Dr.

Nikos J. Mourtos AE 164

SUPERSONIC FLOW THEORY

1.0

LINEARIZED 2 D SUPERSONIC FLOW

The LPVPE holds for both subsonic & supersonic flow:

(1 ! M )#
2
"

For subsonic flow:

1 ! M "2 ! 0 ! elliptic PDE

For supersonic flow:

1 ! M "2 ! 0 ! hyperbolic PDE

xx

+ # yy = 0

Change in sign of the 1st term of the LPVPE ! very dramatic changes in the
mathematics and the physics (solution) of the eq.
Define

! " M #2 $ 1

LPVPE

!"xx # "yy = 0

Solution

! = f ( x " #y )

This solution is not very specific; f can be any function of ( x ! "y )

! = const. along lines of

x ! "y = const.

the slope of these lines is

x ! "y = const. #

we also know that

tan =

1
M !2 "1

dy 1
1
= =

dx "
M $2 !1

where is the Mach angle

Hence, the lines along which ! = const. are Mach lines

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 164

All disturbances created @ the wall and represented by the perturbation velocity
potential ! , propagate unchanged away from the wall along Mach waves.

All Mach waves have the same slope:

The Mach waves slope downstream above the wall ! any disturbance @ the
wall cannot propagate upstream! Its effect is limited to the region of flow
downstream of the Mach wave emanating from the point of disturbance. !
Fundamental difference between subsonic and supersonic flows:

dy 1
1
= =

dx !
M "2 #1

M ! ! 1 " disturbances propagate everywhere

M ! ! 1 " disturbances cannot propagate upstream

1.1 Linearized Supersonic Pressure Coefficient

"#
= f!
"x
"#
$! =
= %& f !
"y
u! =

Hence : u ! = %
Linearized BC:

$!
&
"! =

#$
= u% tan & ' u%&
#y

Since for small perturbations ! is small ! tan " # "

Hence : u! = "

#!
u'
% " &
$
$

Linearized pressure coefficient:

Cp = !

2 u"
2!
2!
$ Cp =

=
u#
"
M #2 $ 1

C p ! to local surface inclination w.r.t. the freestream

Holds for any slender, 2-D body where ! is small.

! ! 0 when measured above the horizontal (Right-Turning Wave) ! c p ! 0 for

the forward portion of the hump (shock wave if disturbance is finite)

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 164

! ! 0 when measured below the horizontal (Left-Turning Wave) ! c p ! 0 for

the rear portion of the hump (expansion wave if disturbance is finite)

Interesting: Linearized theory predicts wave drag (high p on the front of the
body, low p on the rear of the body) although shock waves are not treated in
linearized theory.

For subsonic flow:

M ! ! 1 " c p # as M ! #

For supersonic flow:

M ! ! 1 " c p # as M ! $

For both subsonic & supersonic flows:

lim c p = ! , however, neither eq.

M ! "1

is valid around Mach 1.

We can re-write the pressure coefficient as:

cp =

2!
2!
=
"
M #2 $ 1

in which
o the + sign is used for surfaces inclined into the free stream
o the sign is used for surfaces inclined away from the free stream
o ! is always entered as a positive # in this eq.

1.2 Busemanns 2nd Order Supersonic Pressure Coefficient

2! & (# + 1) M $4 % 4M $2 + 4 ) 2
2
cp = + (
+! = c1! + c2!
4
" '
2"
*

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 164

2.0 SUPERSONIC AIRFOILS

The normal shock wave, which forms in transonic flight, eventually moves back to
the TE of the wing as the aircraft reaches the speed of sound. In this position it
posses relatively little problem. Once the aircraft accelerates beyond the speed of
sound the oblique shock wave remains attached to the TE of the wing and sweeps
back becoming weaker.
The drag of a body in flight occurs because the body slows down the air that flows
around it. This is obvious when we look at the wake of a body. Remember that we
use the momentum theorem to calculate the drag by calculating the change in the
momentum of the air between the upstream and downstream sections of the flow.
The oblique shock wave slows the airflow but not necessarily to subsonic speed.
The airflow behind a normal shock wave is always subsonic, but the airflow behind
an oblique shock wave may still be supersonic, if the shock wave is weak.
Although the oblique shock wave contributes to the drag rise in supersonic flight,
most of the supersonic drag comes from the bow wave which forms ahead of the
wing. The bow wave causes an area of very high pressure to form just in front of the
wing and this causes a large increase in pressure drag.
There are two ways for the designer to deal with the bow wave:
Sweep the wing
Use a supersonic airfoil

In this section we discuss supersonic airfoils.

