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EnEineei'ing Design
Chapter
initial
obtain their approval, the team presents the preliminary engineering design
specification in a design review meeting, or in a memorandum or technical
report.
Formulation design
Literature surveys
Market studies
Customer needs?
Focus groups
Observation studies
Benchmark studies
Competition?
Functional requirements
Customer?
The formulating plocess summar izedin Figur e 3.1is no doubt an oversimplification of how individual teams formulate design problems in their
companies. However, the figure does illustrate that a product development
team processes a significant amount of information. The figure also emphasizes the need for a common understanding among team members and management.
Targets?
Constraints?
Evaluation criteria?
In the next sections of this chapter we examine the specific types of information to be processed and methods that facilitate buildirg .onr.nirr.
interpret
Summarize
3,2
discontinue
situations to identify the types of information we might search for and acquire
in any given design problem.
FIGURE 3.1 The process of formulating a design problem includes seeking and interpreting
information, gaining team consensus on the basics of the problem, and obtaining approval from
management to proceed.
The
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Engineering Design
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Are there
an,v height,
Balt-Bearing Selection Design Example, Bail bearings are standard subassemblies made by a number of manufacturers. Each subassembly includes:
an outer ring, inner ring, balls, and ball separator. Optional features include
shields anci seais. When we design a ball bearing we select a type and size from
a manufacturer's catalog based on rated load capacity. The type and size
depend on a number of requirements, including:
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as:
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Chapter
Engineering Design
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TABLE 3.1 Customer Importance Weights
B.v
Yo
2A
Yo
lA
o/o
15
total
5A
<o/
)lo
Function.
Weight
Function
Yo
100 %
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penses, repair and maintenance expenses (..g., replacement parts, lubricants), useful life before replacement, salvage vaiue (.,g., resale or trade-in
value), and disposal costs. Taken as a rvhole, these are often called the
iife-cycle cost of ownership. Customers typicaliy scrutinize the life-cycle
costs
Repair. The costs and convenience associated with broken or worn parts may
be of importance, especially for unexpected breakdowns or damage due to
accidents.
Retiremer. Aproduct may need to be disassembled at the end of its useful life
for remanufacturing or recycling some of its components. Some cornponents may have scrap value. Others may have disposal fees and require
regulatory procedures.
Reliabillry. Customers expect their products to work all of the time. Reliability
is a measure of the iikelihood that a product and all of its components
work
Robustness.
Pollution. The customer may require specific considerations of air, u,ater, and
noise pollution.
Sa.fet1,. Products
must not injure anyone or damage anything during their instaliation, use, or retirement. Manufacturers are ethically and iegally responsibie to ensure that their products are free from hazards caused b),
defects of design and manufacture.
Ease
customer need to be trained before using the product (e.g., private airplane,
ali-terrain vehicie, computer numerical control (CNC) machine, or firearm)? In other words. will the product be user-friendly?
47
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Engineering Design
Manufacturing Manufacturing requirements pertain to purchasing, fabrication, assembiy, warehousing, and distribution, Since the final cost of a product
relates to labor, materials, and manufacturing processes used, each company
may have special advantages or limitations to take into consideration.
Perhaps the most important factor is the expected annual production
volume (number of units made). Mass-produced food products, chemicals.
automobiles, iight bulbs, and refrigerators use continuous production
processes. Raw materials, parts, and subassemblies fiow through the factor,v
plant without being stored. Batch production, which fabricates and inventories parts and subassembiies in batches, is often used to make products such
as bicvcles, helicopters. inflatabie kayaks, and miiiing machines. A custom-design machine tool is an example of "one-off" production.
High-production-volume manufacturing processes such as injection molding
Chapter
and die casting would not be considered for it. Lean manufacturing is a
production practice that tries to minimize inventory handiing and storage
often associated with batch production.
Financing The product development team will also obtain information that
can be used to prepare estimates
of the capital expenditures necessary to purchase and install manufacturing equipment or modify existing facilities.
