A PROJECT

ON
JOB ANALYSIS
SUBMITTED TO
UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI
INTHE PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE M.COM DEGREE (SEM) - I
BY
SIDDIQUI IFFAT JAHAN
ROLL NO. 95
UNDER THE GUIDANCE
PROF. SANDEEP R. SAHU
STUDING AT
RIZVI COLLEGE OF ARTS, COMMERCE AND SCIENCE
RIZVI EDUCATIONAL COMPLEX, BANDRA (WEST)
MUMBAI -400050
ACADIMIC YEAR
2014-2015

Declaration
I, Siddiqui Iffat Jahan student of M.COM-I class, Roll No; 95
of the academic year 2014-2015 studying at Rizvi College
of Arts, Science & Commerce, hereby declare that the
work done on the project entitled JOB ANALYSIS is true
and original to the best of my knowledge and any reference
used in the project is duly acknowledged.

Date : ________________

Signature of student : ______________

(Name of the student) : Siddiqui Iffat Jahan

Certification
This is to certify that Siddiqui Iffat Jahan student of M. COM -I class, Roll No : 95
of the academic year 2014-2015 studying at Rizvi College of Arts, Science &
Commerce; has successfully completed the project entitled
JOB ANALYSIS

____________________________
PROF. SANDEEP R. SAHU
(Project Guide)

________________________

______________________
Prof, _________________
(M.Com Co-ordinator)

____________________

External Examiner
DR. FAROOQUI M. Z.
(Principal)

Acknowledgement

I, Siddiqui Iffat Jahan (Roll No 95) student of Class; M.com -I, duly acknowledge
my respected Prof. _____________________ for his unending support and
guidance in helping me out in completing my project for the subject of
JOB ANALYSIS

JOB ANALYSIS
MEANING AND DEFINTION:
Job analysis (also known as Work analysis) is a family of procedures to identify the content
of a job in terms of activities involved and attributes or job requirements needed to perform
the activities. Job analyses provide information to organizations which helps to determine
which employees are best fit for specific jobs. Through job analysis, the analyst needs to
understand what the important tasks of the job are, how they are carried out, and the
necessary human qualities needed to complete the job successfully.The process of job
analysis involves the analyst describing the duties of the incumbent, then the nature and
conditions of work, and finally some basic qualifications. After this, the job analyst has
completed a form called a job psychograph, which displays the mental requirements of the
job. The measure of a sound job analysis is a valid task list. This list contains the functional
or duty areas of a position, the related tasks, and the basic training recommendations. Subject
matter experts (incumbents) and supervisors for the position being analyzed need to validate
this final list in order to validate the job analysis. Job analysis is crucial for first, helping
individuals develop their careers, and also for helping organizations develop their employees
in order to maximize talent. The outcomes of job analysis are key influences in designing
learning, developing performance interventions, and improving processes. The application of
job analysis techniques makes the implicit assumption that information about a job as it
presently exists may be used to develop programs to recruit, select, train, and appraise people
for the job as it will exist in the future.
Job analysts are typically industrial-organizational (I-O) psychologists or human resource
officers who have been trained by, and are acting under the supervision of an I-O
psychologist. One of the first I-O psychologists to introduce job analysis was Morris Viteles.
In 1922, he used job analysis in order to select employees for a trolley car company.

Viteles' techniques could then be applied to any other area of employment using the same
process.Job analysis was also conceptualized by two of the founders of I-O psychology,
Frederick Winslow Taylor and Lillian Moller Gilbreth in the early 20th century.Since then,
experts have presented many different systems to accomplish job analysis that have become
increasingly detailed over the decades. However, evidence shows that the root purpose of job
analysis, understanding the behavioural requirements of work, has not changed in over 85
years.

PURPOSE:
One of the main purposes of conducting job analysis is to prepare job descriptions and job
specifications which in turn helps hire the right quality of workforce into an organization. The
general purpose of job analysis is to document the requirements of a job and the work
performed. Job and task analysis is performed as a basis for later improvements, including:
definition of a job domain; description of a job; development of performance appraisals,
personnel selection, selection systems, promotion criteria, training needs assessment, legal
defense of selection processes, and compensation plans. The human performance
improvement industry uses job analysis to make sure training and development activities are
focused and effective. In the fields of human resources (HR) and industrial psychology, job
analysis is often used to gather information for use in personnel selection, training,
classification, and/or compensation.

Industrial psychologists use job analysis to determine the physical requirements of a job to
determine whether an individual who has suffered some diminished capacity is capable of
performing the job with, or without, some accommodation. Edwin Flieshman, Ph.D. is
credited with determining the underlying factors of human physical fitness.

Professionals developing certification exams use job analysis (often called something
slightly different, such as "task analysis" or "work analysis") to determine the elements of the
domain which must be sampled in order to create a content valid exam. When a job analysis

is conducted for the purpose of valuing the job (i.e., determining the appropriate
compensation for incumbents) this is called "job evaluation."

Job analysis aims to answer questions such as:

Why does the job exist?

What physical and mental activities does the worker undertake?
When is the job to be performed?
Where is the job to be performed?
How does the worker do the job?
What qualifications are needed to perform the job?

Procedures
As stated before, the purpose of job analysis is to combine the task demands of a job with our
knowledge of human attributes and produce a theory of behaviour for the job in question.
There are two ways to approach building that theory, meaning there are two different
approaches to job analysis.

Task-oriented
Task-oriented procedures focus on the actual activities involved in performing work. This
procedure takes into consideration work duties, responsibilities, and functions. The job
analyst then develops task statements which clearly state the tasks that are performed with
great detail. After creating task statements, job analysts rate the tasks on scales indicating
importance, difficulty, frequency, and consequences of error.
Based on these ratings, a greater sense of understanding of a job can be attained.Task
analysis, such as cognitively oriented task analysis (COTA), are techniques used to describe
job expertise. For example, the job analysts may tour the job site and observe workers
performing their jobs. During the tour the analyst may collect materials that directly or
indirectly indicate required skills (duty statements, instructions, safety manuals, quality

charts, etc.).Functional job analysis (FJA) is a classic example of a task-oriented technique.

