22.1.

5 Kingdom Animalia (Morphological characteristics at phylum & class levels)

Criteria for classifying Animals
a. Body symmetry
Animal bodies may be totally assymetrical i.e. there is no plane where it can be sectioned / cut
into similar-appearing halves or mirror images.
Symmetrical bodies may either show
i.
ii.

bilateral symmetry (where there is only one plane which will produce a mirror image)
or
radial symmetry (where more than one plane exists which will produce a mirror
image).

Bilateral symmetry

Radial symmetry

b. Body design
Two basic body designs for ingesting & digesting food
among animals:
i.
ii.

a sac body (with a single opening for ingesting

food & egesting wastes)
a tube-within-a-tube body (with separate
openings ie. a mouth for ingesting food and an
anus for egesting wastes)

are found

c. Body layers & cavities

Animals are diploblastic if they develop from only 2 germ layers i.e. the endoderm &
ectoderm. Triploblastic animals develop from 3 germ layers, i.e. endoderm, mesoderm &
ectoderm.
Animals may be acoelomate (without coelom), pseudocoelomate (false coelom) or coelomate
(true coelom). A coelom is a fluid-filled space surrounded by mesoderm.

General facts about the kingdom Animalia.

Animals are the eaters of the earth all are heterotrophs, depending directly or indirectly on
autotrophs for their food.
Many animals are able to move (motile) in search of food.
Most of them ingest their food to be digested internally.
All animals are multicellular (unicellular Protozoa having been reclassified into the kingdom
Protista.)
9 10 million species of animals exist, 1% are vertebrates which have a dorsal backbone.
99% are invertebrates.
Animals are classified into about 35 phyla most of which are marine, fewer in fresh water and
fewer still terresterial.

Two phyla, Arthropoda and Vertebrata dominate animal life on land.

Most animals reproduce sexually. Eggs are non-motile and much larger than the smaller, usually
flagellated sperm. Meiotically formed gametes fuse to form diploid zygotes.
Classification of animals.

Animalia
Parazoa

Eumetazoa

Porifera

Cnidaria

Mollusca

Platyhelminthes

Nematoda

Annelida

Arthropoda

Echinodermata

Chordata
MAJOR ANIMAL PHYLA AND THEIR POSSIBLE PHYLOGENIC RELATIONSHIP

Chordates
Echinoderms
Arthropods
Annelids
Mollusks

Coelomate
Ancestry

Rotifers
Roundworms
Bilateral
Ancestry

Flatworms

Radial
Ancestry

Cnidarians
Sponges

Multicelled
Ancestry

KINGDOM: PORIFERA
Morphological characteristics of Phylum Porifera (Pore-bearing) - Sponges
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Some cellular differentiation, no tissue organisation.

Two layers of cells: outer pinacoderm & inner choanoderm
All are aquatic. (150 sp of abt. 10,000 sp are marine)
Adults are sessile.
Body lacks symmetry.
Single body cavity- spongocoel
Numerous pores in body wall.
Usually possess a skeleton (calcareous or siliceous spicules, or spongin fibres).

9 No nervous system.
10 Asexual reproduction by budding. Also great regenerative power small broken off
fragments can form whole, new individuals.
11 All are hermaphrodite, most are protandrous. Embryonic development includes blastula
and larval stages.
12 Dead-end phylum, which has not given rise to any other group of organisms.

Morphological characteristics of Class Calcarea Sycon sp.

1 Possess calcareous spicules.
Sponges have 3 body layers, but only 2 developed from true germ layers.
The outer layer (pinacoderm) consists of flat epidermal cells and thousands of porocytes
which allow water into the sponge body.
The inner layer (choanoderm) consists of choanocytes (collar cells) which encircle a
flagellum. The flagellum produces an inward current that draws water & food particles through
the porocytes. The collar filters out small organisms which is then digested by the choanocyte
or by an adjacent amoeboid cell. Filtered water passes out through the osculum.
The middle layer or mesenchyme is a collection of amoebocytes that circulate nutrients &
produce gametes for sexual reproduction. Amoebocytes also produce the sponge skeleton.
(Natural bath sponges are from the class Demospongiae which have a skeleton made of
spongin fibres, not piercing spicules.)

Sponge morphology

Calcium carbonate spicules of Sycon

Sycon sp.

