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Introduction
From the theory of the bending of beams, we know that the bending moment
M and the curvature 1/ are related by the equation
1
d
M
=
=
,
dx
EI
(1)
where the convention for a positive bending moment is shown in Figure 1(b)
below. In equation (1),
du
=
(2)
dx
is the slope of the beam, u is the vertically upward deflection and EI is the
flexural rigidity.
F
F
V
x
M
L
(L-x)
(a)
(b)
Figure 1
d
= F (L x) .
dx
(3)
+A,
(4)
+ Ax + B ,
(5)
= 0 ; at x = 0 .
B=0
(6)
x2 x3
L
2
6
1.1
Types of Support
In beam problems, the only kinds of support allowed are a built-in support,
which prevents both deflection and rotation (slope) and a simple support
which prevents deflection but permits rotation. Pin joints can also be regarded as simple supports in this context. A summary of the boundary
conditions in a beam problem is therefore
Built-in support at x = a
u(a) = 0 ;
(a) = 0 .
2
(7)
Simple support at x = b
u(b) = 0 .
(8)
(9)
dM
=V ,
(10)
dx
where V is the shear force and a positive value of w corresponds to a downward load on the beam.
Applying this method to the example of Figure 1, we note that the only
loading is at the ends of the beam. Everywhere else w = 0 and hence
dV
=0,
dx
from (9). Integrating with respect to x and using (10) then gives
V =
dM
=C,
dx
(11)
(12)
2.1
Each end of a beam must contribute two conditions, which may be either
kinematic or equilibrium conditions, depending on the nature of the support
if any. We can have
Built-in support at x = a
u(a) = 0 ;
(a) = 0 .
(14)
u(b) = 0 ;
M(b) = 0 .
(15)
V (c) = 0 ; M(c) = 0 .
(16)
Simple support at x = b
M(0) = 0 .
(17)
(18)
Discontinuous loading
Both these methods of solution become complicated when the loading is not
a continuous function of x. The simplest example is the simply supported
beam with a central load, shown in Figure 2.
x
L /2
L /2
Figure 2
3.1
Discontinuity functions
Most students will probably be familiar with the step function or Heaviside
function H(x), which is defined by
H(x) = 0 ; x < 0
= 1; x>0
(19)
H(x)
dH(x)
,
dx
(20)
or
(x) = 0 ;
Z
x 6= 0
(x)dx = 1 .
In effect, the peak in the curve in Figure 4 becomes infinitely high and
infinitely narrow, while preserving the condition that the area under it is
unity. The delta function is useful in that it can be used to represent a
6
concentrated force. For example, in the problem of Figure 2, the loading can
be written
w(x) = F (x L/2) .
(21)
Notice that to place a delta function or a step function at a point other than
the origin (say at x = a) we simply replace x by (xa), so that the argument
of the function goes through zero at the desired point.
3.2
It is clear from the examples in 1,2 that if we are going to use discontinuity
functions to represent the loading or the bending moment, we shall need to
learn how to integrate these functions. The easiest way to think of this is to
think of the indefinite integral as the area under the curve up to the point
x. For example, suppose we want to determine the integral
Z
(x a)dx ,
which is the limiting (infinitely sharp peak) case of the curve of Figure 4,
except that the peak is moved to the point x = a. Since (x a) = 0 for
x < a, it is clear that we shall get no contribution to this integral if the upper
limit x < a. In other words,
Z
(x a)dx = 0 ;
x<a.
(22)
For x > a the integral will contain the complete area under the curve (since
in the limit the width of the peak is zero, so
In other words,
(x a)dx = 1 ;
x>a.
(23)
(x a)dx = H(x a) ,
(24)
<x a>
1
x
0
(26)
since the step function H(xa) has the effect of turning off the term (xa)
when x < a.
3.3
Macaulays notation
(27)
(28)
since any positive quantity raised to power zero will be unity. Also, the
integration rule (26) can be written concisely as
Z
(29)
The same process of thinking of the area under the curve leads to the
more general integration rule
Z
< x a >n dx =
8
< x a >n+1
.
n+1
(30)
In other words, the functions < xa >n integrate exactly like xn . You might
like to verify this for the special case n = 1.
We now return to the problem of Figure 2 and show how discontinuity functions can be used to simplify the solution. The easiest solution is that obtained using the methods of 2. We start by indentifying the loading as
w(x) = F (x L/2) .
Notice that a downward force corresponds to a positive multiplier on the
delta function. An upward force would require a minus sign. Substitution
into (9) then gives
dV
= F (x L/2)
dx
and integration using (24) gives
V (x) = F H(x L/2) + A = F < x L/2 >0 +A ,
from (28). Substitution into (10) and a further integration using (29) or (30)
gives
M(x) = F < x L/2 >1 +Ax + B .