Developed by Fine and Cronshaw in 1944, work elements are scored in terms of relatedness
to data (06), people (08), and things (06), with lower scores representing greater
complexity. Incumbents, considered subject matter experts (SMEs), are relied upon, usually
in a panel, to report elements of their work to the job analyst.

Worker-oriented
Worker-oriented procedures aim to examine the human attributes needed to perform the job
successfully. These human attributes have been commonly classified into four categories:
knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAO). Knowledge is the information
people need in order to perform the job. Skills are the proficiencies needed to perform each
task. Abilities are the attributes that are relatively stable over time.

Other characteristics are all other attributes, usually personality factors. The KSAOs required
for a job are inferred from the most frequently-occurring, important tasks. In a workeroriented job analysis, the skills are inferred from tasks and the skills are rated directly in
terms of importance of frequency. This often results in data that immediately imply the
important KSAOs. However, it can be hard for SMEs to rate skills directly.

The Fleishman Job Analysis System (F-JAS) developed by Edwin A. Fleishman represents a
worker-oriented approach. Fleishman factor-analyzed large data sets to discover a common,
minimum set of KSAOs across different jobs. His system of 73 specific scales measure three
broad areas: Cognitive (Verbal Abilities; Idea Generation & Reasoning Abilities; Quantitative
Abilities; Memory; Perceptual Abilities; Spatial Abilities; and Attentiveness), Psychomotor
(Fine Manipulative Abilities; Control Movement Abilities; and Reaction Time and Speed
Abilities), and Physical (Physical Strength Abilities; Endurance; Flexibility, Balance, and
Coordination; Visual Abilities; and Auditory and Speech Abilities).

JOB SCAN
JobScan is a measurement instrument which defines the personality dynamics within a
specific type of job. By collecting PDP ProScan Survey results of actual performers and
results of job dynamics analysis surveys completed by knowledgeable people related to a
specific job, JobScan provides a suggested ideal job model for that position. Although it does
not evaluate the intellect or experience necessary to accomplish a task, it does deal with the
personality of the type of work itself.
For Example
For the job of a snow-cat operator at a ski slope, a work or task-oriented job analysis might
include this statement: Operates Bombardier Sno-cat, usually at night, to smooth out snow
rutted by skiers and snowboard riders and new snow that has fallen. On the other hand, a
worker-oriented job analysis might include this statement: Evaluates terrain, snow depth, and
snow condition and chooses the correct setting for the depth of the snow cat, as well as the
number of passes necessary on a given ski slope.
Job analysis methods have evolved using both task-oriented and worker-oriented approaches.
Since the end result of both approaches is a statement of KSAOs, neither can be considered
the "correct" way to conduct job analysis. Because worker-oriented job analyses tend to
provide more generalized human behavior and behavior patterns and are less tied to the
technological parts of a job, they produce data more useful for developing training programs
and giving feed back to employees in the form of performance appraisal information.
Also, the volatility that exists in the typical workplace of today can make specific task
statements less valuable in isolation. For these reasons, employers are significantly more
likely to use worker-oriented approaches to job analysis today than they were in the past.

Knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics (KSAOs)

Regardless of which approach to job analysis is taken, the next step in the process is to
identify the attributesthe KSAOs that an incumbent needs for either performing the tasks at
hand or executing the human behaviors described in the job analysis.

Methods
Finally, once the appropriate KSAOs are identified, tests and other assessment techniques can
be chosen to measure those KSAOs. Over the years, experts have presented several different
systems and methods to accomplish job analysis. Many forms of systems are no longer in
use, but those systems that still exist have become increasingly detailed over the decades with
a greater concentration on tasks and less concentration on human attributes. That trend,
however, has reversed in recent years for the better. Newer methods and systems have
brought I-O psychology back to an examination of the behavioural aspects of work.

There are several ways to conduct a job analysis, including: interviews

with incumbents and supervisors, work sampling,the repertory grid technique, questionnaires
(structured, open-ended, or both), observation, critical incident investigations, hierarchical
task analysis, and gathering background information such as duty statements or classification
specifications. In job analyses conducted by HR professionals, it is common to use more than
one of these methods.

Traditional job analysis methods of analysis can be laborious and time

consuming, and there is always a tendency on the part of management to over analyze some
jobs and under analyze some others. These traditional job analysis methods include: one-onone interviewing; behavioral event interviews; phone interviews; surveys; work assessments;
Developing a Curriculum (DACUM); job analysis worksheets; observations and procedural
review.Job analysis at the speed of reality. Amherst, Mass.: HRD Press. All of these methods
can be used to gather information for job analysis. The DACUM process developed in the

late 1960s has been viewed as the fastest method used, but it can still can take two or three
days to obtain a validated task list.

Observation:
This was the first method of job analysis used by I-O psychologists. The process involves
simply watching incumbents perform their jobs and taking notes. Sometimes they ask
questions while watching, and commonly they even perform job tasks themselves. Near the
end of World War II, Morris Viteles studied the job of navigator on a submarine. He
attempted to steer the submarine toward Bermuda. After multiple misses by over 100 miles in
one direction or another, one officer suggested that Viteles raise the periscope, look for
clouds, and steer toward them since clouds tend to form above or near land masses. The
vessel reached Bermuda shortly after that suggestion. The more jobs one seriously observes,
the better one's understanding becomes of both the jobs in question and work in general.

Interviews: It is essential to supplement observation by talking with incumbents. These

interviews are most effective when structured with a specific set of questions based on
observations, other analyses of the types of jobs in question, or prior discussions with human
resources representatives, trainers, or managers knowledgeable about jobs.