Similarly, projections of sales revenues, expenses, - profits, and return on
investment wiil be estimated. These estimates are usually prepared and
updated throughout the product development project. The figures are periodicaily reviewed by senior management to determine whether to continue or
terminate the project.
Other In some cases, existing patents may block the product design. If a iicense agreement cannot be negotiated with the patent hold er,, a new design
concept will have to be considered. Similarly, legal and voluntary regulations,
standards, and codes need to be examined.
A
summar,v
TABLE
3.2
Customer Requirements
Companv requirements
Functional performance
MotionsiKinematics
Marketing
Customer / Consumer
Forces/torques
Energl' conversion/usage
Control
Geometric limitations
Operating Environment
Reiiability
Robustness
Maintenance
Pollution
Repair
Retirement
pressure
Competition
Strategy
Time to market
Pricing
Advertising
Sales demand / targets
Manufacturing
Production quantity
Processes, Materials
New factory equipment
Warehousing & distribution
Financial
Product Development Investment
Return on investment
Other
Regulations, Standards. Codes
Patents / intellectual prope,rty
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Engineering Design
Chapter
must be less than 5 feet," or "a left-handed thread is required." Implicit constraints, on the other hand, are those restrictions that ur.1*pHed, oi grrrrally
understood, but not directly stated. For example, the customer implicitly wants a
safe product. More generally, safety implies that all the parts will not buckle,
fracture, melt, corrode and so on.
When a design for a part, product or process satisfies all the constraints it
is calied a feasible design. Those alternative designs violating any constraints
are said to be infeasible. During the parametric design phase we will generate
a number of alternative designs, predict their performance, and check that the
constraints are satisfied for each design. Only those designs that are feasible
will be developed further.
as engineering characteristics.
We aiso designate appropriate units and limits for each engineering characteristic. Limits refer to minimum or maximum values that customers often
demanC, such as: needrngat least 10 miles per gallon of fuel. A few engineering
characterjstics for the motorcycle example are given in Table 3.3.
TABLE
3.3
Subfunction
Engineenng
Characteristic Units
cranking time
cushion compression
acceieration
top speed
0-60 mph
steering torque
turning radius
suspension travel
seconds
Limits
< 6 sec
inches
feet/sec2
mph/kph
seconds
> 32 ftls2
> 90 mph
< 6 sec
pound-ft
feet
Inches
> 5 inches
3.2.4 Constraints
Restrictions on function or form are calied constraints. Constraints limit our
freedom to design. Maximum or minimum performance iimits reiating to the
desired functions or subfunctions are appropriatei,v calieci constraints. Specific
limitations regarding shape, size, configuration, materials. or manufacturing
processes are aiso called constraints. Constraints aiso originate from economic
or iegal considerations. Finaliy, constraints derive from tire iaws of nature. The
conservation of energ1,, and static equilibrium for exampie. are often used to
develop constraints.
During formuiation, we take careful note of ail expiicitly stated constraints. For example, "injection molding must be used." "the customer
requires aiuminum components," "a round tank is required." "The length
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Engineering Design
TABLE
3.4
Speed
Top-speed (mph)
Satisfaction Ievel
0<speeds90
90<speed<100
100<speeds110
Not satisfied
Hardly satisfied
12A<speeds135
135<speed<150
speed > 150
!
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Somewhat satisfied
Moderately satisfied
Very satisfied
Most satisfied
Most satisfied
(n
150
90
3.5
Top-speed (mph)
Satisfaction level
0<speeds90
90<speeds100
100<speedsilO
110 < speed r12
72A<speedsl35
i35<speeds150
Not satisfied
Hardly satisfied
0.0
Somewhat satisfied
M.oderately satisfied
0.5
Very satisfied
Mcst satisfied
0.9
satisfied
i.0
Most
0.3
0.8
1.0
!
(-)
U)
Graphing provides a third means to provide satisfaction values as a function of a performance variable. Let's continue with the high-performance motorcycle. Using focus groups and other customer satisfaction assessment
information, we might decide that our customers would be totally unsatisfied
with a bike having a top speed of less than 90 miles-per-hour. Further, we
decide that the customer would be totall), satisfied with any speed greater than
150 miles per hour. Let's also assume that the customers would be proportionately satisfied in between those speeds. Let's use the value of 0.0 for not
satisfied and 1.0 for totall.v satisfied. Rather than using a tabie, we graph a
satisfacticn versus "top speed" curve as the dashed line shown in Figure 3.2.