(31)
At this point, since the problem is determinate, we could use the equilibrium conditions at the ends (notably the fact that M(0) = M(L) = 0
to solve for A, B, but it is probably more systematic to carry through all
the constants to the end and use all the end conditions then. We therefore
substitute M(x) into (1), obtaining
EI
d
= M = F < x L/2 >1 +Ax + B
dx
du
< x L/2 >2 Ax2
= F
+
+ Bx + C .
dx
2
2
(32)
M(0) = 0 ;
u(L) = 0 ;
M(L) = 0 .
(33)
Notice that in developing these equations, we have followed the rule defined
in (27) that the function < x L/2 >n is zero when x L/2 < 0 (and hence
at the origin) and equal to (x L/2)n when x L/2 > 0. In particular, at
x = L, x L/2 = L/2 > 0.
Solving for A, B, C, D, we obtain
A=
F
;
2
B=0;
C=
F L2
;
16
D=0
and hence, substutitng back into (32), we obtain the final expression for the
deflection as
!
< x L/2 >3 x3 L2 x
F
.
+
u=
EI
6
12
16
4.1
An indeterminate problem
One advantage of the method of 2 is that it works equally well for indeterminate problems, provided the supports are only at the end of the beam1 , since
each of the end conditions in 2.1 yields two equations and the beam has
two ends, giving a total of four equations for the four unknowns A, B, C, D.
For example, if the beam in Figure 2 were actually built in at x = 0 and
simply-supported at x = L (which makes the problem indeterminate and
unsymmetrical), the only change in the derivation is that the conditions (33)
would be replaced by
u(0) = 0 ; (0) = 0 ;
1
u(L) = 0 ;
M(L) = 0 ,
A problem where the supports are not at the ends is discussed in 9 below.
10
(34)
with solution
A=
11F
;
16
B=
3F L
.
16
11
V
F /2
L /2
x
F /2
FL /4
x
0
Figure 6: Shear force and bending moment diagrams for the
problem of Figure 2.
In constructing these figures, notice that we start by laying down the
vertical (upward) reaction F/2 at x = 0, move downwards through F at
x = L/2 in response to the concentrated force there and finally move back
up through F/2 representing the reaction at the right when x = L, thus
closing out the diagram to zero. The bending moment diagram starts from
zero because there is no moment applied at the left end and equation (10)
dM
=V ,
dx
tells us that the slope of the bending moment is constant and equal to F/2 in
the segment 0 < x < L/2. The value of M at L/2 is equal to the area of the
left rectangle in the shear force diagram and hence is (F/2) (L/2) = F L/4.
It is quite easy to see that the shear force diagram has a step of magnitude
F at x = L/2 and hence that we can write
V =
F
F < x L/2 >0 .
2
(35)
The bending moment can then be obtained by substituting (35) into (10),
integrating and assigning the arbitrary constant so as to satisfy the condition
12
M(0) = 0, giving
M(x) =
Fx
F < x L/2 >1 .
2
(36)
Fx /2
M
x
0
L /2
Both of the two methods outlined here can be adapted to solve any problem
and it is to some extent a matter of taste which one you use. A useful
summary of the basic steps in each method is as follows:Method 1
1. Draw a free-body diagram for the whole beam and use it to determine
the beam reactions.
2. Sketch the shear force diagram for the beam.
3. Express the shape of the shear force diagram in terms of appropriate
discontintuity functions.
13
(37)
(38)
(39)
= w(x)
(40)
= V (x)
(41)
= M(x)
(42)
= (x)
(43)
The thing to remember here is that discontinuity functions start at the given
point and then extend all the way to the right. If you have a load or a shear
15
force that stops at an interior point, you need to extend the function to the
right end of the beam and then subtract another discontinuity function to
get the required effect. This is what we did in Figure 7. Some other figures
and the corresponding discontinuity function expressions are given below.
V
F
x
0
L /2
Figure 8
In Figure 8, the shear force V is equal to F in 0 < x < L/2 and then zero
in L/2 < x < L. To describe this function, we first continue the constant
value F to the right and then subtract a step function to bring the expression
back to zero starting at L/2. We obtain
V = F F < x L/2 >0 .
The second term is equivalent to the dotted rectangle on the right side of the
figure.
w
w0
0
x
L
L /2
Figure 9
2w0 x
.
