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USE OF DISCONTINUITY FUNCTIONS

FOR FINDING BEAM DEFLECTIONS


1

Introduction

From the theory of the bending of beams, we know that the bending moment
M and the curvature 1/ are related by the equation
1
d
M
=
=
,

dx
EI

(1)

where the convention for a positive bending moment is shown in Figure 1(b)
below. In equation (1),
du
=
(2)
dx
is the slope of the beam, u is the vertically upward deflection and EI is the
flexural rigidity.
F

F
V
x

M
L

(L-x)

(a)

(b)
Figure 1

These equations permit us to find the deflection of the beam if M(x) is


known as a function of x. For example, Figure 1(a) shows a beam built in
at x = 0 and loaded by a concentrated force F at the other end x = L. The
free-body diagram Figure 1(b) then shows that
M(x) = F (L x)
and hence, substituting into (1), we have
EI

d
= F (L x) .
dx

(3)

Integrating with respect to x and using (2) then gives


du
x2
EI = EI
= F Lx
dx
2

+A,

(4)

where A is an arbitrary constant. One more integration gives


x2 x3
EIu = F L
2
6

+ Ax + B ,

(5)

where B is another arbitrary constant.


The arbitrary constants in equations (4, 5) are determined from the kinematic conditions describing the way the beam is supported. In the present
example, the beam is built in at x = 0, which means that both the slope and
the deflection are zero at this point i.e.
u=0;

= 0 ; at x = 0 .

Applying these conditions to equations (4, 5), we obtain


A=0;

B=0

(6)

and hence the final expression for the deflection is


F
u=
EI

x2 x3
L
2
6

from (5, 6).

1.1

Types of Support

In beam problems, the only kinds of support allowed are a built-in support,
which prevents both deflection and rotation (slope) and a simple support
which prevents deflection but permits rotation. Pin joints can also be regarded as simple supports in this context. A summary of the boundary
conditions in a beam problem is therefore
Built-in support at x = a
u(a) = 0 ;

(a) = 0 .
2

(7)

Simple support at x = b
u(b) = 0 .

(8)

A determinate beam must have either a single built-in support or two


simple supports, in which case equations (7, 8) will provide exactly two
conditions for the two arbitrary constants A, B. If the problem is indeterminate, there will more than two boundary conditions, but there will also be
an equivalent number of additional unknown reaction forces associated with
the indeterminacy.

Solution starting from the applied loads

To use the method presented so far, we need to start by drawing a free-body


diagram to determine the moment M as a function of x. An alternative
method that avoids this step is to start from the loading on the beam w(x)
and use the equilibrium relations
dV
= w
dx

(9)

dM
=V ,
(10)
dx
where V is the shear force and a positive value of w corresponds to a downward load on the beam.
Applying this method to the example of Figure 1, we note that the only
loading is at the ends of the beam. Everywhere else w = 0 and hence
dV
=0,
dx
from (9). Integrating with respect to x and using (10) then gives
V =

dM
=C,
dx

(11)

where C is an arbitrary constant. A second integration then gives


M = Cx + D ,

(12)

where D is another arbitrary constant. To determine the new constants C, D


we need to apply additional equilibrium conditions at the ends of the beam.
3

In the present problem, the only load at x = L is the force F , so we must


have
M(L) = 0 ; V (L) = F .
(13)
Substituting (13) into (11, 12) and solving the resulting equations for C, D.
we obtain
C = F ; D = F L .
It is easily verified that substituting these results into (12) yields the same
expression (3) as we obtained from the free-body diagram Figure 1(b).

2.1

Types of end conditions

Each end of a beam must contribute two conditions, which may be either
kinematic or equilibrium conditions, depending on the nature of the support
if any. We can have
Built-in support at x = a
u(a) = 0 ;

(a) = 0 .

(14)

u(b) = 0 ;

M(b) = 0 .

(15)

V (c) = 0 ; M(c) = 0 .

(16)

Simple support at x = b

Free (unloaded) end at x = c

Vertically downward force F at the left end x = 0


V (0) = F ;

M(0) = 0 .

(17)

Vertically downward force F at the right end x = d


V (d) = F ; M(d) = 0 .

