More Proofs of Divergence of the Harmonic Series

Steven J. Kifowit
Prairie State College
In an earlier article, Kifowit and Stamps [13] summarized a number of elementary proofs of
divergence of the harmonic series:

X
1
1 1 1 1
= 1 + + + + + = .
n
2
3 4 5
n=1

For a variety of reasons, some very nice proofs never made it into the final draft of that article.
With this in mind, the collection of divergence proofs continues here. This informal note is a
work in progress1. On occasion more proofs will be added. Accessibility to first-year calculus
students is a common thread that will continue (usually) to connect the proofs.

Proof 21 (A geometric series proof )

Choose a positive integer k.
k2 terms

k terms

1
n
n=1

= 1+

z

}|

1 1
1
+ + +
2 3
k+1

{

z


}|
{
1
1
1
+
+ + 2
k+2 k+3
k +k+1

k3 terms

z

}|
{
1
1
1
+
+
+ + 3
k2 + k + 2 k2 + k + 3
k + k2 + k + 1

k2
k3
k
+ 2
+ 3
+
k + 1 k + k + 1 k + k2 + k + 1

 
2 
3
k
k
k
> 1+
+
+
+
k+1
k+1
k+1

> 1+

1
=k+1
k
1 k+1

Since this is true for any positive integer k, the harmonic series must diverge.

1 First

posted January 2006. Last updated February 16, 2013.

Proof 22
The following proof was given by Fearnehough [9] and later by Havil [10]. After substituting u = ex , this
proof is equivalent to Proof 10 of [13].
Z 0
ex
dx
x
1 e

ex (1 ex )1 dx
ex (1 + ex + e2x + e3x + ) dx

(ex + e2x + e3x + ) dx

0

1
1
ex + e2x + e3x +
2
3

1+

[ ln(1 ex )] =

1 1
+ +
2 3
0

Proof 23 (A telescoping series proof )

This proof was given by Bradley [2]. We begin with the inequality x ln(1 + x), which holds for all x > 1.

From this it follows that



1
1
= ln(k + 1) ln(k)
ln 1 +
k
k

for any positive integer k. Now we have

Hn

n
X
1
k
k=1

n
X

k=1



1
ln 1 +
k

n
X

ln

k=1

k+1
k

[ln(n + 1) ln(n)] + [ln(n) ln(n 1)] + + [(ln(2) ln(1)]

ln(n + 1).

Therefore {Hn } is unbounded, and the harmonic series diverges.

Proof 24 (A limit comparison proof )

In the last proof the harmonic series was directly compared to the divergent series

k=1

of the inequality x ln(1 + x) can be avoided by using limit comparison. Since

x12
ln 1 + x1

= 1,


=
lim
lim
1
x 1 + 1
x
x12
x
x

the harmonic series diverges by limit comparison.



1
ln 1 +
. The use
k

Proof 25
In an interesting proof of the Egyptian fraction theorem, Owings [18] showed that no number appears more
than once in any single row of the following tree.
1/2
1/3

1/6

1/4

1/12

1/7

1/42

1/5

1/20

1/13

1/156

1/8

1/56

1/43

1/1806

..
.

..
.

..
.

..
.

..
.

..
.

..
.

..
.

The elements of each row have a sum of 1/2, and there are infinitely rows with no elements in common. (For
example, one could, starting with row 1, find the maximum denominator in the row, and then jump to that
row.) It follows that the harmonic series diverges.

Proof 26
This proof is actually a pair of very similar proofs. They are closely related to a number of other proofs, but
most notably to Proof 4 of [13]. In these proofs Hn denotes the nth partial sum of the harmonic series:
Hn = 1 +
Proof (A):

1
1 1
+ + + ,
2 3
n

n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .

First notice that

Hn + H2n = 2Hn +

1
1
1
n
+
+ +
2Hn +
,
n+1 n+2
2n
2n

so that when all is said and done, we have

1
Hn + H2n 2Hn + .
2
Now suppose the harmonic series converges with sum S.
2S

=
=

lim Hn + lim H2n

lim (Hn + H2n )

lim

= 2S +
The contradiction 2S 2S +
Proof (B):

1
2

2Hn +

1
2

1
2

concludes the proof.

This proof was given by Ward [20].

H2n Hn =

1
1
1
n
1
+
+ +

=
n+1 n+2
2n
2n
2
3

Suppose the harmonic series converges.