Critical incidents and work diaries: The critical incident technique asks subject
matter experts to identify critical aspects of behaviour or performance in a particular job that
led to success or failure. For example, the supervisor of an electric utility repairman might
report that in a very time-pressing project, the repairman failed to check a blueprint and as a
result cut a line, causing a massive power loss. In fact, this is what happened in Los Angeles
in September 2005 when half the city lost power over a period of 12 hours. The second

method, a work diary, asks workers and/or supervisors to keep a log of activities over a
prescribed period of time. They may be asked to simply write down what they were doing at
15 minutes after the hour for each hour of the work day. Or, they may list everything they
have done up to a break.

Questionnaires and surveys: Expert incumbents or supervisors often respond to

questionnaires or surveys as a part of job analysis. These questionnaires include task
statements in the form of worker behaviours. Subject matter experts are asked to rate each
statement form their experience on a number of different dimensions like importance to
overall job success, frequency performance and whether the task must be performed on the
first day of work or can be learned gradually on the job.
Questionnaires also ask incumbents to rate the importance of KSAOs for performing tasks,
and may ask the subject matter experts to rate work context. Unlike the results of
observations and interviews, the questionnaire responses can be statistically analyzed to
provide a more objective record of the components of the job. To a greater and greater extent,
these questionnaires and surveys are being administered online to incumbents.

Position Analysis Questionnaire: The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is a wellknown job analysis instrument. Although it is labelled a questionnaire, the PAQ is actually
designed to be completed by a trained job analyst who interviews the SMEs (e.g., job
incumbents and their supervisors). The PAQ was designed to measure job component validity
of attributes presented in aptitude tests. Job component validity is the relationship between
test scores and skills required for good job performance. There are 195 behaviour-related
statements in the PAQ divided into six major sections: information input, mental process,
work output, relationships with others, job context, and other job characteristics.

Checklists: Checklists are also used as a job analysis method, specifically with areas like the
Air Force. In the checklist method, the incumbent checks the tasks he or she performs from a
list of task statements that describe the job. The checklist is preceded by some sort of job
analysis and is usually followed by the development of work activity compilations or job
descriptions. The scope of task statements listed depends upon the judgment of the checklist
constructor.

Six steps
1. Decide how to use the information since this will determine the data to collect and
how to collect it. Some data collection techniques such as interviewing the employee
and asking what the job entails are good for writing job descriptions and selecting
employees for the job. Other techniques like the position analysis questionnaire do not
provide qualitative information for job descriptions. Rather, they provide numerical
ratings for each job and can be used to compare jobs for compensation purposes.
2. Review appropriate background information like organization charts, process charts,
and job descriptions. Organization charts show the organization-wide work division,
how the job in question relates to other jobs, and where the job fits in the overall
organization. The chart should show the title of each position and, through connecting
lines, show reports to whom and with whom the job incumbent communicates. A
process chart provides a more detailed picture of the work flow. In its simplest, most
organic form, a process chart shows the flow of inputs to and outputs from the job
being analyzed. Finally, the existing job description (if there is one) usually provides a
starting point for building the revised job description.
3. Select representative positions. This is because there may be too many similar jobs to
analyze. For example, it is usually unnecessary to analyze jobs of 200 assembly
workers when a sample of 10 jobs will be sufficient.

4. Actually analyze the job by collecting data on job activities, necessary employee
behaviours and actions, working conditions, and human traits and abilities required to
perform the job. For this step, one or more than one methods of job analysis may be
needed
5. Verify the job analysis information with the worker performing the job and with his or
her immediate supervisor. This will help confirm that the information is factually
correct and complete. This review can also help gain the employee's acceptance of the
job analysis data and conclusions by giving that person a chance to review and modify
descriptions of the job activities.
6. Develop a job description and job specification. These are two tangible products of
the job analysis process. The job description is a written statement that describes the
activities and responsibilities of the job as well as its important features such as
working conditions and safety hazards. The job specification summarizes the personal
qualities, traits, skills, and background required for completing a certain job. These
two may be completely separate or in the same document.

Uses of information
Recruitment and selection: Job analysis provides information about what the job entails
and what human characteristics are required in order to perform these activities. This
information, in the form of job descriptions and specifications, helps management officials
decide what sort of people they need to recruit and hire and select.
Compensation: Job analysis information is crucial for estimating the value of each job and
its appropriate compensation. Compensation (salary and bonus) usually depends on the job's
required skill and education level, safety hazards, degree of responsibility, etc. -- all factors
which can be assessed through job analysis. Also, many employers group jobs into classes.
Job analysis provides the information to determine the relative worth of each job and its
appropriate class.
Performance appraisal: A performance appraisal compares each employee's actual
performance with his or her performance standards. Managers use job analysis to determine
the job's specific activities and performance standards.

Training: The job description should show the activities and skills, and therefore training,
that the job requires
Discovering unassigned duties: Job Analysis can also help reveal unassigned duties. For
example, a company's production manager says an employee is responsible for ten duties,
such as production scheduling and raw material purchasing. Missing, however, is any
reference to managing raw material inventories. On further study, it is revealed that none of
the other manufacturing employees are responsible for inventory management, either. From
review of other jobs like these, it is clear that someone should be managing raw material
inventories. Therefore, an essential unassigned duty has been revealed.
EEO compliance: Job analysis plays a large role in EEO compliance. United States Federal
Agencies' Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection stipulate that job analysis is a
necessary step in validating all major personnel activities. For example, employers must be
able to show that their selection criteria and job performance are actually related. Doing this
requires knowing what the job entails, which in turn requires job analysis.