L
16
However, we must then remove the dotted triangle and rectangle in L/2 <
x < L. The triangle has the same slope as the original expression and the
rectangle is a step function of height w0 . We therefore obtain
w(x) =
Notice how the dotted triangle is of the form < ... >1 whilst the rectangle is
of the form < ... >0 .
w
w0
0
Figure 10
In Figure 10, the uniform load w(x) = w0 extends only from a < x < b.
We therefore extend it to the right end and subtract the dotted rectangle,
obtaining
w(x) = w0 < x a >0 w0 < x b >0 .
17
Example
2a
Figure 11
Following the methodology of 7, the loading can be written down as
w(x) =
dV
= w0 w0 < x 2a >0 +w0 a(x 3a) ,
dx
where we have also used (21) and (9). Integrating and using (10) we have
V (x) =
dM
= w0 x w0 < x 2a >1 +w0 a < x 3a >0 +A ,
dx
where we recall that the integral of the delta function is a step function2 .
Another integration and (1) gives
M(x) = EI
+
+
+Bx+C .
dx
6
6
2
2
(45)
Notice that we have kept the negative sign on the left hand side of this equation to
reduce the risk of making sign errors in changing the sign of all the terms on the right.
The worst that can happen this way is that we get the whole expression with the wrong
sign, but that will usually be obvious at the end.
18
+
+
+
+ Cx + D .
24
24
6
6
2
(46)
The beam is simply supported at each end, so
EIu(x) =
u(0) = 0 ;
M(0) = 0 ; u(4a) = 0 ;
M(4a) = 0 .
+
+
+ 8Ba2 + 4Ca + D = 0
3
3
6
3
8w0 a2 2w0 a2 + w0 a2 + 4Aa + B = 0 ,
with solution
A=
7w0 a
; B=0;
4
C=
17w0 a3
;
8
D=0.
(47)
+
24
24
6
24
8
(48)
The slope at x = 0 is
(0) =
C
17w0 a3
=
,
EI
8EI
31w0 a4
2 7 17
=
+
,
3 3
4
12EI
19
L /2
L /2
Figure 12
9.1
L /2
R1
L /2
S
R2
Figure 13
A free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Figure 13. Notice that we
have used a different symbol S for the central reaction, so as to remind us
that this is being treated as an external force until we reach a stage in the
solution where it can be determined from kinematic boundary conditions. It
is clear from symmetry that the reactions R1 , R2 must be equal, or we could
establish this by taking moments about the mid-point. We can then find the
20
w0 L
2
S
2
w0 L S
.
2
1
w0
Figure 14
The shear force diagram for this loading is shown in Figure 14 and permits
us to write the shear force in the form
V (x) =
dM
w0 L S
=
w0 x + S < x L/2 >0 .
dx
2
(w0 L S)x w0 x2
d
=
Integrating again
EI(x) = EI
+
+A.
dx
4
6
2
Finally
EIu =
+
+ Ax + B .
12
24
6
x = 0,
21
L
,L
2
and hence
B = 0
(w0 L S)L3 w0 L4 AL
+
+B = 0
96
384
2
(w0 L S)L3 w0 L4 SL3
+
+ AL + B = 0 ,
12
24
48
comprising three equations for the three unknowns S, A, B. Solving for these
unknowns, we have
A=
w0 L3
;
384
B=0;
S=
5w0 L
.
8
Notice that the central support carries 5/8 of the total load w0 L.
9.2
dV
= w0 S(x L/2) .
dx
+
+ C2 x + C(51)
3
dx
6
2
2
w0 x4 S < x L/2 >3 C1 x3 C2 x2
+
+
+ C3 x + C4 .(52)
EIu(x) =
24
6
6
2
V (x) =
The beam is simply supported at each end, so the end conditions are
(0) = 0 ;
M(0) = 0 ;
(L) = 0 ;
22
M(L) = 0 .
+
+
+ C3 L + C4 = 0
24
48
6
2
w0 L2 SL
+ C1 L + C2 = 0
2
2
An additional equation is obtained from the kinematic condition u(L/2) = 0,
giving
w0 L4 C1 L3 C2 L2 C3 L
+
+
+
+ C4 = 0 .
384
48
8
2
These five equations can be solved for C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 , S to give
C1 =
3w0 L
; C2 = 0 ;
16
C3 =
w0 L3
;
384
C4 = 0 ; S =
5w0 L
.
8
Homework Problems
1. Write discontinuity function expressions for the discontinuous loads
shown in Figures 15 and 16.
F
Figure 15
23
w0
Figure 16
2. Write a discontinuity function expression for the shear force diagram
shown in Figure 17. At x = 2, the shear force jumps from V = 2 to
V = +2 kN.
V (kN)
3
1
2.5
1
x (m)
2
0
1
2.5
0.5
1
Figure 17
24