(18)

Discontinuous loading

Both these methods of solution become complicated when the loading is not
a continuous function of x. The simplest example is the simply supported
beam with a central load, shown in Figure 2.

x
L /2

L /2
Figure 2

If we attempt to find M(x) by drawing a free-body diagram, we shall


need to draw two different diagrams, one for the left region 0 < x < L/2
and one for the right region L/2 < x < L and we shall therefore get different expressions in the two regions. The solution can be obtained this way,
applying appropriate continuity conditions at the join x = L/2, but even for
simple problems it is very complicated. Here we shall introduce an alternative method which is much easier to use. First we need to review and extend
some ideas about generalized functions or discontinuity functions.

3.1

Discontinuity functions

Most students will probably be familiar with the step function or Heaviside
function H(x), which is defined by
H(x) = 0 ; x < 0
= 1; x>0

(19)

and is illustrated as the solid line in Figure 3. Although it is discontinuous


at x = 0, H(x) can be regarded as the limit of a continuous function such
as the dotted curve in Figure 3, as the curve is squeezed into the corners at
x = 0.

H(x)

Figure 3: The Heaviside step function H(x)


The dotted curve is continuous and can therefore be differentiated, giving
the function shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Derivative (slope) of the dotted curve in Figure 3


If we make the dotted curve in Figure 3 get closer and closer to the step
function, the peak in Figure 4 will get higher and narrower. In the limit, the
derivative becomes the Dirac delta function (x), defined by
(x) =

dH(x)
,
dx

(20)

or
(x) = 0 ;
Z

x 6= 0

(x)dx = 1 .

In effect, the peak in the curve in Figure 4 becomes infinitely high and
infinitely narrow, while preserving the condition that the area under it is
unity. The delta function is useful in that it can be used to represent a
6

concentrated force. For example, in the problem of Figure 2, the loading can
be written
w(x) = F (x L/2) .
(21)
Notice that to place a delta function or a step function at a point other than
the origin (say at x = a) we simply replace x by (xa), so that the argument
of the function goes through zero at the desired point.

3.2

Integrals of discontinuity functions

It is clear from the examples in 1,2 that if we are going to use discontinuity
functions to represent the loading or the bending moment, we shall need to
learn how to integrate these functions. The easiest way to think of this is to
think of the indefinite integral as the area under the curve up to the point
x. For example, suppose we want to determine the integral
Z

(x a)dx ,

which is the limiting (infinitely sharp peak) case of the curve of Figure 4,
except that the peak is moved to the point x = a. Since (x a) = 0 for
x < a, it is clear that we shall get no contribution to this integral if the upper
limit x < a. In other words,
Z

(x a)dx = 0 ;

x<a.

(22)

For x > a the integral will contain the complete area under the curve (since
in the limit the width of the peak is zero, so

In other words,

(x a)dx = 1 ;

x>a.

(23)

(x a)dx = H(x a) ,

(24)

which is clearly also the inverse of the relation (20).


Consider now the integral of the step function H(x a) = 0 shown in
Figure 5. Once again, the area under the curve is zero for x < a, but for
x > a we shall get a contribution corresponding to the shaded area in Figure
5 and given by
Z
H(x a)dx = x a ; x > a .
(25)
7

<x a>
1

x
0

Figure 5: Integration of < x a > as the area under the curve.


It follows that
Z

H(x a)dx = (x a)H(x a)

(26)

since the step function H(xa) has the effect of turning off the term (xa)
when x < a.

3.3

Macaulays notation

A more efficient notation for discontinuity functions is that introduced by


Macaulay. We define the function < x a >n by
< x a >n = 0 ; x < a
= (x a)n ; x > a

(27)

In other words, < x a >n is essentially what it appears to be (with curved


brackets ()) if x > a, but this expression is turned off (set to zero) when
x < a. With this notation, it is clear that
H(x a) =< x a >0 ,

(28)

since any positive quantity raised to power zero will be unity. Also, the
integration rule (26) can be written concisely as
Z

< x a >0 dx =< x a >1 .

(29)

The same process of thinking of the area under the curve leads to the
more general integration rule
Z

< x a >n dx =
8

< x a >n+1
.
n+1

(30)

In other words, the functions < xa >n integrate exactly like xn . You might
like to verify this for the special case n = 1.