KINGDOM: CNIDARIA

Morphological characteristics of Phylum Cnidaria

1

Diploblastic animals body wall composed of 2 cell layers (ectoderm & endoderm),
separated by a gelatinous layer of mesogloea
2 Tissue level of organisation achieved
3 Single body cavity (enteron or gastrovascular cavity) with only one opening to exterior;
primarily inhalent, secondarily exhalent
4 Single opening for ingestion & egestion
5 Radially symmetrical with tentacles
6 Possess nematoblasts (stinging cells)
7 Polymorphism common (hydriod / polyp and medusoid form)
8 Polyp forms normally sedentary may be solitary or colonial. Medusoid forms solitary
& free swimming
9 Nervous system a collection of cells forming an irregular nerve net
10 Asexual reproduction budding / stobilation
11 Sexual reproduction produces planula larva
Morphological characteristics of Class Hydrozoa Hydra sp., Obelia sp.
1 Polyp dominant, medusa simple
2 No mesenteries (no divisions in gastrovascular cavity), no gullet
3 Ectodermal gonads
4 Polyps solitary or colonial, medusa free-swimming.

Sedentary
polyp

Free-swimming
medusa

Hydra sp

Ectoderm epidermis
Endoderm gastrodermis
Enteron gastrovascular cavity
Hydr
a
poly
ps
some
times
move
by
som
mers
aulti
ng or
float along with water currents.
Nematocysts are stinging structures contained within
cells called nematoblasts, found on tentacles of both
polyp & medusoid forms. Nematocysts are used
- for capturing food (sticking to and paralysing prey)
and
- as a self-defence mechanism
The nervous system is a collection of simple nerve
cells, forming a nerve net.

Nerve cell & simple nervous system of hydra.

Obelia
Medusa buds

Ovar

Gonopore
Gonotheca

Zygote

Blastostyl
Hydranth

Free swimming
planula larva

New

Obelia colony

Obelia is a colonial cnidarian,

Adult sessile colony
Two types of polyps:
(i) hydranth or feeding polyp with
tentacles
(ii) gonangium or reproductive polyp,
bearing a blastostyle which produces
medusa buds.
Medusa are unisexual, producing
either sperms or eggs.
- external fertilisation
Young planula larva establishes
new colony.

Reproduction (Hydra)
Asexual reproduction by budding.

Bud

Sexual reproduction:
Hydra is
- monoesius, testis and ovary being found on the same individual
- protandrus testis mature before ovary, preventing selffertilization.
- fertilization is internal, taking place in the ovary.
- the embryo is shed in a cyst
- the cyst is extremely hardy, able to endure harsh conditions.
- the young hydra emerges from the cyst to become a new
individual.

10

(i)

Platyhelminthes (Flat worms)

Morphological characteristics of phylum Platyhelminthes

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Triploblastic animals
Bilateral symmetry
Unsegmented body
Acoelomate
Central nervous system anteriorly placed, very simple
network of ganglia
Excretory system ending in flame cells
Flattened dorso-ventrally
Mouth, with no anus

9 Complex, hermaphroditic reproductive system

10 Larval form usually present
Morphological characteristics of Class Cestoda Taenia
1 Body divided into proglottids
2 Parasitic, with 2 vertebrate hosts.
Taenia solium (brief description of organism)
- Endoparasite, growing up to a length of 10m 20m.
- Primary host: man; secondary host: pig & cattle.
- Head or scolex is armed with suckers & hooks which attach
the worm to the inner lining of the human intestine.
- Absorbs digested foods from host, has no digestive system.
- Posterior to the scolex are proglottids (sacs of sex organs)
- Mature proglottids are shed with faeces, & contain thousands
of eggs each.
- Eggs can contaminate food & water of intermediate hosts.
- When swallowed, eggs develop into larvae that encyst in
muscle tissue of the secondary host.
- Humans acquire the larvae by eating undercooked meat
contaminated with cysts.
- The larvae mature into adults in the intestine.
- An adult tapeworm can cause intestinal blockage,
and cause nutritional deficiencies.
- They can be killed with an oral drug named
niclosamide.

11

(ii)

Nematoda (Round worms)

Morphological characteristics of phylum Nematoda

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Triploblastic animals
Bilateral symmetry
Pseudocoelomate
Unsegmented
Elongated round worms with pointed ends
Alimentary canal with mouth & anus (one-way digestive tract)
Sexes separate (unisex / dioecious)
May be free living, or parasitic on plants and animals

Anterior end shows some degree of cephalisation

Ascaris is a parasitic roundworm living in the intestines of pigs, horses, & humans
Ascaris life cycle:
* Enter body in contaminated food or water.
* Egg shell dissolves at body temperature & hatch in
intestines
* Larva bore into bloodstream & carried to lungs &
throat
* Larva coughed up, swallowed, & return to intestines
* Larva matures in 65 days and mates in the
intestines.
* 20,000 eggs can be laid per day by each female.
* The adults live for 1 2 years.
* They can block the intestine, causing death.