One solution to the drag caused by the bow wave is to make the LE of the airfoil very
sharp. This design feature will allow the bow wave to attach to the LE as an oblique
shock thus eliminating the area of high pressure ahead of the wing.

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 164

The problem with sharp LE is that they perform very poorly in subsonic flight.
Therefore, the wing will have very high stall speed and the aircraft would require a
very long runway for takeoff and landing. A sharp LE wing can be used, however, on
a supersonic missile.
Sharp LE may be used on supersonic airliners if vectored thrust is used to provide
low speed lift for either vertical takeoff or reduced ground run takeoffs.

2.1 Flat Plate

Lower surface

C p,l =

2!
=
"

2!
M #2 $1

Since the surface inclination angle is const. over the entire lower surface
!C p,l = const. over the lower surface.
Upper surface C p,u = !

2"
2"
=!

#
M $2 !1

Again, since the surface inclination angle is const. over the entire upper surface
!C p,u = const. over the upper surface.
The normal force coefficient for a flat plate is obtained from:
c

Cn =

1
C p,l ! C p,u dx
c "0

using the expressions for C p,l and C p,u from above we get: Cn =

4!
=
"

4!
M #2 $1

The axial force coefficient for a flat plate is obtained from:

c

Ca =

1
C p,u ! C p,l dy
c "0

however, a flat plate has zero thickness !dy = 0 " Ca = 0

this is also clearly seen from the fact that the only forces acting on the plate are
pressure forces, which by definition act normal to the surface.
Looking at the relationships between lift & drag coefficients on one hand and
normal & axial force coefficients on the other:

Cl = Cn cos ! " Ca sin ! # Cl $ Cn " Ca !

Cd = Cn sin ! + Ca cos ! # Cd $ Cn ! + Ca

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 164

since we have assumed small perturbations ! " is small
!cos " # 1 and sin " # "
Using Cn

Cl =

and Ca from above:

4!
=
"

4!
M #2 $1

and

The lift to drag ratio is given by

Cd =

4! 2
=
"

4! 2
M #2 $1

Cl 1
=
Cd !

2.2 Supersonic Linear Theory

Thin airfoil theory predicts the same eq. for the lift coefficient of a thin airfoil of
arbitrary shape @ small aoa. However, the drag coefficient for a thin airfoil of
arbitrary shape has the form:

Cd =

4 2
(" + gc + gt )
!

where gc and gt are functions of the airfoil camber and thickness, respectively. Lets
find out what these functions are.
Consider an airfoil with finite thickness and camber at an aoa in supersonic flow.
For small perturbations, we can imagine that the pressure distribution on this airfoil
has 3 distinct contributions, which can be added linearly:
(a) A flat plate along the chord line @ !



(b) A mean camber line @ ! = 0



(c) A symmetrical thickness envelope

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 164

Each geometric feature changes the flow direction by a certain angle, as shown in
the sketches above. Adding all these changes to the flow direction:

! u = "# + $! z + $! t
! l = "# + $! z " $! t

2.2.1 Lift
L"
=
q# c

cl !

pl $ pu
dx =
q# c

% (c

& x)
$ c pu d ( +
' c*

pl

For a flat plate @ ! using C p =

4!
"

cl =

# x&
d % ( )
$ c'

2!
#
"

mean camber line ! no contribution to the lift

thickness envelope ! no contribution to the lift

4
a0 =
Hence


and
!

cl =

4!

"

2.2.2

Moment

c p $ p
1
M LE
x & x)
"
l
u
=
$
x
dx
=
$
c pl $ c pu d ( +
2
2
%
%
0
0
q# c
q# c
c ' c*

cmLE !