Job Analysis at the Speed of Reality (JASR)

The Job Analysis at the Speed of Reality (JASR) method for job analysis is a reliable, proven
method to quickly create validated task lists. The end product, which can be used for many
purposes, is the basis for many potential training opportunities. This method is a tested
process that helps analysts complete a job analysis of a typical job with a group of subject
matter experts and managers in two to three hours then deliver a validated task list.
Job incumbents should know their jobs better than anyone else. They can provide accurate,
timely content information about the job.
JASR participants want to spend a minimum amount of time providing job data during a
session and business leadership wants to minimize disruption to business operations.
Since JASR participants do not spend as much time thinking about training as training
professionals do, they do not require much orientation to the process.

Systems

For many years, the U.S. Department of labour published the Dictionary of Occupational
Titles, which was a comprehensive description of over 20,000 jobs. However, the Department
replaced the DOT with O NET online database, which includes all occupations from the DOT
plus an additional 3,500. This makes O NET very useful for job analysis.
The O*Net (an online resource which has replaced the Dictionary of Occupational Titles
(DOT)) lists job requirements for a variety of jobs and is often considered basic, generic, or
initial job analysis data. Everyone can use this database at no cost and is continually updated
by observing workers from each occupation. O*net also has a Career Exploration Tool which
is an assessment to help workers and students who are searching for new careers.
Data available from O*Net includes physical requirements, educational level, and some
mental requirements. Task-based statements describing the work performed are derived from
the functional job analysis technique. O*Net also provides links to salary data at the US
national, state and city level for each job.

O*NET was designed with several features in mind, including:

The inclusion of multiple descriptors and content domains to capture the range of ways that
work can be described
The development of cross-job descriptors in order to enable comparisons between various
jobs
The use of a taxonomic approach to occupational classification to enable full coverage
within a content domain

Using these principles, a content model was developed that identified six content domains
and specific categories within each domain. These six domains and categories within them
include:
1. Worker characteristics: enduring individual attributes that influence the capacities
workers can develop - abilities, occupational values and interests, and work styles

2. Worker requirements: general attributes developed through education and

experience, thus are more amenable to change than worker characteristics knowledge skills and education
3. Occupational requirements: descriptors of the work itself rather than the worker Generalized work activities, work context, and organizational context
4. Experience requirements: types and quantities of experience required for specific
occupations - worker experience in other jobs, related training, on-the-job training,
and certification requirements
5. Individual occupation characteristics: reflects labor demand, supply, and other
labor market information
6. Occupation-specific requirements: information unique to a particular job occupation-specific skills and knowledge, tasks and duties, and equipment used.
In modern United States
Over the past years, the concept of job analysis has been changing dramatically. One observer
put it: "The modern world is on the verge of another huge leap in creativity and productivity,
but the job is not going to be part of tomorrow's economic reality. There still is and will
always be an enormous amount of work to do, but it is not going to be contained in the
familiar envelopes we call jobs. In fact, many organizations are today well along the path
toward being "de-jobbed."
Jobs and job descriptions, until recently, tended to follow their prescriptions and to be fairly
detailed and specific. By the mid-1900s writers were reacting to what they viewed as
"dehumanizing" aspects of pigeonholing workings into highly repetitive and specialized jobs;
many proposed solutions like job enlargement, job rotation, and job enrichment. Job
enlargement means assigning workers additional same-level tasks, thus increasing the number
of activities they perform. Job rotation means systematically moving workers from one job to
another.
Psychologist Frederick Herzberg argued that the best way to motivate workers is to build
opportunities for challenge and achievement into their jobs through job enrichment. Job

enrichment means re-designing jobs in a way that increases the opportunities for the worker
to experience feelings of responsibility, achievement, growth and recognition.
Whether enriched, specialized or enlarged, workers still generally have specific jobs to do,
and these jobs have required job descriptions. In many firms today, however, jobs are
becoming more amorphous and difficult to define. In other words, the trend is toward
dejobbing.
Dejobbing, broadening the responsibilities of the company's jobs, and encouraging
employees to not limit themselves to what's on their job descriptions, is a result of the
changes taking place in business today. Organizations need to grapple with trends like rapid
product and technological changes, and a shift to a service economy. This has increased the
need for firms to be responsive, flexible, and generally more competitive.
In turn,the organizational methods managers use to accomplish this have helped weaken the
meaning of JOB as a well-defined ad clearly delineated set of responsibilities. Here are some
methods that have contributed to this weakening of JOB's meaning:
Flatter organizations: Instead of traditional pyramid-shaped organizations with seven or
more management layers, flat organizations with only three or four levels are becoming more
prevalent
Work teams: Managers increasingly organize tasks around teams and processes rather than
around specialized functions. In an organization like this, employees' jobs change daily and
there is an intentional effort to avoid having employees view their jobs as a specific set of
responsibilities.
The Boundaryless Organization: In a boundaryless organization, the widespread use of
teams and similar structural mechanisms reduces and makes more permeable the boundaries
that typically separate departments and hierarchical levels. These organizations foster
responsiveness by encouraging employees to rid themselves of the 'its not my job' attitudes
that typically create walls between one employee's area and another's. Instead, the focus is on
defining the project or task at hand in terms of the overall best interests of the organization,
therefore further reducing the idea of a job as a clearly defined set of duties.
Most firms today continue to use job analysis and rely on jobs as traditionally defined. More
firms are moving toward new organizational configurations built around jobs that are broad

and could change daily. Also, modern job analysis and job design techniques could help
companies implement high-performance strategies. JASR uses the quickest methods and best
possible technology to complete the job analysis.

PROCESS OF JOB ANAYLISIS

The process of job analysis must be conducted in a logical manner, following appropriate
management and professional psychometric practices. Therefore, a multistage process usually
is followed, regardless of the job analysis methods used. The stages for a typical job analysis
are outlined here, but they may vary with the methods used and the number of jobs included.
Figure illustrates the basic stages of the process.
1. Planning

of

Job

Analysis

It is crucial that the job analysis process be planned before beginning the gathering of
data from managers and employees. Probably the most important consideration is to
identify the objectives of the job analysis. Maybe it is just to update job descriptions.
Or, it may include as an outcome revising the compensation programs in the
organization. Another objective could be to redesign the jobs in a department or
division of the organization. Also, it could be to change the structure in parts of the
organization

to

align

it

better

with

business

strategies.