0

lim H2n lim Hn

lim (H2n Hn )

1
1
=
n 2
2

The contradiction 0

1
2

lim

concludes the proof.

Proof 27
This proposition follows immediately from the harmonic mean/arithmetic mean inequality, but an alternate
proof is given here.
1
1
1
+
+ +
> 1.
k k+1
3k

Proposition: For any natural number k,

Proof:
exp

1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
k
k+1 k+2
3k

= e1/k e1/(k+1) e1/(k+2) e1/(3k)

 
 




1
1
1
1
1+
1+
1 +
>
1+
k
k+1
k+2
3k
 
 




k+2
k+3
3k + 1
k+1

=
k
k+1
k+2
3k

3k + 1
> 3.
k
(In this proposition the denominator 3k could be replaced by e k, but even this choice is
=

not optimal. See [1] and [4].)

Based on this proposition, we have the following result:

 
 



X
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
= 1+
+ +
+ +
+ +
n
2
6
7
21
22
66
n=1
>

1 + 1 + 1 + 1 +

Proof 28 (A Fibonacci number proof )

The following proof was given by Kifowit and Stamps [12] and by Chen and Kennedy [3].
The Fibonacci numbers are defined recursively as follows:
f0 = 1,

f1 = 1;

fn+1 = fn + fn1 ,

n = 1, 2, 3 . . . .

For example, the first ten are given by 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55. The sequence of Fibonacci numbers
makes an appearance in a number of modern calculus textbooks (for instance, see [14] or [19]). Often the
limit

1+ 5
fn+1
==
lim
n fn
2
4

is proved or presented as an exercise. This limit plays an important role in this divergence proof.
First notice that


fn1
1
fn
fn+1 fn
lim
= 1 0.381966.
= lim
= lim 1
n fn+1
n
n
fn+1
fn+1

Now we have

X
1
n
n=1

1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + +
2 3 4 5 6

 

1 1
1 1 1
1 1
+
+ +
+
= 1+ + +
2 3
4 5
6 7 8
 


1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
+ +
+
9
13
14
21

= 1+

1+
= 1+

1 1 2 3
5
8
+ + + +
+
+
2 3 5 8 13 21

X
fn1
f
n=1 n+1

fn1
6= 0, this last series diverges. It follows that the harmonic series diverges.
n fn+1

Since lim

Proof 29
This proof is essentially the same as Proof 2 of [13]. First notice that since the sequence
11 111 1111 11111
,
,
,
, ...
10 100 1000 10000
increases and converges to 10/9, the sequence
10 100 1000 10000
,
,
,
, ...
11 111 1111 11111
decreases and converges to 9/10. With this in mind, we have
100 terms

10 terms

X
1
n
n=1

= 1+

z


}|

1
1 1
+ + +
2 3
11

{

z

}|
{
1
1
1
+
+ +
12 13
111

1000 terms

z

}|
{
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
112 113
1111

> 1+

100
1000
10
+
+
+
11 1111 1111

> 1+

9
9
9
+
+
+
10 10 10

Proof 30
The following visual proofs show that by carefully rearranging terms, the harmonic series can be made
greater than itself.
Proof (A):

This proof without words was posted on The Everything Seminar (Harmonic Digression,

http://cornellmath.wordpress.com/2007/07/12/harmonic-digression/).

..

Figure 1: Proof 30(A)

Proof (B):

This visual proof leaves less to the imagination than Proof (A). It is due to Jim Belk and

was posted on The Everything Seminar as a follow-up to the previous proof. Belks proof is a visualization
of Johann Bernoullis proof (see Proof 13 of [13]).

...

Figure 2: Proof 30(B)

Proof (C):

This proof is a visual representation of Proofs 6 and 7 of [13]. With some minor modifications,
6

a similar visual proof could be used to show that one-half of the harmonic series ( 12 +
less than its remaining half (in the spirit of Proof 8 of [13]).

1
4

1
6

+ ) is strictly

1
1/2

1/3

1/4

1/5

1/6

1/7

1/8

1
1/2

1/3

1/4

Figure 3: Proof 30(C)

Proof 31
Here is another proof in which

1/k and

[13]), this one focuses on arc length.

1/x dx are compared. Unlike its related proofs (e.g. Proof 9 of

The graph shown here is that of the polar function r() = / on [, ).

r() =

The total arc length is unbounded:

s
 2
Z
Z
Z
Z

dr


2
r +
r2 d =
r d =
d
d = ln  =
Arc Length =
d

Now let the polar function be defined by

1,
< 2

1/2,
2 < 3

1/3,
3 < 4
() =
..
..

