary for general
performance computations, the insight provided by a
second law analysis is invaluable in understanding the
details of the overall thermodynamics of engine
operation.
The second law of thermodynamics is a rich and powerful
statement of related physical observations that has a
wide range of implications with respect to engineering
design and operation of thermal systems. For example,
the second law can be used to determine the direction of
processes, to establish the conditions of equilibrium, to
specify the maximum possible performance of thermal
systems, and to identify those aspects of processes that
are detrimental to overall performance.
A = Aend Astart
A = Ain Aout + AQ AW Adest
DETERMINATION
OF
AVAILABILITY
The
determination of availability is based on the values of
other thermodynamic properties. In this development, the
kinetic and potential energies are neglected (and can be
shown to be negligible). Since the overall engine
operation includes both closed system and open system
portions, two forms of availability are needed. At all times,
for the complete system:
a = (u u o ) ( p o (v v o )) To ( s so )
(1)
where a is the
specific availability (or exergy), u is the specific internal
energy, uo, vo and so are the specific internal energy,
specific volume and specific entropy for the dead state1,
respectively, po and To are the pressure and temperature
of the dead state, respectively, v is the specific volume,
and s is the specific entropy. The dead state is defined as
the conditions of the environment at a temperature of To
and a pressure of po. The term, po(vvo), represents
the work completed against the atmosphere at po and
hence is not useful.
AW = W
(6)
T
AQ = 1 o Q
T
(7)
(2)
Ai =
(5)
(4)
(m a )dt
i
f ,i
(8)
(3)
Wmax
T
= Qtotal 1 o
T
gas
(9)
AQ
Wmax
T
=
= 1 o
Qtotal Qtotal Tgas
(10)
T
Awall = Qtotal 1 o
Twall
(11)
(12)
110
Tw = 300 K
100
100
90
DESTROYED AVAILABILITY (%)
UNAVAILABLE ENERGY
90
80
T
Agas = Qtotal 1 o
Tgas
70
60
50
AVAILABLE ENERGY
40
80
70
Tw = 450 K
60
50
Tw = 600 K
40
30
20
30
10
To = 300 K
20
0
1000
10
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
Figure 2.
3500
Figure 1.
2000
2500
3000
To = 300 K
0
500
1500
where Agas and Awall are the available energy of the gas
and wall, respectively, and Tgas and Twall are the
temperatures of the gas and wall, respectively. The
percentage of the availability destroyed due to the heat
transfer process is
A
Adest Agas Awall
=
= 1 wall
Agas
Agas
Agas
(13)
Adest
Agas
T
1 o
Twall
= 1
T
1 o
Tgas
(14)
20
= 1.0
Octane-air
18
DESTROYED AVAILABILITY (%)
16
14
12
10
8
2800
3000
3200
3400
Figure 3.
PREVIOUS STUDIES
Clarke [9] examined the Otto, Joule and Atkinson airstandard cycles from the perspective of availability and
the associated availability destruction. He described the
possibilities of achieving higher thermal efficiencies by
recognizing the fundamental availability loss mechanisms
for internal combustion engines. Clarke stated that to
achieve minimum destruction of availability, the
combustion process should be under conditions of near
chemical equilibrium. He suggested strategies to achieve
minimum destruction of availability.
Table 1.
Table 1.
Date
Traupel [7]
CI
Values based on
measurements; few
details
1964
Patterson
and van
Wylen [8]
SI
Compression and
expansion strokes;
simple treatment of
intake and exhaust
1976
Clarke [9]
SI/CI
1984
Edo and
Foster [10]
Flynn et al.
[5]
SI=
CI
CI
Comprehensive model
of all processes;
focused on exhaust
system optimization
1984
Primus et al.
[12]
CI
Comprehensive model
of all processes
1985
Primus and
Flynn [13]
CI
Comprehensive model
of all processes
1986
Primus and
Flynn [14]
CI
Comprehensive model
of all processes
1987
van Gerpen
and Shapiro
[15]
CI
Compression and
expansion strokes; no
intake or exhaust
strokes; included
chemical availability
Alkidas [16,
17]
CI
Experimental
measurements of
energy terms;
calculated availability
1988
McKinley
and Primus
[18]
CI
Comprehensive model
of all processes;
evaluation of
turbocharging systems
1989
Kumar et al.
[19]
CI
Comprehensive model
of all processes
including manifold flow
dynamics; included
chemical availability;
only preliminary results
1989
Lipkea and
DeJoode
[20]
CI
Comprehensive model
of all processes;
included chemical
availability; included
experimental
measurements
1989
(&
1989)
Comments
1957
1984
Primus [11]
1988
1984
(&
1990)
Comprehensive model
of all processes
Investigators Engine
*
1991
Bozza et al.