We could simiiarl,v decide the customer's satisfaction with respect to cushion
compression and cranking time, as shown in Figure 3.3 and Figure 3.4.
l-lsing the customer satisfaction curves for cushion compression and
cranking time, we can readily deiermine that the customer will be unsatisfied
with cushions too soft or too stiff. and that a cranking time greater than 6 seconds is unacceptabie. Having that knowledge. in a quantifiable manner, will
help us decide which rnotorcycle desien candidates are "better," that is. satisf,v
our customer the most.
In general, satisfaction curves fall into three catesrries: 1) more-is-better,
(2) target-value-is-better (i.e., nominal-is-better), and (3) less-is-better. These
same categories are illustrated in Figures 3.2-3.4. Note that the shape of a
satisfaction curve is arbitrarr may be curved rather than linear. The curves
are shown here as dashed lines to emphasze that they are estimates of the
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Cranking time (seconds)
FIGURE
3.4
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Engineering Design
Chapter
company
experts and upper management for their experience, wisdom, and guidance.
and manufacturing.
will focus on desired aesthetics, while the design engineer will concentrate on
3.3
INFORMATION SOURCES
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As we consider the entire product realzati.on process, from identifying customer requirements to delivering the finished product, we recognize that thousands of decisions by many different people using various evaluation criteria
are invoived. Hopefully our company will appoint a concurrent engineering
product developmeni team that is collocated, cross functional, and coordinateC by a'high-ranking manager. But will the product have the quality that
the customer is expecting?
to a group of
empioyees
in the
"finance"
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Chapter
Engineering Design
Coupling
-l
Engineering characteristics
that structure (1) product, (2) part, (3) process, and (4) production information. Since representatives from all corners of the company are involved in
the decision making, the method achieves a high ievel of consensus, and
consequently results in high-quality products. In other words, quality, as
defined by the customer, is deployed throughout the company" Let's examine
the first of the four houses. the house of quality for product planning.
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Customer
requirements
o
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Correlation
Benchmark
satisfaction
ratings
ratings
O.
3.4.3
Benchmark
performance
chapter.
New product
The real value of the HoQ is not the diagram. Rather, the real value lies
in the required group discussion and decision making, which leads the team to
a common understanding of the design problem.
Recall that during probiem formulation the team tries to obtain a detailed uncierstanciing of the design problem. It gathers and evaluates information relating to: customer and company requirernents, their importance
weights. engineering characteristics, and competitive products used as benchmarks. Some of this work will be done in groups. But, a lot of the work will be
done individuall,v. If discussion and summary are a group activit,v, however,
the team is iike, to obtain a consensus of opinion on many aspects of the
product design requirements.
The HoQ for product planning, shown in Figure 3.5. systematically struc-
performance targets
FIGURE
l.
3.5
/).
frequentiy used to express the "voice of the customer." The iist should
contain oniy the more important requirements and rarely exceeds 25 items.
to 1.0.
3. Engineertg Characteristics (Roont 3). Along the top row, underneath the
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Chapter
Engineering Design
59
quirement.
Matrix (Room 4).At the intersection of a row and column is a cell that is used to indicate the amount of correlation betrveen a
4. Correlation R.atings
ExamPle
A product development team has been formed to design
Figure 3.6b.
Engineerins Characteristics (units)
-)
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ment. we list performance targets, or desirable goais for the new product.