For a flat plate @ ! :

( )
cmLE

="

4!
#

( )

x $ x'
*0 c d &% c )( + cmLE
1

For the mean camber line:

4 1
x $ x'
cmLE = + * "# z d & ) + cmLE
z
! 0
c % c(

( )

( )
K1 =

! LO = 0

x # x&
!" z d % (
0
c $ c '

=!

2!
c
= ! l ! midpoint is the cp
"
2

= a0 K1

depends only on the shape of the mean camber line

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 164

Mean camber line contributes no lift ! moment of mean camber line is a couple.
Midpoint is the point about which cm is independent of ! ! midpoint is the ac

2.2.3

Drag

For a flat plate @ ! : N sin ! = D

cl cl2
c
!
c
!
=
c
=
" ( cd )! = a0! 2
( d )! l
l
a0 a0

For the mean camber line:

c p ! p
4 1
x
2
( cd )z = ! ,0 l u #$ z dx = ,0 ( #$ z ) d &(' )+* - ( cd )z = a0 K 2
q" c
%
c

K2 =

) ( !" )
1

# x&
d% (
$ c'

depends only on the shape of the mean camber line

For the symmetrical thickness envelope:

4 1
x
( cd )t = +0 ( "#t )2 d $&% ')( * ( cd )t = a0 K 3
!
c

K3 =

) ( !" )
1

# x&
d% (
$ c'

depends only on the shape of the thickness envelope

Total airfoil drag:

cd = ( cd )! + ( cd )z + ( cd )t

cl2
= a0 ( K 2 + K 3 ) +
= a0 ! 2 + K 2 + K 3
a0

For an airfoil of given thickness t/c, it can be shown that the shape with the least
profile drag is the symmetrical wedge:





2
! tm $
cd = a0 # &
K 2 = 0
" c%

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 164

3.0 SUPERSONIC WINGS

Supersonic flight will always be more expensive than subsonic flight because, as we
have seen:

cDM !1 ! cDM "1

Therefore, more fuel will always be required for supersonic flight than for subsonic
flight.
However, a well designed supersonic aircraft has commercial potential. Several are
currently on the drawing boards, along with supersonic business jets. The demands
of the traveling public will determine whether supersonic travel will become a
reality. It is certainly well within the ability of aeronautical engineers to build a safe
and reasonably efficient supersonic aircraft in the speed range from ~ M = 2 to M =
5.
As mentioned above, swept wings are the second option an aircraft designer has to
minimize supersonic drag caused by a bow shock wave.
In our study of subsonic flow we saw that swept wings raise Mcr thus making
modern airliners more efficient at high subsonic speeds. Sweep angle can also
reduce the effect of the bow wave in supersonic flight.
Every part of the airplane, which strikes the airflow and slows it to subsonic speeds
produces a bow shock wave. This shock wave sweeps back at an angle known as the
Mach angle:

= arcsin (1 / M ! )
For example, an aircraft flying @ M = 2 produces shock waves which trail back at a
30 degree angle. These are of course oblique shock waves.
The airflow behind an oblique shock wave is still supersonic, although it is slowed
down. However, the component of the airflow at right angles to the oblique shock
wave is always subsonic.
If a wing is placed behind the shock, then the air flowing at right angles over that
wing will be subsonic, even though the aircraft is flying faster than the speed of
sound. Therefore, a subsonic airfoil, with round LE can be used without creating a
bow wave.
In order for the above procedure to work the wings must be swept back behind the
Mach angle. For example, to fly at Mach 2 the wings should be swept at least 30
degrees. To fly even faster will require more sweep. However, as long as the
designer can accommodate this requirement the wing will react as though it is in
subsonic flight. Therefore, the designer will be able to use a conventional airfoil

Dr. Nikos J. Mourtos AE 164

with a round LE. The air will flow smoothly around this wing and no bow wave will
form. This is the design strategy of choice for most modern supersonic designs.
The primary advantage of using the swept wing, with a round LE airfoil is that low
speed characteristics, including stall, will be good resulting in acceptable takeoff and
landing performance.
On the other hand, a highly swept wing stalls @ a very large angle of attack, which
makes it difficult for the pilot to see the runway during an approach. Furthermore,
its lateral stability deteriorates making control difficult.

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