[23]
CI
1998
Anderson et
al. [33]
SI
1999,
2000
Caton [34
37]
SI
Comprehensive model
of all processes
Comments
Comprehensive model
of all processes;
included experimental
measurements
1992
Gallo and
Milanez [24]
SII
Comprehensive model
of all processes
1992
Al-Najem
and Diab
[25]
CI
1993
Rakopoulos
[26]
SI
Compression and
expansion strokes; no
intake or exhaust
strokes; included
transient operation
1993
Rakopoulos
and
Andritsakis
[27]
CI
Calculated availability;
experimental
measurements of
energy terms;
considered only valve
closed period; related
combustion
irreversibility to fuel
reacted fraction
1993
Rakopoulos
et al. [28]
CI
Experimental
measurements of
energy terms;
calculated availability;
considered only valve
closed period
1997
Rakopoulos
and
Giakoumis
[29]
CI
Comprehensive model
of all processes;
included experimental
measurements
1997
Rakopoulos
and
Giakoumis
[30]
CI
Comprehensive model
of all processes;
included experimental
measurements;
included transient
operation
1997
Alasfour [31]
SI=
Experimental
measurements of
energy terms;
calculated availability
1997
Rakopoulos
and
Giakoumis
[32]
CI
Comprehensive model
of all processes;
included experimental
measurements;
EXAMPLE RESULTS
COMPRESSION-IGNITION
ENGINE
For
representative results for a compression-ignition (diesel)
engine, sample results from the work of Flynn et al. [5]
will be presented. In one of their investigations, they
studied a 14-liter (with a bore of 140 mm and a stroke of
152mm) turbocharged and intercooled, direct injection
diesel engine. The engine was operated at 2100 rpm
producing 300 kW of brake power with a 16:1
compression ratio.
Figure 4 shows the percentages of the fuels energy and
availability for the indicated work, heat transfer, and net
exhaust flow. In addition, for the availability, this figure
shows the percentage destroyed by combustion and
valve throttling irreversibilities. As shown, the indicated
work is 47.6% of the energy and 45.8% of the availability
(the slight difference is because the availability of the fuel
is 1.0317 times the fuels heating value). The heat
transfer accounts for 12.6% of the fuel energy, but only
9.7% of the fuel availability. This is because not all the
energy of the heat transfer is available to do work. Also,
the net exhaust flow consists of 41.4% of the fuel energy,
but only 18.3% of the fuel availability. Finally, the
combustion irreversibilities are significant: 21.0% of the
available energy is destroyed. The throttling losses due to
0.0
-0.2
Net Useful
Indicated
Work Out
Combustion
Starts
Availability
Destruction due
to Combustion
-0.4
Combustion
Ends
Availability Transfer
due to Heat Loss
-0.6
EVO
Availability
Transfer
due to Flows
-0.8
-1.0
Fresh
Charge
Enters
Final System
Availability
-180
180
360
540
CRANK ANGLE
Figure 4.
100
Destruction
due to
Combustion
(21.0%)
(41.4%)*
80
60
40
(12.6%)*
Net Transfer
Out Due
to Flows
(18.3%)
Heat
Transfer
(9.7%)
(47.6%)*
(45.8%)
Total
Indicated
Work
20
Figure 5.
Energy
Availability
100
Unused
Fuel
(0.7%)
Destruction
due to
Combustion
(20.6%)
80
60
REFERENCES
Destruction
due to
Inlet Mixing
(1.3%)
Unused
Fuel
(0.7%)
Net Transfer
Out Due
to Flows
(40.0%)
(24.7%)
Heat
Transfer
40
(28.7%)
(23.0%)
Total
Indicated
Work
20
(30.6%)
(29.7%)
Figure 6.
Energy
Availability
SUMMARY
This paper has reviewed investigations that have used
the second law of thermodynamics in studying internalcombustion engines. Over 40 years of efforts and over 28
technical papers have been identified. About two-thirds of
these have been completed for diesel engines, and the
other one-third has been completed for spark-ignition
engines. Almost all of these investigations have been
completed since the 1980s. The second law of
thermodynamics was shown to provide a framework
which leads to a more thorough understanding of the
energy conversion process, provides a quantitative
measure of the capability to produce useful work, and
identifies those processes that are destructive to the
goals of high performance and high efficiency engines.
Representative results were presented for both
compression-ignition (diesel) and spark-ignition engines
to illustrate the type of information obtained by the use of
second law analyses. Both instantaneous values for the
engine availability, and the overall values for energy and
availability were presented.
12
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
CONTACT INFORMATION
Dr. Jerald A. Caton is a professor in the Department of
Mechanical Engineering at Texas A&M University,
College Station, Texas, 778433123. He has been
working on topics associated with internal combustion
13
Ref.
No.
Vd
Type
No. of
Cyls
(L)
Brake
Power
Speed
(rpm)
(kW)
Trauple
---
NA
---
---
---
---
TC
---
---
---
Flynn
14
TC/AC
300
2100
Primus
11
14
TC/AC
268
1900
Primus
12
14
NA
185
2100
TC/AC
220
Primus
13
10
TC/AC
224
2100
Primus
14
10
TC/AC
224
2100
van Gerpen
15
1.17
NA
---
---
Alkidas
16, 17
2.0
TC/AC
333
1200 &
1800
McKinley
18
10
NA
224
2100
Kumar
19
0.78
---
---
2000
Lipkea
20
7.6
TC/AC
~170
~2200
Shapiro
22
1.17
NA
---
---
Bozza
23
1.37
TC
55.8
4500
Al-Najem
25
---
TC
---
243
---
Rakopoulos
27
0.48
NA
4.0
2000
16.6
TC/AC
235
1500
Rakopoulos
28
0.48
NA
4.0
2000
Rakopoulos
29
16.6
TC/AC
235
1500
Rakopoulos
30
0.51
NA
4.0
2000
Rakopoulos
32
16.6
TC/AC
235
1500
14
Ref.
Vd
No.
(L)
Type No. of
Cyls
Brake
Power
Speed
(rpm)
(kW)
Patterson
---
NA
14.2
2800
Edo
10
---
---
---
---
---
Shapiro
22
1.17
NA
---
---
Gallo
24
0.4
NA
---
5200
Rakopoulos
26
0.51
NA
---
2500
Alsafour
31
0.45
NA
5.7
1700
Anderson
33
2.0
NA
6.67
2000
Caton
3437
5.7
NA
21.9
1400
15