Whatever the purpose identified, it is vital to obtain top management support. The
backing of senior managers is needed as issues arise regarding changes in jobs or the
organizational structure. Support from even the highest levels of management helps
when managerial and employee anxieties and resistance arise.
2. Preparing and Introducing Job anaylisis
Preparation begins by identifying the jobs under review. For example, are the jobs to
be analyzed hourly jobs, clerical jobs, all jobs in one division, or all jobs in the entire
organization? In this phase, those who will be involved in conducting the job analysis
and the methods to be used are identified.
Also specified is how current incumbents and managers will participate in the process
and how many employees jobs will be considered.
Another task in the identification phase is to review existing documentation.Existing
job descriptions, organization charts, previous job analysis information, and other

industry-related resources all may be useful to review. Having details from this review
may save time and effort later in the process.A crucial step is to communicate and
explain the process to managers, affected employees, and other concerned people,
such as union stewards. Explanations should address the natural concerns and
anxieties people have when someone puts their jobs under close scrutiny. Items to be
covered often include the purpose of the job analysis, the steps involved, the time
schedule, how managers and employees will participate, who is doing the analysis,
and whom to contact as questions arise. When employees are represented by a union,
it is essential that union representatives be included in reviewing the job descriptions
and specifications to lessen the possibility of future conflicts.
3. Conducting Job Analyisis
With the preparation completed, the job analysis can be conducted. The methods
selected will determine the time line for the project. Sufficient time should be allotted
for obtaining the information from employees and managers. If questionnaires are
used, it is often helpful to have employees return them to supervisors or managers for
review before giving them back to those conducting the job analysis. The
questionnaire should be accompanied by a letter explaining the process and
instructions for completing and returning the job analysis questionnaires.
Once data from job analysis has been compiled, it should be sorted by job, the job
family, and organizational unit. This step allows for comparison of data from similar
jobs throughout the organization. The data also should be reviewed for completeness,
and follow-up may be needed in the form of additional interviews or questions to be
answered by managers and employees.
4.

Developing

Job

Descriptions

and

Job

Specifications

At this stage the job analysts will prepare draft job descriptions and job specifications.
Later in this chapter is a section discussing details on how to write job descriptions
and job specifications. Our purpose here is to emphasize that the drafts should be
relatively complete and identify areas where additional clarifications are needed.
Generally, organizations have found that having managers and employees write job
descriptions is not recommended for several reasons. First, there is no consistency in

format and details, both of which are important given the legal consequences of job
descriptions. Second, managers and employees vary in their writing skills. Also, they
may write the job descriptions and job specifications to reflect what they do and what
their

personal

qualifications

are,

not

what

the

job

requires.

Once the drafts are completed, they should be reviewed by managers. Whether
employees review the drafts or wait to receive the final job descriptions is often
determined by the managerial style of the supervisors/managers and the culture of the
organization regarding employee participation and communication. When finished,
job descriptions are distributed by the HR department to managers, supervisors, and
employees. It is important that each supervisor or manager review the completed
description with individual employees so that there is understanding and agreement
on the content that will be linked to performance appraisals, as well as to all other HR
activities.
5.

Maintaining

and

Updating

Job

Descriptions

and

Job

Specifications

Once job descriptions and specifications have been completed and reviewed by all
appropriate individuals, a system must be developed for keeping them current. Otherwise, the
entire process, beginning with job analysis, may have to be repeated in several years. Because
organizations are dynamic and evolving entities, rarely do all jobs stay the same for years.
Someone in the HR department usually has responsibility for ensuring that job descriptions
and specifications stay current. Employees performing the jobs and their managers play a
crucial role because, as those closest to the jobs, they know when changes occur. One
effective way to ensure that appropriate reviews occur is to use job descriptions and job
specifications

in

other

HR

activities.

For example, each time a vacancy occurs, the job description and specifications should be
reviewed and revised as appropriate before recruiting and selection efforts begin. Similarly, in
some organizations, managers review the job description during each performanceappraisal
interview. This review enables the job holder and the supervisor to discuss whether the job
description still describes the actual job adequately or whether it needs to be revised. In
addition, a comprehensive and systematic review may be done during HR planning efforts.

For many organizations, a complete review is made once every three years, or as technology
shifts occur, and more frequently when major organizational changes are made.
Benefits of Job analysis
A job analysis consists of a thorough analysis of the job duties and knowledge, skills,
abilities, and personal characteristics (KSAPCs) required for success in a certain position.
However, a job analysis can sometimes take a substantial amount of time and effort. So why
should an organization consider performing a job analysis?
The primary reason an organization will perform a job analysis is to ensure the selection
procedures they use to choose between job applicants are valid and defensible. Practically
speaking, a valid selection procedure is one that accurately measures the actual requirements
of the job in a fair and reliable way. A valid selection procedure should measure only
knowledge, skills, abilities, and personal characteristics that the job analysis has identified as
being required to perform important and/or critical job duties. Essentially, a valid selection
procedure should only measure the qualifications that are really needed for the job.
In the legal realm, a selection procedure is valid if it can be proven by an employer in
litigation that it is "... job related and consistent with business necessity" (see Griggs v. Duke
Power Co., 401 U.S. 424 ,1971), to address the requirements of the various federal Civil
Rights Act. This standard is usually met (or not) by arguing how the selection procedure
address, (1) the federal Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1978); (2)
professional testing standards, such as, but not limited to, the Society for Industrial and
Organizational Psychologys Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection
Procedures (SIOP Principles, 2003) and the American Psychological Associations Standards
for Education and Psychological Testing (APA Standards, 1999); and three (3) court decisions
that have examined the validity of employment testing in various settings.
Academically speaking, the SIOP Principles and APA Standards have adopted the same
definition for validity: "The degree to which accumulated evidence and theory support
specific interpretations of test scores entailed by proposed uses of a test."
Conducting a job analysis is important because organizations are being asked to work leaner
and more efficiently while developing growth and innovation. Its important to be aware of