.
.

1/n,
n

<
(n + 1)

.
.

..
..

The graph of is made up of semi-circular arcs, the nth arc having radius 1/n. The total arc length of
the graph of is

+ + + + =
2
3
4



1 1 1
1 + + + + .
2 3 4

The graphs of r (dashed) and (solid) on [, 6] are shown below.

By comparing the graphs of the two functions over intervals of the form [n, (n + 1)], we see that the
graph of must be longer than the graph of r. It follows that


1 1 1
1 + + + +
2 3 4
must be unbounded.

Proof 32
The divergence of the harmonic series follows immediately from the Cauchy Condensation Test:
Suppose {an } is a non-increasing sequence with positive terms. Then
only if

2k a2k converges.

k=0

n=1

an converges if and

Proof 33
This proof is similar to Proof 4 of [13]. Just as above, Hn denotes the nth partial sum of the harmonic series:
Hn = 1 +

1 1
1
+ + + ,
2 3
n

Consider the figure shown here:

y=

n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .

1
x

1
n

1
n+1

n+1

Referring to the figure, we see that

1
n+1

<

n+1

1
dx
x

1
.
n

<

Repeated use of this result gives

1
1
+ +
2n}
|n + 1 {z

<

2n

1
dx = ln 2
x

1
1
+ +
|n
{z 2n 1}

<

H2n Hn

or

H2n1 Hn1

H2n Hn < ln 2 < H2n Hn +

1
1
.

n
2n
| {z }
1/2n

From this it follows that

1
< H2n Hn < ln 2.
2n
Therefore H2n Hn ln 2, and the sequence {Hn } must diverge.
ln 2

Proof 34
In [8] Paul Erd
os gave two remarkably clever proofs of the divergence of the series

1/p (p prime), where

the sum is taken over only the primes. Other proofs of this fact, such as one given by Euler (see [7]), make
use of the harmonic series. Erd
os proofs do not, and as a consequence, they establish the divergence of the
harmonic series.
9

The proofs are rather complicated, but accessible and well worth the effort required to follow them
through. A few elementary ideas are required before we begin:
(i) x denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
(ii) We denote the primes, in ascending order, by p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 , . . ..
(iii) Let N be a given positive integer. For any positive integer m, there are N/m integers between 1 and
N that are divisible by m.

This is the first of Erd

os proofs. We begin by assuming
integer K such that

i=K+1

X
1
converges. It follows that there exists an
p
i=1 i

1
1
< .
pi
2

We will call pK+1 , pK+2 , pK+3 , . . . the large primes, and p1 , p2 , . . . , pK the small primes.
Now let N be an integer such that N > pK . Let N1 be the number of integers between 1 and N whose
divisors are all small primes, and let N2 be the number of integers between 1 and N that have at least one
large prime divisor. It follows that N = N1 + N2 .
By the definition of N2 and using (iii) above, it follows that
N2

N
pK+1

From this we get

N2

N
pK+2

N
pK+3

 

X
N
+ =
.
pi
i=K+1

 

X
X
N
N
N
< ,

pi
pi
2

i=K+1

i=K+1

where the last part of the inequality follows from the definition of K.

Now, referring back to the small primes, let x N be a positive integer with only small prime divisors.

Write x = yz 2 , where y and z are positive integers, y is squarefree (i.e. has no perfect square divisors), and

z N . The integer y must have the factorization

mK
1 m2 m3
y = pm
1 p2 p3 pK ,

where each exponent mi has value 0 or 1. It follows from the multiplication principle that there are 2K

possible choices for the integer y. Since z N , there are at most N possible choices for the integer z.

Therefore there are at most 2K N possible choices for the integer x. Recalling the definition of x, we see

that we must have N1 2K N .

So now we have established that

N
N = N1 + N2 < 2 K N + .
2
However, by simply choosing N such that N > 22K+2 , we are lead to a contradiction:

N
N
N
K
N+
N+
<
= N.
N = N1 + N2 < 2
2
2
2
10

Proof 35
This is Erd
os second proof of the divergence of
as the previous proof.