12

(iii)

Annelida (segmented worms)

Morphological characteristics of phylum Annelida

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Triploblastic animals
Bilateral symmetry
Metamerically segmented body (external segments = metameres)
Metameres correspond to internal segments
One-way digestive system with mouth & anus
Coelomate (true coelom), with perivisceral coelom
Pre-oral prostomium
Central nervous system, with solid, ventral nerve chord
Excretory organs segmental, cilliated nephridia
Cuticle secreted by ectoderm

10 Setae (short bristles) of chitin arranged segmentally

11 Fluid-filled coelom provides hydrostatic skeleton
12 Trochophore larva, if any.
Morphological characteristics of
class Oligochaeta
1 No distinct head
2 Few chaetae
3 Hermaphrodite, gonads
localised in a few segments
4 Copulation & crossfertilisation
5 No larval stage.

EARTHWORM
- Bodies may have over 100
metameres
- Internal partitions called septa
- Distinct anterior & posterior ends
- Cephalization (head with sense organs) shows specialization for burrowing
- Have both circular & longitudinal muscles for movement

External,

13

saddle-shaped structure - clitellum that forms a cocoon with eggs & sperm
- Prostomium or lip digs through soil as earthworm feeds on organic matter
- Pharynx is a muscular organ behind the mouth to help suck in food
- Food temporarily stored in crop, ground in gizzard, and digested & absorbed in intestine
- Wastes called castings pass out through anus
- Closed circulatory system with 5 pairs of aortic arches or hearts
- Dorsal blood vessel carries blood posteriorly to cells, ventral blood vessel returns blood
anteriorly
- Secrete mucus to keep skin moist so oxygen will dissolve & diffuse into body
- Long tubules called nephridia filter wastes from blood & excrete it through pores
- Simple brain, no eyes, & dorsal and ventral nerve cords
- Sensitive to light, touch, moisture, chemicals, temperature, & vibrations
- Hermaphrodites exchange sperm & cross-fertilize
Sexual reporduction in earth worms
Female organs: ovaries,
oviducts, ovisac,
seminal receptacles /
spermatheca
Male organs: testis, vas
deferentia (sperm duct),
seminal vesicles.
During copulation,
- mutual dissemination
of sperm occurs.
- anterior surfaces of
the worms are in
contact, the anterior of
one worm directed
towards the posterior of
the other
- sperm exit vas
deferentia & travel
backwards towards the
clitellum, along a pair
of sperm grooves, until
they enter through the opening of the seminal receptacles of the other worm. The worms separate
after this.
- A membranous cocoon forms soon after, secreted by the clitellum.
- The cocoon is moved anteriorly by expansion of the segments posterior to it.
- As it moves, several eggs are deposited into it, followed by sperm from the seminal receptacles.
- The cocoon slips over the head of the worm, the ends constrict and seal up.
- Eggs hatch in 2 3 weeks.

14

(iv)

Arthropoda (jointed foot):

Morphological characteristics of phylum Arthropoda

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Triploblastic, coelomate
Segmented, bilaterally symmetrical
Coelom much reduced, perivisceral cavity a haemocoel
Central nervous system, paired ganglia, ventral nerve chord (paired)
Exoskeleton of chitin, sometimes calcareous matter.
No nephridia
Each segment typically bears a pair of jointed appendages used for locomotion or
feeding or sensory purposes (appendages = legs, mouth parts, antennae)
Dorsal heart with open vascular system
Many larval forms found within the phylum
Crustacea: Penaeus (shrimp)