the critical responsibilities for each position, especially those that are considered strategic in
nature, and those that impact the customer and the bottom line. In addition to determining the
critical tasks associated with each job, its crucial to identify the desired knowledge, abilities,
skill sets and other preferred characteristics.
Job analysis serves as the foundation for helping select the right people into an organization,
in terms of job fit as well as cultural fit. A job analysis allows companies to not only create
better selection systems, but also create effective training development programs,
compensation and talent management systems. Often organizations hire for technical ability
and fire for personality flaws. Organizations should consider hiring for both experience and
cultural fit. Job analysis provides the needed data. In the event an organization is challenged
legally, the court will look to see if a job analysis was done properly and if the selection
system was considered to be job-relevant. Organizations should take a proactive approach to
minimize legal challenges. So here are some benefits of Job analysis given below:
Organizational structure and design: - Job analysis helps in preparing the
organization chart and the organizational structure. Classification of the jobs relation of each
job with one another and various positions and hierarchy of the positions is determined.
Man power planning:- Job analysis provides the qualitative aspect of the jobs in the
organization. It determines the demands of job in terms of duties to be performed,
qualification of person skills required in the employee. It is a tool which is used for matching
job with men.
Recruitment and selection: - Job analysis helps to hire future human resource. It helps to
recruit and select the right kind of people for the jobs available in the organization. It
provides information necessary to select the right person by its immediate products i.e. job
description and job specification.

Performance appraisal and training/development: - Based on the job

requirements identification of the training needs of the persons can be done easily. Training is
given in those areas which will help to improve the performance on the job. Training
programme can be designed according to the need and can be made effective.

Job evaluation: - Job evaluation refers to studying in detail the job performance by all
individual. The difficulty levels, skills required and on that basis the salary is fixed.
Information regarding qualities required, skilled levels, difficulty levels are obtained from job
analysis and worth (price) of the job is determined.

Promotions and transfer: - When we give a promotion to an employee we need to

promote him on the basis of the skill and talent required for the future job. Similarly when we
transfer an employee to another branch the job must be very similar to what he has done
before. To take these decisions we collect information from job analysis.

Career path planning / Employee counseling : - Many companies have not taken up
career planning for their employees. This is done to prevent the employee from leaving the
company. Employees are informed about the limitations of jobs in terms of development and
are guided to take required steps for their future development. Job analysis provides such
information regarding the areas in which a person requires modification for better career
options.

Health and safety: - Job analysis provides the risk factor related to particular job and thus
action required for the safety of the employees can be taken. Unsafe operations can be
eliminated or can be replaced by safe one or the safety equipments can be installed.

Performance Appraisal: - By comparing actual performance of the employees to the

standard established organization can decide the personnel activities like promotion
increments incentives or corrective actions to enhance job performance. These standards are
established using information provided by job analysis.
The Basic Components of job analysis are as follows:

Job Title
The formal position of the successful applicant. Use clear terminology.

Organization Name
The name of your organization.

Job Objective
Describe the general nature, purpose and objective of both the organization and the job.
Capture the broad scope of the position in no more than three or four sentences.

Duties and Responsibilities

Identify functions that are essential to meeting the objectives of the job, and secondary
requirements. These should be differentiated in the job description. As specifically as
possible, list each duty and responsibility of the job. Each statement should begin with an
action verb describing the activity. Examples of action verbs: performs, drives, cooks,
coaches, monitors, plans, delivers, supervises, recommends, analyzes, paints, weeds, answers,
trains, verifies, sells, organizes, files.

Qualifications and Requirements

Identify the minimum qualifications needed to perform the essential elements of the job:
education, languages, experience, credentials (for example, to practice in a profession or to
operate equipment), skills, and knowledge. Draw attention to any critical expertise or skills.
Say whether experience will be viewed as equivalent to formal education requirements. Be
careful not to inflate the qualifications for the job. If only a high school education is
necessary, make this the minimum requirement rather than a university degree.

Lines of Communication
Identify where the position fits within the hierarchy of your organization.

Special Working Conditions

Are there are any unique working conditions that the candidate should know about - for
example, a non-office environment, or working with violent clients. It is also useful to
mention commitments your organization has to pay equity and/or employment equity.

Salary and Benefits

You may want to identify the starting salary or pay range and benefit entitlements that are
associated with the position. Mention whether the salary is fixed or falls within a range. If it
is negotiable, what factors will influence it? For example, is it dependent upon experience?
Job seekers prefer knowing as accurately as possible how much you expect to pay them.

Contact
Provide a contact name for applications and information about how job seekers can get in
touch - telephone and fax numbers, e-mail and mailing address.
Techniques of Job Analysis
Job analysis information can be gathered in a variety of ways. One consideration is who is to
conduct the job analysis. Most frequently, a member of the HR staff coordinates this effort.
Depending on which of the methods discussed next is used, others who often participate are
managers, supervisors, and employees doing the jobs. For more complex analyses, industrial
engineers

may

conduct

time

and

motion

studies.

Another consideration is the method to be used. Common methods are observations,

interviews, questionnaires, and specialized methods of analysis. Combinations of these
approaches frequently are used, depending on the situation and the organization. Each of
these methods is discussed in some detail next.

Observation
When the observation method is used, a manager, job analyst, or industrial engineer observes
the individual performing the job and takes notes to describe the tasks and duties performed.
Observation

may

be

continuous

or

based

on

intermittent

sampling.