1/p (p prime) [8]. It uses the same notation and concepts

We begin by using the fact that

X
i=2

to establish that

Now assume that

X
1
=
i(i + 1)
i=2

1
1

i
i+1

1
2

X
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
3
< +
+
+
+ = + = .
2
p
4 23 34 45
4 2
4
i=1 i

X
1
converges. It follows that there exists an integer K such that
p
i=1 i

i=K+1

1
1
< .
pi
8

As above, we will call pK+1 , pK+2 , pK+3 , . . . the large primes, and p1 , p2 , . . . , pK the small primes.
Let N be a positive integer and let y N be a positive, squarefree integer with only small prime divisors.

The integer y must have the factorization

mK
1 m2 m3
y = pm
1 p2 p3 pK ,

where each exponent mi has value 0 or 1. It follows from the multiplication principle that there are 2K possible choices for the integer y. Those 2k integers must remain after we remove from the sequence 1, 2, 3, . . . , N
all those integers that are not squarefree or have large prime divisors. Therefore, we must have the following
inequality:
2


K 
X
N
i=1

p2i

 

X
X
X
N
N
3
1
N
N

>N N N = .
2
pi
p
pi
4
8
8
i=1 i
i=K+1

i=K+1

However, if we simply choose N 2K+3 , we have a contradiction.

11

Proof 36
Nick Lord [15] provided this visual catalyst for Proof 23.
Consider the graph of y = sin(ex ) for 0 x < .

y = sin(ex )

The graph has an x-intercept at the point where x = ln n for each positive integer n. This sequence of
x-values diverges to infinity, and the distance between each pair of intercepts is given by




1
n+1
ln(n + 1) ln n = ln
= ln 1 +
.
n
n
Since ln(1 + n1 ) <
series:

1
n

for each n, the series of gaps between intercepts has a total length less than the harmonic
 X


1
1
<
.
ln 1 +
n
n
n=1
n=1

Since the sequence of x-intercepts diverges, the harmonic series must diverge.

12

Proof 37
This is another visual proof comparing the harmonic series to a divergent integral. It is similar to Proof 9
of [13].
y
..
.
7
1/7

y=
1/6

1x
x

5
1/5

4
1/4

3
1/3

2
1/2

1
1

1+

1/2

1 1 1 1
+ + + + >
2 3 4 5

1x
dx =
x

Proof 38
Here is a matrix version of Johann Bernoullis proof (Proof 13 of [13]). We start by defining the infinite
matrices M (square) and h:

Notice that hT M h =

2 0

0 0

M = 0

..
.

0 3

0 0

0 0

4 0

0 0
.. ..
. .

0 5
.. ..
. .

0
..
.

1
n=1 n

=1+

1
2

1
3

1
4

..
.

1/2

h = 1/3

1/4

..
.

+ . Therefore our goal is to show that hT M h = .

Let Jk be the infinite square matrix with ones along the superdiagonal starting at row k and with zeros

13

elsewhere. For example,

J3 =

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 1

0 0

0 0

0 0

1 0

0 0
.. ..
. .

0 0
.. ..
. .

0 1
.. ..
. .

..
.

It follows that M = J1 + J1 + J2 + J3 + J4 + (in the sense that, for any n, the equality holds for the n n
leading, principal submatrices).

By expanding hT J1 h, we find that

h T J1 h =

1
= 1.
n(n + 1)
n=1

From here it is easy to show (perhaps by induction) that

h T Jk h =

1
.
k

Now suppose that the harmonic series converges with sum S. Then we have
S = hT M h =
=

hT (J1 + J1 + J2 + J3 + J4 + )h

h T J 1 h + h T J1 h + h T J2 h + h T J3 h + h T J4 h +

1+1+

1 + S.

1
2

1
3

1
4

The conclusion, S = 1 + S, is impossible unless S = .

Proof 39 (Ces`
aro summability)
It is not difficult to prove the following result (see for example [11, pages 128129]), which was studied in
detail by the Italian mathematician Ernesto Ces`aro.
Pn
ak converges with sum S and let Sn =
k=1 ak . Then the sequence of
1 Pn

average partial sums, { n k=1 Sk }n=1 , also converges to S.

Suppose that

k=1

In order to use this result, let

Hn = 1 +
and notice that

1X
Hk
n

k=1

1
n

1
1 1 1
+ + + + ,
2 3 4
n

n n1 n2
1
+
+
+ +
1
2
3
n

1 X nk+1
n
k
k=1

(A Proof Without Words for this last fact is given in [17].)