Morphological characteristics of class Crustacea

1 Mainly aquatic
2 Cephalothorax (joined head & thorax)
3 Head of six segments, 2 pairs of antennae
4 Pair of compound eyes, raised on stalks
5 At least 3 pairs of mouth parts.
6 Abdomen normally of 11 segments
7 Genital openings in thoracic segments
8 Straight gut
9 Gaseous exchange by gills which are
outgrowths of the body wall or limbs.
* Cephalothorax made of 13 fused segments & covered by protective carapace
* Antennules located on head help in balance, touch, & taste./
* Statocysts - balancing organs at the base of antennules
* Antenna on head used for touch & taste
* Maxillae - paired mouthparts that move side to side to tear food
* Maxillipeds - help hold food
* Chelipeds - claws used to capture food & for protection
* Mandibles - jaws that move up & down to crush food
* Walking legs - 8 pairs used for movement
* Swimmerets - under abdomen to swim, gas exchange, & protect eggs/young
* Abdomen ends in flat segment called telson with flat uropods on each side
* Compound eyes on stalks
* Chitinous teeth in stomach grind food
* Wastes leave through anus
* Green glands filter wastes from blood & help with salt balance
* Open circulatory system with heart to pump blood to gills & body cells
* Ostia - one way valves allowing blood from dorsal sinus to reenter heart
* Gills attached to walking legs

15

* Separate sexes that mate in fall & sperm stored in seminal receptacle
* Eggs attach to swimmerets of female & hatch in several weeks
A generalised malacostracan [Subclass of crabs, lobsters, crayfish ( Astacus), shrimp
(Penaeus), wood lice]

16

Insecta: Periplaneta (Cockroach)

Morphological characteristics of class Insecta
1 Mainly terresterial
2 Well-defined head, thorax & abdomen
3 Head of six segments, 1 pair of antennae
4 1 pair of compound eyes & simple eyes
5 3 pairs of mouthparts
6 3 thoracic segments, each wih a pair of legs.
2nd and 3rd segments usually have a pair of wings each.
7 Abdomen typically 11 segments
8 Gut may be coiled
9 Genital openings near anus on abdomen
10 Commonly complicated metamorphosis. Development may be direct with nymphal stage
or indirect with larval stages.
11 No gills in adult. Gas exchange by tracheae

17

Reproduction:
During copulation,
- sperm is ejaculated together with
fluid from utriculus glands to form a
spermatophore which sticks to the
opening of the female spermatheca.
- Spermatophore is discarded when
sperms have entered the spermatheca.
- Sperms fertilized eggs as they travel
down the vagina.
- At the same time, eggs are enclosed
in secretions from female accessory
glands which form a dark egg case
ootheca, each containing 16 eggs.
- Young nymphs emerge in about 6
weeks.

18

Arachnida: Lycosa (spider)

Morphological characteristics of class Arachnida
1 Terresterial
2 Body divided into prosoma (cephalothorax) and opisthosoma (abdomen), joined by a
narrow waist
3 Prosoma of six segments not homologous to other arthropod heads.
4 Simple eyes (ocelli), no antenna
5 No true mouthparts, possess chelicerae or fangs with venom
6 Segments 4 -7 have a pair of legs each (= 4 pairs of legs)
7 Abdomen typically 13 segments (spiders have unsegmented abdomen)
8 Highly specialised gut to deal with liquid food.
9 Genital openings on 2nd abdominal segment.
10 No larval stage.
11 Gas exchange by internal air spaces, lungs or gill books or tracheae

* Arachnid that feeds on insects (carnivores)

* Have oval shaped, unsegmented abdomen
* Cephalothorax connected by narrow waist to abdomen
* Have 8 simple eyes or ocelli
* Fangs pierce prey, inject poison, & suck out body fluids
* Pedipalps on head help sense prey & move it to the mouth
* Open circulatory system
* Ostia are openings in heart where blood reenters
* Body cavity called hemocoel
* Hemocycanin is oxygen-carrying pigment in blood
* Silk glands make silk & spinnerets release silk for webs
* Breathe by book lungs & tracheal tubes
* Malpighian tubules filter wastes & reabsorb water.

19

Chilopoda: Lithobius (centipede)

Morphological characteristics of class Chilopoda
1 Terresterial predators
2 Body flattened and divided into segments
3 Distinct head with one pair of poison jaws
4 Claw-like appendages or pincers on 1st body
segment that can inject venom
5 Mandibles and maxilla for chewing prey
(insects & earthworms)
6 One pair of legs per body segment, all legs
are similar
7 Simple eyes, if present
8 One pair of antenna
7 Can coil up for defense
Diplopoda: Lulus (millipede)
Morphological characteristics of class Diplopoda
1 Terresterial scavengers
2 Body rounded and divided into numerous
segments
3 Two pairs of legs per body apparent body
segment
4 Rolls into a ball when threatened & sprays
noxious chemical containing cyanide for
defense
Merostomata: Limulus (Horse-shoe crab)
Morphological characteristics of class
Merostomata
1 Aquatic
2 Cephalothorax (fused head & thorax), &
abdomen
3 No antennaa
4 Six pairs of abdominal appendages,
modified as gills
5 Possess a spike-like telson at the end of the
body