Beam with a central load

We now return to the problem of Figure 2 and show how discontinuity functions can be used to simplify the solution. The easiest solution is that obtained using the methods of 2. We start by indentifying the loading as
w(x) = F (x L/2) .
Notice that a downward force corresponds to a positive multiplier on the
delta function. An upward force would require a minus sign. Substitution
into (9) then gives
dV
= F (x L/2)
dx
and integration using (24) gives
V (x) = F H(x L/2) + A = F < x L/2 >0 +A ,
from (28). Substitution into (10) and a further integration using (29) or (30)
gives
M(x) = F < x L/2 >1 +Ax + B .
(31)
At this point, since the problem is determinate, we could use the equilibrium conditions at the ends (notably the fact that M(0) = M(L) = 0
to solve for A, B, but it is probably more systematic to carry through all
the constants to the end and use all the end conditions then. We therefore
substitute M(x) into (1), obtaining
EI

d
= M = F < x L/2 >1 +Ax + B
dx

and integrate using (30) to obtain


EI = EI

du
< x L/2 >2 Ax2
= F
+
+ Bx + C .
dx
2
2

A final integration then gives


< x L/2 >3 Ax3 Bx2
+
+
+ Cx + D .
EIu = F
6
6
2
9

(32)

The beam is simply-supported at x = 0, x = L, so equations (15) give


the four conditions
u(0) = 0 ;

M(0) = 0 ;

u(L) = 0 ;

M(L) = 0 .

(33)

Applying these conditions in (32) gives the four simultaneous equations


D = 0
B = 0

F (L/2)3 AL3 BL2


+
+
+ CL + D = 0
6
6
2
F (L/2) + AL + B = 0 .

Notice that in developing these equations, we have followed the rule defined
in (27) that the function < x L/2 >n is zero when x L/2 < 0 (and hence
at the origin) and equal to (x L/2)n when x L/2 > 0. In particular, at
x = L, x L/2 = L/2 > 0.
Solving for A, B, C, D, we obtain
A=

F
;
2

B=0;

C=

F L2
;
16

D=0

and hence, substutitng back into (32), we obtain the final expression for the
deflection as
!
< x L/2 >3 x3 L2 x
F

.
+

u=
EI
6
12
16

4.1

An indeterminate problem

One advantage of the method of 2 is that it works equally well for indeterminate problems, provided the supports are only at the end of the beam1 , since
each of the end conditions in 2.1 yields two equations and the beam has
two ends, giving a total of four equations for the four unknowns A, B, C, D.
For example, if the beam in Figure 2 were actually built in at x = 0 and
simply-supported at x = L (which makes the problem indeterminate and
unsymmetrical), the only change in the derivation is that the conditions (33)
would be replaced by
u(0) = 0 ; (0) = 0 ;
1

u(L) = 0 ;

M(L) = 0 ,

A problem where the supports are not at the ends is discussed in 9 below.

10

(34)

leading to the new set of equations


D = 0
C = 0

F (L/2)3 AL3 BL2


+
+
+ CL + D = 0
6
6
2
F (L/2) + AL + B = 0 ,

with solution
A=

11F
;
16

B=

3F L
.
16

Solution starting from the bending moment


diagram

The solution to these problems can also be obtained by the method of 1.


In other words, we first find an expression for the bending moment; write
it in terms of discontinuity functions and then proceed to integrate twice
to get the displacement as in 1. Usually, the easiest way to get the initial
expression for the bending moment is to sketch the shear force and bending
moment diagrams, using the method outlined in the file Shear Force and
Bending Moment Diagrams. In other words, we find the support reactions
and then, working from the left, make a step up or down in the shear force
diagram everytime we encounter a concentrated force. The bending moment
diagram is then sketched as an integral (area under the curve) of the shear
force diagram. For the problem of Figure 2, the two reactions are clearly F/2
by symmetry and the shear force and bending moment diagrams are of the
form shown in Figure 6.