Use of the observation method is limited because many jobs do not have complete and easily

observed job duties or complete job cycles. Thus, observation may be more useful for
repetitive jobs and in conjunction with other methods. Managers or job analysts using other
methods may watch parts of a job being performed to gain a general familiarity with the job
and the conditions under which it is performed. Multiple observations on several occasions
also will help them use some of the other job analysis methods more effectively.

WORK

SAMPLING

As a type of observation, work sampling does not require attention to each detailed action
throughout an entire work cycle. Instead, a manager can determine the content and pace of a
typical workday through statistical sampling of certain actions rather than through continuous
observation and timing of all actions. Work sampling is particularly useful for routine and
repetitive jobs.

EMPLOYEE DIARY/LOG
Another method requires that employees observe their own performances by keeping a
diary/log

of

their

job

duties,

noting

how

frequently

they are performed and the time required for each duty. Although this approach sometimes
generates useful information, it may be burdensome for employees to compile an accurate
log. Also, employees sometimes perceive this approach as creating needless documentation
that

detracts

from

the

performance

of

their

work.

Interviewing
The interview method of gathering information requires that a manager or HR specialist visit
each job site and talk with the employees performing each job. A standardized interview form
is used most often to record the information. Frequently, both the employee and the
employees supervisor must be interviewed to obtain a complete understanding of the job.

Some typical interview questions include:

What is the job being performed?

What are the major duties of your job position? What exactly do you do?

What physical locations do you work in?

What are the education, experience, skill, and [where applicable] certification and

licensing requirements?

In what activities do you participate?

What are the jobs responsibilities and duties?

What are the basic accountabilities or performance standards that typify your work?

What are your responsibilities? What are the environmental and working conditions

involved?

What are the jobs physical demands? The emotional and mental demands?

What are the health and safety conditions?

Are you exposed to any hazards or unusual working conditions?

The interview method can be quite time consuming, especially if the interviewer talks
with two or three employees doing each job. Professional and managerial jobs often are
more complicated to analyze and usually require longer interviews. For these reasons,
combining the interview with one of the other methods is suggested.

Questionnaires
The questionnaire is a widely used method of gathering data on jobs. A survey instrument
is developed and given to employees and managers to complete. The typical job
questionnaire often covers the areas shown below. The major advantage of the
questionnaire method is that information on a large number of jobs can be collected
inexpensively in a relatively short period of time. However, the questionnaire method
assumes that employees can accurately analyze and communicate information about their
jobs. Employees may vary in their perceptions of the jobs, and even in their literacy. For

these reasons, the questionnaire method is usually combined with interviews and
observations toclarify and verify the questionnaire information.
One type of questionnaire sometimes used is a checklist. Differing from the open-ended
questionnaire, the checklist offers a simplified way for employees to give information. An
obvious difficulty with the checklist is constructing it, which can be a complicated and
detailed process.
Job Analysis Questionnaire

Materials and equipment used

Financial/budgeting input
External and internal contacts
Knowledge, skills, and abilities used
Working conditions
Special duties performed less frequently
Duties and percentage of time spent on each
Work coordination and supervisory responsibilities
Physical activities and characteristics
Decisions made and discretion exercised
Records and reports prepared
Training needed

Critical incident technique.

The critical incident technique involves observation and recording of examples of particularly
effective or ineffective behaviors. Behaviors are judged to be "effective" or "ineffective" in
terms

of

results

produced

by

the

behavior.

The following information should be recorded for each "critical incident" of behavior: (1)
what led up to the incident and the situation in which it occurred; (2) exactly what the
employee did that was particularly effective or ineffective; (3) the perceived consequences or
results of the behavior; and (4) a judgment as to the degree of control an employee had over
the results his or her behavior produced (to what degree should the employee be held
responsible

for

what

resulted?).

The critical incident method differs from direct observation and work methods analysis in
that observations of behavior are not recorded as the behavior occurs, but only after the

behavior has been judged to be either particularly effective or ineffective in terms of results
produced. This means that a person using the critical incident method must describe a
behavior in retrospect, or after the fact, rather than as the activity unfolds. Accurate recording
of past observations is more difficult than recording the behaviors as they occur.
FUNCTIONAL

JOB

ANALYSIS

(FJA)

This method is a comprehensive approach to job analysis. FJA considers:

1. goals of the organization,
2. what workers do to achieve those goals in their jobs,
3. level and orientation of what workers do,
4. performance standards, and
5. training content.
A functional definition of what is done in a job can be generated by examining the three
components of data, people, and things. The levels of these components are used to identify
and compare important elements of jobs given in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles
(DOT), a standardized data source provided by the federal government.

SPECIALIZED JOB ANALYSIS METHODS

Several job analysis methods are built on the questionnaire approach. Some of these methods
are described next.

POSITION ANALYSIS QUESTIONNAIRE (PAQ)

The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) developed by McCormick, Jeanneret, and
Mecham (1972) is a structured job analysis instrument to measure job characteristics and
relate them to human characteristics.
The PAQ is a specialized questionnaire method incorporating checklists. Each job is analyzed
on 27 dimensions composed of 187 elements. The PAQ comprises six divisions, with each
division containing numerous job elements. The divisions include:

Information input: Where and how does the worker get information to do the job?
Mental process: What levels of reasoning are necessary on the job?
Work output: What physical activities are performed?
Relationships with others: What relationships are required to perform the job?
Job context: What working conditions and social contexts are involved?
Other: What else is relevant to the job?

The PAQ focuses on worker-oriented elements that describe behaviors necessary to do the
job, rather than on job-oriented elements that describe the technical aspects of the work.
Although its complexity may deter many potential users, the PAQ is easily quantified and can
be used to conduct validity studies on selection tests. It is also useful in helping to ensure
internal pay fairness because it considers the varying demands of different jobs.