20

(v)

Mollusca: Helix (Land snail)

Morphological characteristics of class Gastropoda

1 Terresterial, marine and freshwater
2 Asymmetrical
3 Torsion of visceral mass at some stage of
development
4 Anterior anus
5 Shell of one piece, usually coiled
6 Head with eyes and sensory tentacles
7 Mantle cavity of land forms converted to a lung
8 Radula
9 Internal fertilisation

(vi)

Note: There is strong evidence that

molluscs may have evolved from a
primitive annelid-like ancestor.
Equally strong evidence suggest that
molluscs may have evolved from an
ancestor among early platyhelminth
turbellarians.

Echinodermata: (spiny-skinned) Holothuria (sea cucumber)

21

Morphological characteristics of phylum Echinodermata

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Triploblastic, coelomates
All marine
Water vascular system is part of the coelom
Tube feet
Calcareous exoskeletons
No special excretory organs present
Sexes are separate
Basic larval stage called dipleurula, possesses ciliated band and is the main
dispersive phase free swimming
9 Larva bilaterally symmetrical, adult shows pentamerous/pentaradial symmetry & is
sessile or sedentary
10 Capable of extensive regeneration
Bipinnaria Larva

SEA CUCUMBER
Morphological characteristics of class Holothuroidea
1 Free living
2 Cucumber-shaped
3 Body not drawn into arms
4 No external spines
- Lack arms
- Shaped like a pickle or cucumber
- Live on ocean bottoms hiding in caves during the day
- Have a soft body with a tough, leathery outer skin
- Five rows of tube feet run lengthwise on the aboral (top) surface of the body
- Have a fringe of tentacles (modified tube feet) surrounding the mouth to sweep in food & water
- Tentacles have sticky ends to collect plankton
- Show bilateral symmetry
- Can eject parts of their internal organs (evisceration) to scare predators; regenerate these
structures in days

22

(vii)

Chordata:

Morphological characteristics of classes Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes (Fishes)

Morphological characteristics of phylum Chordata
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Triploblastic, coelomates
Notochord present at some stage in the life history. This is a flexible rod of tightly
packed, vacuolated cells held together within a firm sheath.
Bilateral symmetry
Pharyngeal clefts present (some only at embryonic stage)
Dorsal, hollow nerve chord
Segmental muscle blocks (myotomes) on either side of body
Post-anal tail
Closed blood system blood flows forwards ventrally, backwards dorsally
Limbs formed from more than one body segment.
Characteristics of fish
Streamlined body & muscular tail for swimming
Most with paired fins for maneuvering
Body covered with protective scales & mucus layer to reduce friction when swimming
Have less dense body tissues & store less dense lipids to help them float
Respire through gills
Most have a lateral line system or a row of sensory structures running down each side of the
organism to detect changes in water temperature, pressure, current, etc.
Most with well-developed sense of sight & smell
Some can detect electrical currents
Ectotherms (adjust body temperature to environment)
Two chambered heart (upper atrium receives blood & lower ventricle pumps blood)
Kidneys filter the blood & help maintain water balance
Ectothermic - body temperature regulated by the environment
Keen sense of smell (nostrils) & have chemical receptors over the body
Have separate sexes with external fertilization

Anatomy of a bony fish:

Tilapia

23

Chondricthyes
Cartilaginous endoskeleton
No operculum, gill clefts
Heterocercal tail fin

Osteichthyes
Bony endoskeleton, with cartilage
Operculum over gills
Homocercal tail fin

No swim bladder
Placoid scales &
tooth-like dermal
spines on scales

Swim bladder present

Bony scales, with
mucus coating

Paired fins, hinged jaws

Marine
Lateral line (detects vibrations,
temperature, pressure, current, etc)
5 7 pairs of gills for gas exchange
Carnivorous
Sharks, rays, skates
Oviparous, ovoviviparous or viviparous

Paired fins, hinged jaws

Marine or freshwater
Lateral line (detects temperature, pressure,
current etc.
Gills for gas exchange
Carnivorous, herbivorous or omnivorous
Ray finned fish, lung fish, lobed fin fish.
Oviparous, some viviparous