11

V
F /2

L /2

x
F /2

FL /4

x
0
Figure 6: Shear force and bending moment diagrams for the
problem of Figure 2.
In constructing these figures, notice that we start by laying down the
vertical (upward) reaction F/2 at x = 0, move downwards through F at
x = L/2 in response to the concentrated force there and finally move back
up through F/2 representing the reaction at the right when x = L, thus
closing out the diagram to zero. The bending moment diagram starts from
zero because there is no moment applied at the left end and equation (10)
dM
=V ,
dx
tells us that the slope of the bending moment is constant and equal to F/2 in
the segment 0 < x < L/2. The value of M at L/2 is equal to the area of the
left rectangle in the shear force diagram and hence is (F/2) (L/2) = F L/4.
It is quite easy to see that the shear force diagram has a step of magnitude
F at x = L/2 and hence that we can write
V =

F
F < x L/2 >0 .
2

(35)

The bending moment can then be obtained by substituting (35) into (10),
integrating and assigning the arbitrary constant so as to satisfy the condition
12

M(0) = 0, giving
M(x) =

Fx
F < x L/2 >1 .
2

(36)

Alternatively, we could get equation (36) by the superposition indicated


in Figure 7. In other words, we start with the upward triangle represented by
the dashed line, with slope F/2 and then subtract a downward facing triangle
of twice this slope starting at x = L/2. However, in using this method it is
generally more straightforward to use integration to get the bending moment
from the shear force expression.

Fx /2
M

x
0

L /2

Figure 7: Construction of the bending moment function by


superposition.

Some practical advice

Both of the two methods outlined here can be adapted to solve any problem
and it is to some extent a matter of taste which one you use. A useful
summary of the basic steps in each method is as follows:Method 1
1. Draw a free-body diagram for the whole beam and use it to determine
the beam reactions.
2. Sketch the shear force diagram for the beam.
3. Express the shape of the shear force diagram in terms of appropriate
discontintuity functions.
13

4. Substitute successively in the equations


dM
= V (x)
dx
d
EI
= M(x)
dx
du
= (x)
dx

(37)
(38)
(39)

integrating and introducing arbitrary constants at each stage.


5. Find the unknown constant in M(x) from an equilibrium condition at
either end of the beam.
6. Write equations for the support conditions using (7, 8).
7. Solve these equations for the unknown arbitrary constants and then
substitute these back into the expressions for V, M, , u as required.
Note: If the problem is indeterminate, there will be one or more unknown
reactions at stage 1. These must be included as extra unknowns but there
will be a corresponding number of extra conditions at stage 6.
Method 2
1. Write an expression for the loading function w(x) in terms of discontinuity functions (including delta functions if there are any concentrated
forces). It is not necessary to include forces applied at the ends of the
beam.
2. Substitute successively in the equations
dV
dx
dM
dx
d
EI
dx
du
dx

= w(x)

(40)

= V (x)

(41)

= M(x)

(42)

= (x)

(43)

integrating and introducing arbitrary constants at each stage.


14

3. Write two equations for the (equilibrium and/or kinematic) conditions


at each end of the beam using (14, 15, 16, 17, 18).
4. Solve these equations for the unknown arbitrary constants and then
substitute these back into the expressions for V, M, , u as required.
Note: If there are any supports that are not at the ends, the reactions at
these supports must be included as additional unknown forces. Additional
equations for these unknowns are obtained from equation (8) for each internal
support.

Because of the additional complication introduced by the Notes in the


above procedures it is generally preferable to use Method 1 for determinate
problems with one or more internal supports (not at the ends) and Method 2
for indeterminate problems where the supports are all at the ends. If neither
of these conditions applies, there is no getting around the problem being
more complicated! We solve a problem of this kind in 9 below.
Most of the steps defined above are completely routine. You will rapidly
find out that you can perform the integrations and solve the simultaneous
equations very easily. Places to be more careful are
1. Make sure that you have all the correct boundary conditions. It is a
good idea to list these carefully before you start the algebraic part of
the problem (and hence get distracted by the algebraic complexity).
2. In both methods there is a point at which a function described (usually)
by a graph or a figure has to be translated into an expression involving
discontinuity functions. This is one of the places where you are most
likely to go wrong, so spend some time trying a range of examples. In
other words, sketch a range of shapes and then try to find discontinuity
function expressions for them. We shall give a few examples in the next
section.

Describing a curve in terms of discontinuity


functions

The thing to remember here is that discontinuity functions start at the given
point and then extend all the way to the right. If you have a load or a shear
15

force that stops at an interior point, you need to extend the function to the
right end of the beam and then subtract another discontinuity function to
get the required effect. This is what we did in Figure 7. Some other figures
and the corresponding discontinuity function expressions are given below.

