Sir Isaac Newton (4 January 1643 31 March 1727 [OS: 25 December 1642 20 March 1727])[1]

was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and

theologian who is perceived and considered by a substantial number of scholars and the general
public as one of the most influential men in history.[6] His Philosophi Naturalis Principia
Mathematica, published in 1687, is by itself considered to be among the most influential books
in the history of science, laying the groundwork for most of classical mechanics. In this work,
Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion which dominated the
scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. Newton showed that the
motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws
by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of
gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the scientific
revolution.
In mechanics, Newton enunciated the principles of conservation of both momentum and angular
momentum. In optics, he built the first practical reflecting telescope[7] and developed a theory of
colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours
which form the visible spectrum. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling and studied the
speed of sound.
In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of the
differential and integral calculus. He also demonstrated the generalised binomial theorem,
developed the so-called "Newton's method" for approximating the zeroes of a function, and
contributed to the study of power series.
Newton remains influential to scientists, as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of scientists and the
general public in Britain's Royal Society asking who had the greater effect on the history of
science, Newton or Albert Einstein. Newton was deemed to have made the greater overall
contribution to science, although the two men were closer when it came to contributions to
humanity.[8]
Newton was also highly religious, though an unorthodox Christian, writing more on Biblical
hermeneutics than the natural science he is remembered for today.

Newton's laws of motion

Main article: Newton's laws of motion
The famous three laws of motion (stated in modernized form):
Newton's First Law (also known as the Law of Inertia) states that an object at rest tends to stay at
rest and that an object in uniform motion tends to stay in uniform motion unless acted upon by a
net external force.
Newton's Second Law states that an applied force, , on an object equals the rate of change of its
momentum, , with time. Mathematically, this is expressed as

Since the second law applies to an object with constant mass (dm/dt = 0), the first term vanishes,
and by substitution using the definition of acceleration, the equation can be written in the iconic
form
The first and second laws represent a break with the physics of Aristotle, in which it was
believed that a force was necessary in order to maintain motion. They state that a force is only
needed in order to change an object's state of motion. The SI unit of force is the newton, named
in Newton's honour.
Newton's Third Law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. This
means that any force exerted onto an object has a counterpart force that is exerted in the opposite
direction back onto the first object. A common example is of two ice skaters pushing against
each other and sliding apart in opposite directions. Another example is the recoil of a firearm, in
which the force propelling the bullet is exerted equally back onto the gun and is felt by the
shooter. Since the objects in question do not necessarily have the same mass, the resulting
acceleration of the two objects can be different (as in the case of firearm recoil).
Unlike Aristotle's, Newton's physics is meant to be universal. For example, the second law
applies both to a planet and to a falling stone.
The vector nature of the second law addresses the geometrical relationship between the direction
of the force and the manner in which the object's momentum changes. Before Newton, it had
typically been assumed that a planet orbiting the sun would need a forward force to keep it
moving. Newton showed instead that all that was needed was an inward attraction from the sun.
Even many decades after the publication of the Principia, this counterintuitive idea was not
universally accepted, and many scientists preferred Descartes' theory of vortices.[
Mechanics and gravitation
In 1677, Newton returned to his work on mechanics, i.e., gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets,
with reference to Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and consulting with Hooke and Flamsteed on the
subject. He published his results in De motu corporum in gyrum (1684). This contained the beginnings of
the laws of motion that would inform the Principia
The Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (now known as the Principia) was published on 5
July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Edmond Halley. In this work Newton stated the
three universal laws of motion that were not to be improved upon for more than two hundred years. He
used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the effect that would become known as gravity, and defined the
law of universal gravitation. In the same work he presented the first analytical determination, based on
Boyle's law, of the speed of sound in air. Newton's postulate of an invisible force able to act over vast
distances led to him being criticised for introducing "occult agencies" into science.[26]
With the Principia, Newton became internationally recognised.[27] He acquired a circle of admirers,
including the Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, with whom he formed an intense
relationship that lasted until 1693, when it abruptly ended, at the same time that Newton suffered a
nervous breakdown.[28]