Oviparous = lay eggs that hatch outside mothers body

Ovoviviparous = fertilised eggs retained in uterus, and hatch in uterus
Viviparous = young develop within uterus

Anatomy of a cartilaginous fish: Carcharodon (great white shark)

24

Morphological characteristics of classes Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia:

Amphibia
Bony endoskeleton
Lungs in adult

Reptilia
Bony endoskeleton
Lungs in adult

Aves
Bony endoskeleton
Additional air sacs
with lungs in adult

Paired, pentadactyl
limbs

Paired pentadactyl
limbs

Ectotherms

Ectotherms

No scales, soft,
moist skin

Dry skin with horny

scales or bony
plates
Homodont

Paired pentadactyl
limbs, forelimbs
modified to wings
Endotherms (40
41oC)
Skin bears feathers,
legs bear scales

Homodont (teeth all

similar)

Toothless, horny
beak

Eggs coated with

sticky, jelly-like
material

Amniote egg, with

yolk and leathery
shell

Amniote egg,
calcium carbonate
shell

Oviparous

Oviparous or
ovoviviparous

Oviparity, eggs
incubated, both
parents caring for
young

External
fertilisation

Internal fertilisation

Internal fertilisation

Anatomy of an amphibian: Rana (frog)

Mammalia
Bony endoskeleton
Lungs, diaphragm
present to aid
respiration
Paired pentadactyl
limbs
Endotherms
Skin bears hair with
glands
Heterodont
(different types of
teeth)
Young develop in
uterus, placenta
provides nutrients
& waste exchange
Oviparous
monotremes,
Viviparous
marsupials &
placental mammals
Internal fertilisation
Mammary glands
produce milk

Anatomy of a reptile: Naja (cobra)

Flattened
neck - hood

Body: 100
400
vertebrae
Anatomy
of Aves: Columba (pigeon)

25

Anatomy of a mammalia: Rattus (rat)

Reproduction of reptiles:
Amniote Egg:
Egg has protective membranes & porous
shell enclosing the embryo
Has 4 specialized membranes --- amnion,
yolk sac, allantois, & chorion
Amnion is a thin membrane surrounding a
salty fluid in which the embryo "floats"
Yolk sac encloses the yolk or protein-rich
food supply for embryo
Allantois stores nitrogenous wastes made
by embryo until egg hatches
Chorion lines the inside of the shell &
regulates oxygen & carbon dioxide
exchange
Shell leathery & waterproof
Internal fertilization occurs in female before shell is formed

26

Reproductive System of birds:

- Testes in males produces sperm that travels by the vas deferens to cloaca
- Females have single ovary that makes eggs
- Eggs are fertilized in the oviducts
- Shell added by shell gland & then egg moves into cloaca
- In mating, male presses cloaca to female to transfer sperm (internal fertilization)
- Lay an amniote egg:
1. Embryo suspended in fluid called albumen (white of egg)
2. Chalaza - rope like strands suspending embryo in albumen
3. Chorion is membrane inside of shell
4. Yolk is stored food surrounded by yolk sac
Incubation & development of Egg:
Eggs incubated by one or both parents
Brood patch - thickened, featherless patch of skin on
abdomen of bird used to warm eggs
Membranes grow out of embryo's digestive tract &
surround yolk
Membranes make digestive enzymes to dissolve
proteins & lipids in yolk
Yolk sac has blood vessels to carry food to embryo
Wastes from embryo collect in membrane called
allantois
Chorion membrane lines the shell & allows gas
exchange

Reproductive Adaptations of Mammalia:

Each of the 3 mammal groups --- monotremes, marsupials, & placentals--- has a unique
reproductive pattern
Monotreme females lay 1-2 leathery-shelled eggs containing yolk &
incubates them with her body heat oviparous.
Young monotremes are small & partially developed at hatching so depend on
mother for protection and milk from mammary glands
Marsupials have short development
period inside of the mother &
newborns must crawl to the
mother's pouch or marsupium after
birth, attach to a nipple for milk,
and finish developing - viviparous.

Mother Kangaroo & "Joey"

27

Placentals are the largest group of mammals

Gestation (period of development inside mother) is longer in placental mammals
Nutrients, wastes, gases exchanged through membrane lining uterus called the placenta
Young carried in uterus & nourished by placenta - viviparous
Gestation periods (time of development within uterus) varies among species
Adapted for life on land in water, and in air
Mammal species make up 95 % of all animals.

Placental mammals

Flying squirrel

Camel
Bat

28

Harp seal