MANAGERIAL JOB ANALYSIS

Because managerial jobs are different in character from jobs with clearly observable routines
and procedures, some specialized methods have evolved for their analysis. One of the most
well known and widely used methods was developed at Control Data Corporation and is
labeled the Management Position Description Questionnaire (MPDQ). Composed of a listing
of over 200 statements, the MPDQ examines a variety of managerial dimensions, including
decision making and supervising.

Computerized Job Analysis

As computer technology has expanded, researchers have developed computerized job
analysis systems. They all have several common characteristics, including the way they are
administered. First, analysts compose task statements that relate to all jobs. They are then
distributed as questionnaires that list the task statements. Next, employee responses on
computer-scannable documents are fed into computer-based scoring and reporting services
capable of recording, analyzing, and reporting thousands of pieces of information about any
job.
An important feature of computerized job analysis sources is the specificity of data that can
be gathered. All of this specific data is compiled into a job analysis database.

A computerized job analysis system often can reduce the time and effort involved in writing
job descriptions. These systems have banks of job duty statements that relate to each of the
task and scope statements of the questionnaires.
As is evident, the melding of computer technology with job analysis methodology allows
firms to develop more accurate and comprehensive job descriptions, linked to compensation
programs, and performance appraisal systems. These processes can also provide better data
for legal defensibility than was once available.

Combination Methods
There are indeed a number of different ways to obtain and analyze information about a job.
No specific job analysis method has received the stamp of approval from the various courts in
all situations. Therefore, in dealing with issues that may end up in court, care must be taken
by HR specialists and those doing the job analysis to document all of the steps taken. Each of
the methods has strengths and weaknesses, and a combination of methods generally is
preferred over one method alone.
Job Analysis is the first step in doing this, and it's a key technique for managing job overload
an important source of stress. To do an excellent job, you need to understand fully what is
expected of you. While this may seem obvious, in the hurly-burly of a new, fast-moving,
high-pressure role, it is oftentimes something that is easy to overlook.
By understanding the priorities in your job, and what constitutes success within it, you can
focus on these activities and minimize work on other tasks as much as possible. This helps
you get the greatest return from the work you do, and keep your workload under control.
Job Analysis is a useful technique for getting a firm grip on what really is important in your
job so that you are able to perform excellently. It helps you to cut through clutter and
distraction to get to the heart of what you need to do.
Note that this tool takes two forms the short-form we discuss here assumes that your
organization is already well organized and that its job descriptions, review criteria and
incentives are well-aligned and correct. The long-form (discussed within our Stress
Management Masterclass), helps you to deal with jobs where this is not the case here,
inconsistent job design can cause enormous stress.

Using the Tool

To conduct a job analysis, go through the following steps:

1. Review Formal Job Documentation

Look at your job description. Identify the key objectives and priorities within it.

Look at the forms for the periodic performance reviews. These show precisely the
behaviors that will be rewarded and, by implication, show those that will be punished.

Find out what training is available for the role. Ensure that you attend appropriate
training so that you know as much as possible about what you need to know.

Look at incentive schemes to understand the behaviors that these reward.

2. Understand the Organization's Strategy and Culture

Your job exists for a reason this will ultimately be determined by the strategy of the
organizational unit you work for. This strategy is often expressed in a mission statement. In
some way, what you do should help the organization achieve its mission (if it does not, you
have to ask yourself how secure the job is!). Make sure you understand and perform well the
tasks that contribute to the strategy.
Similarly, every organization has its own culture its own, historically developed values,
rights and wrongs, and things that it considers to be important. If you are new to an
organization, talk through with established, respected members of staff to understand these
values.
Make sure that you understand this culture. Make sure that your actions reinforce the
company's culture, or at least do not go against it. Looked at through the lens of culture, will
the company value what you do?
Check that your priorities are consistent with this mission statement and the company culture.

3. Find Out Who the Top Achievers are, and Understand Why They are
Successful
Inside or outside the organization, there may be people in a similar role to you who are seen
as highly successful. Find out how they work, and what they do to generate this success.
Look at what they do, and learn from them. Understand what skills make them successful,
and learn those skills.

4. Check You Have the People and Resources to do the Job

The next step is to check that you have the staff support, resources and training needed to do
an excellent job. If you do not, start work on obtaining them.

5. Confirm Priorities With Your Boss

By this stage, you should have a thorough understanding of what your job entails, and what
your key objectives are. You should also have a good idea of the resources that you need, and
any additional training you may need to do the best you can.
This is the time to talk the job through with your boss, and confirm that you share an
understanding of what constitutes good performance in the role.
It is also worth talking through serious inconsistencies, and agreeing how these can be
managed.

6. Take Action
You should now know what you have to do to be successful in your job. You should have a
good idea of the most important things that you have to do, and also the least important.
Where you can drop the less-important tasks, do so. Where you can de-prioritize them, do so.
Where you need more resource or training to do your job, negotiate for this.
Remember to be a little sensitive in the way you do this: Good teamwork often means helping
other people out with jobs that do not benefit you. However, do not let people take advantage

of you: Be assertive in explaining that you have your own work to do. If you cannot drop
tasks, delegate them or negotiate longer time scales.

Key Points
Job analysis is a five-step technique for:

Understanding and agreeing how to achieve peak performance in your job.

Ensuring that you and your boss agree on the areas you should concentrate on when
time gets tight; and the areas that can be de-emphasized during this time.

Making sure that you have the resources, training and staff needed to do a good job.

By using the Job Analysis technique, you should gain a good understanding of how you can
excel at your job. You should also understand your job priorities.
This helps you to manage the stress of job overload by helping to decide which jobs you
should drop.Job Analysis is just one of many practical action-oriented techniques for
reducing the stress of job overload. These and other types of technique help you to resolve
structural problems within jobs, work more effectively with your boss and powerful people,
improve the way your teams function and become more assertive so that other people respect
your right not to take on an excessive workload. These are all important techniques for
bringing job stress under control, for improving the quality of your working life, and for
achieving career success.