14

Hn
Hn 1 +
n

The divergence of the harmonic series now follows by contradiction. Assuming that the harmonic series
converges with sum S, we have
n

S = lim

1X
Hk
n
k=1



Hn
= S 1 + 0.
= lim Hn 1 +
n
n

Proof 40
The following proof was given by Augustus De Morgan [6]. Similar to several of the previous proofs, it is
included here for its historical significance. De Morgan claims to have been shown this proof many years
prior to its publication by his young student J. J. Sylvester, who himself went on to become a famous
mathematician. De Morgans presentation is duplicated verbatim:
It is well known that when a b + c d + . . . consists of terms diminishing without limit, the series is

convergent, with a limit between a and a b. Now

1 +

1
2

1
3

1
4

...

is

1
2

1
3

1
4
1
2

...

...

And if it be S, we have S = a + S, where a is finite. Hence S is infinite.

Proof 41
This proof was given by Cusumano [5]. Suppose m is an integer greater than 1.

X
1
n
n=1

 

1
1
1
1
+
+ +
+ + 2
1
m
m+1
m
 


1
1
1
1
+ + 3 +
+ + 4 +
+
m2 + 1
m
m3 + 1
m

>

m4 m3
m m2 m m3 m2
+
+
+
+
m
m2
m3
m4

= 1+

m(m 1) m2 (m 1) m3 (m 1)
+
+
+
mm
m2 m
m3 m

= 1+

m1 m1 m1
+
+
+
m
m
m

=
Notice that if the first term on the right is rewritten,




1
1
1
1
=1+
,
+ +
+ +
1
m
2
m
Cusumanos proof becomes precisely the generalization of Oresmes classical proof that was described after
Proof 1 of [13].

15

Proof 42 (Eulers constant)

There are a variety of proofs of divergence of the harmonic series that in some way make use of the EulerMascheroni constant. This constant is often defined by the following limit:
!
n
X
1
= lim
ln(n) 0.5772156649.
n
k
k=1

Once this limit has been established (see for example [14, page 623, exercise 75]), it is clear that the partial
P
sums, Hn = nk=1 k1 , are unbounded.
Here is a different proof involving . Let n be a fixed positive integer. For k = 1, 2, 3, . . ., let
n

Sk =
For example,

1 X 1

.
k j=1 kn + j

1
1
1

,
n+1 n+2
2n
1
1
1
1

,
S2 =
2 2n + 1 2n + 2
3n
S1 = 1

and
Sn1 =
Since

1
1
1
1

2.
n 1 (n 1)n + 1 (n 1)n + 2
n
n

X 1
n
n
<
<
,
kn + n j=1 kn + j
kn + 1

we have

n
1
n
1
1
1

< Sk <
=
.
k kn + 1
k kn + n
k
k+1
P
P  1

It follows that the sequence { m

S
}
is
increasing,
bounded
above
by
k=1 k m=1
k=1 k
0<

1
k+1

therefore convergent to a positive number no greater than 1. The limit is in fact (see [16]).

= 1, and

Now notice that

1
= 2Hn Hn2 .
n
Assuming that the harmonic series converges to H and taking the limit as n , we have
S1 + S2 + Sn1 +

= 2H H = H,
an obvious contradiction.

Some additional proofs

Here are a couple of proofs involving probability theory. Because they are too advanced for the typical
calculus student, they are not duplicated here.

1
n

= : A Micro-Lesson on Probability and Symmetry by Omer Adleman, Amer. Math. Monthly,

November 2007, pages 809810

16

 A Proof of Divergence of the Harmonic Series Using Probability Theory by Arnab Kumar Laha, International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, June 2006, pages 502503

References
[1] E. R. Bobo, A sequence related to the harmonic series, College Mathematics Journal, 26 (1995),
pp. 308310.
[2] D. M. Bradley, A note on the divergence of the harmonic series, American Mathematical Monthly,
107 (2000), p. 651.
[3] H. Chen and C. Kennedy, Harmonic series meets Fibonacci sequence, The College Mathematics
Journal, 43 (2012), pp. 237243.
[4] D. T. Clancy and S. J. Kifowit, A closer look at Bobos sequence, The College Mathematics Journal,
45 (2014), pp. 199206.
[5] A. Cusumano, Generalization of Oresmes standard method of showing the divergence of the harmonic
series, American Mathematical Monthly, 119 (2012), p. 210.
[6] A. De Morgan, On the summation of divergent series, The Assurance Magazine, and the Journal of
the Institute of Actuaries, 12 (1865), pp. 245252.
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P1

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