V
F
x
0

L /2
Figure 8

In Figure 8, the shear force V is equal to F in 0 < x < L/2 and then zero
in L/2 < x < L. To describe this function, we first continue the constant
value F to the right and then subtract a step function to bring the expression
back to zero starting at L/2. We obtain
V = F F < x L/2 >0 .
The second term is equivalent to the dotted rectangle on the right side of the
figure.

w
w0
0

x
L

L /2
Figure 9

In Figure 9, the triangular load stops at x = L/2. We first extend it


to the right end obtaining the inclined dotted line. The slope of this line is
2w0 /L, since it has to pass through the origin and the point (L/2, w0). Thus,
the expression for the inclined dotted line is
w(x) =

2w0 x
.
L

16

However, we must then remove the dotted triangle and rectangle in L/2 <
x < L. The triangle has the same slope as the original expression and the
rectangle is a step function of height w0 . We therefore obtain
w(x) =

2w0 x 2w0 < x L/2 >1

w0 < x L/2 >0 .


L
L

Notice how the dotted triangle is of the form < ... >1 whilst the rectangle is
of the form < ... >0 .

w
w0
0

Figure 10
In Figure 10, the uniform load w(x) = w0 extends only from a < x < b.
We therefore extend it to the right end and subtract the dotted rectangle,
obtaining
w(x) = w0 < x a >0 w0 < x b >0 .

17

Example

Figure 11 shows a beam of flexural rigidity EI and length 4a that is


simply supported at the ends and loaded by a uniformly distributed
load w0 per unit length in 0 < x < 2a and a concentrated force of
magnitude w0 a at x = 3a. Using discontinuity functions, find an
expression for the displacement as a function of x. Hence find (i)
the slope at x = 0 and (ii) the deflection at the mid-point x = 2a.
w0 a
w0 per unit length

2a

Figure 11
Following the methodology of 7, the loading can be written down as
w(x) =

dV
= w0 w0 < x 2a >0 +w0 a(x 3a) ,
dx

where we have also used (21) and (9). Integrating and using (10) we have
V (x) =

dM
= w0 x w0 < x 2a >1 +w0 a < x 3a >0 +A ,
dx

where we recall that the integral of the delta function is a step function2 .
Another integration and (1) gives
M(x) = EI

d w0 x2 w0 < x2a >2


=

+w0 a < x3a >1 +Ax+B . (44)


dx
2
2

Another integration and (2) gives


EI(x) = EI

du w0 x3 w0 < x2a >3 w0 a < x3a >2 Ax2


=

+
+
+Bx+C .
dx
6
6
2
2
(45)

Notice that we have kept the negative sign on the left hand side of this equation to
reduce the risk of making sign errors in changing the sign of all the terms on the right.
The worst that can happen this way is that we get the whole expression with the wrong
sign, but that will usually be obvious at the end.

18

One last integration gives


w0 x4 w0 < x2a >4 w0 a < x3a >3 Ax3 Bx2

+
+
+
+ Cx + D .
24
24
6
6
2
(46)
The beam is simply supported at each end, so

EIu(x) =

u(0) = 0 ;

M(0) = 0 ; u(4a) = 0 ;

M(4a) = 0 .

Substituting these values into (44, 46) gives


D = 0
B = 0
32w0a4 2w04 w0 a4 32Aa3

+
+
+ 8Ba2 + 4Ca + D = 0
3
3
6
3
8w0 a2 2w0 a2 + w0 a2 + 4Aa + B = 0 ,
with solution
A=

7w0 a
; B=0;
4

C=

17w0 a3
;
8

D=0.

(47)

The final expression for the deflection is therefore


w0
u(x) =
EI

x4 < x 2a >4 a < x 3a >3 7ax3 17w0 a3 x

+
24
24
6
24
8

(48)
The slope at x = 0 is
(0) =

C
17w0 a3
=
,
EI
8EI

from (45, 47) and the deflection at the midpoint is


w0 a4
u(2a) =
EI

31w0 a4
2 7 17
=
+
,
3 3
4
12EI


from (48). This is a negative quantity as expected (deflection is positive


upwards and the beam is expected to deflect downwards) so probably we
didnt make any sign errors.

19

Indeterminate Problems with Intermediate


Supports

Figure 12 shows a beam that is simply supported at x = 0, x = L/2, x = L


and loaded by a uniformly distributed load w0 per unit length. This problem
is indeterminate and there are intermediate supports, so there is no way of
avoiding writing one of the redundant reactions as an additional unknown.
We shall choose the reaction at the central support for this purpose.

w0 per unit length

L /2

L /2
Figure 12

9.1

Solution using Method 1


w0 per unit length

L /2
R1

L /2
S

R2

Figure 13
A free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Figure 13. Notice that we
have used a different symbol S for the central reaction, so as to remind us
that this is being treated as an external force until we reach a stage in the
solution where it can be determined from kinematic boundary conditions. It
is clear from symmetry that the reactions R1 , R2 must be equal, or we could
establish this by taking moments about the mid-point. We can then find the

20

reactions by summing the forces vertically, obtaining


R1 = R2 =

w0 L
2

S
2

w0 L S
.
2

1
w0

Figure 14
The shear force diagram for this loading is shown in Figure 14 and permits
us to write the shear force in the form
V (x) =

dM
w0 L S
=
w0 x + S < x L/2 >0 .
dx
2

Integrating and noting that M = 0 at x = 0, we have


M(x) = EI

(w0 L S)x w0 x2
d
=

+ S < x L/2 >1 .


dx
2
2

Integrating again
EI(x) = EI

(w0 L S)x2 w0 x3 S < x L/2 >2


du
=

+
+A.
dx
4
6
2

Finally
EIu =

(w0 L S)x3 w0 x4 S < x L/2 >3

+
+ Ax + B .
12
24
6

The kinematic boundary conditions are


u=0;

x = 0,
21

L
,L
2

and hence
B = 0
(w0 L S)L3 w0 L4 AL

+
+B = 0
96
384
2
(w0 L S)L3 w0 L4 SL3

+
+ AL + B = 0 ,
12
24
48
comprising three equations for the three unknowns S, A, B. Solving for these
unknowns, we have
A=

w0 L3
;
384

B=0;

S=

5w0 L
.
8

The final expression for the displacement is therefore


u=

w0 (16x4 + 12Lx3 + 40L < x L/2 >3 L3 x)


.
384EI

Notice that the central support carries 5/8 of the total load w0 L.

9.2

Solution using Method 2

For this method, we start with the loading


w(x) =

dV
= w0 S(x L/2) .
dx

Integrating, following the sequence of equations (4043), we have


dM
= w0 x S < x L/2 >0 +C1
(49)
dx
w0 x2
d
=
S < x L/2 >1 +C1 x + C2
(50)
M(x) = EI
dx
2
du
w0 x3 S < x L/2 >2 C1 x2
EI(x) = EI
=

+
+ C2 x + C(51)
3
dx
6
2
2
w0 x4 S < x L/2 >3 C1 x3 C2 x2

+
+
+ C3 x + C4 .(52)
EIu(x) =
24
6
6
2
V (x) =

The beam is simply supported at each end, so the end conditions are
(0) = 0 ;

M(0) = 0 ;

(L) = 0 ;
22

M(L) = 0 .

Susbtuting into (4952), we obtain the four equations


C4 = 0
C2 = 0
w0 L4 SL3 C1 L3 C2 L2

+
+
+ C3 L + C4 = 0
24
48
6
2
w0 L2 SL

+ C1 L + C2 = 0
2
2
An additional equation is obtained from the kinematic condition u(L/2) = 0,
giving
w0 L4 C1 L3 C2 L2 C3 L
+
+
+
+ C4 = 0 .
384
48
8
2
These five equations can be solved for C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 , S to give
C1 =

3w0 L
; C2 = 0 ;
16

C3 =

w0 L3
;
384

C4 = 0 ; S =

5w0 L
.
8

The final expression for v is then obtained as before as


u=

w0 (16x4 + 12Lx3 + 40L < x L/2 >3 L3 x)


.
384EI

Homework Problems
1. Write discontinuity function expressions for the discontinuous loads
shown in Figures 15 and 16.

w 0 per unit length

F
Figure 15

23

w0

Figure 16
2. Write a discontinuity function expression for the shear force diagram
shown in Figure 17. At x = 2, the shear force jumps from V = 2 to
V = +2 kN.

V (kN)
3

1
2.5
1

x (m)
2

0
1
2.5

0.5
1

Figure 17

24

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