B. Coupling Marrix (Room B). The trianguiar roof of the HoQ, cailed the
coupling matrix, is a matrix of values that estimate the amount of coupling"
or interaction, between engineering characteristics. Rating numbers such as
1 (iow),3, and 9 (high) are given for positive coupiing and -1, -3, and -9 for
negative coupling. Uncoupleci engineering characteristics can be optimized,
one by one, without affecting other engineering characteristics. Inverseiy
correlated characteristics indicate that compromises will need to be made,
or "trade off." In other words, if we improve one characteris'iic we will
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0.10
0.05
0.05
0.20
0.05
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0.05
Satisfaction
C.i
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10
bo
(0.00- 1.00)
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12
13
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0.9
1.0
1.0
0.6
0.9
0.8
0.20
9
a
0.10
A
0.8
0.05
CP
0.9
0.15
Rating
.J
current product(CP)
competitior A: Model #25
competitor B
New Product Targets
3.6a
Customer
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I,{ew Product Targets (Room 7). Beiow the performance statistics, in the base-
use
7.
for
rnatrix we list custorner ratings for competitive products used as benchmarks. First, the team rates its own current product (CP), if it has one, as to
how well it satisfies the customer on each requirement. Then, the team
rates each competitive product. This, of course. requires the team to consider what the customer thinks about each alternative product. Market research data can be used too. A new product idea can also be added to the
in homes or offices. The team has obtained market research data and, combined with their own
ttllllll
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4.7
0.8
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60
Chapter
Engineering Design
Interaction Matrix
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FIGURE 3.6b The "roof' of the l{ouse of Qualitv for an eiectric pencil sharpener is shown here
in a convenient spreadsheet format.
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FIGURE 3.7 Quaiity function deployment method uses cascading house of quaiitv diagrams to
structure product, part, process, and production information
61
Chapter
Engineering Design
priorities.
Note that the EDS is sornetims called a product design specification (PDS)
(..g. pugh, lggi). This step is equivalent to preparing a "statement of the
probl**;' that we find in general problem-soiving methods.
Not all of the details will be known at this time. Therefore, we shouid
consider the engineering design specification to be a work-in-progress and
dynamic in nature. As we develop the product, more information and know. teOge develops. Therefore, \rye can fine-tune the EDS as we proceed, even up
to tie point of production engineering. Of course, the more we can set forth in
an EDb, the btter. That will save us time and effort since in a manufacturing
enterprise, changes are documented by engineering change notices that need
io be circulated through the company for approval signatures"
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3.6
Cover page
Title. dale,stakehoiders
Intreduetion
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Appearance
Reliabiiit,v
Robustness
Maintenance
Poilution
Repair
Retirement
Cornpany requirements
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note the absence of the word "design" in the phrase. Engineers design
equipment, systems, piants, and facilities in addition to just products. Therefore, the phrase "engineering design specification" is perhaps more appropriatebecause it inciudes "design" and covers more than just products,
[ngineering design specification * Product specification
Engineering design specification = FroCuct design specification
As the team prepares the EDS, draft sections are circulated among team
members for review and comment. Frequent discussions may result as team
mernbers resolve specific issues. A tearn rneeting is often convened to discuss
contents. The finished version, however, usually integrates different
viewpoints into a common understanding of the design problem. In other
words, the process of writing the EDS establishes a team conssnsus on the
important customer and compally requirements.
The engineering design specification provides a convenient mechanism
to communicate the team's findings to all stakeholders. In some cases, the
ES is presented to upper management in a design review meeting to obtain
their approval to continue the product development efforts.
its
Examptre
Smart Kitchens, Inc. makes a variety of kitchen appliances for residential use.
The company is interested in expanding their product line into electric coffeemakers.
The typical Smart Kitchens customer wants a coffeemaker that can brew about B cups
of hot, delicious coffee. Company rnanagement formed a product development team
that gathered and interpreted pertinent data. The team then summarized their findings
in a preliminary engineering design specification, shown in Tables 3.7-3.8 and Figures
3.8-3.i0.
Marketing
Manufacturing
Financial
Regulations. Standards, Codes
Patents / intellectual ProPertY
Other
Appendices
Site visit data
Sales/Marketing data
House of Qualiq;
TABLE
3.7
Title: New Coffee N{aker for Smart Kitchens, Inc., May 2009
Introductlon
E
Custonler Requirements
Functional performance
Note that the term "product specifications" is different from the EDS.
product specifications refer to printed information abou.t the finished product,
usually given to the customer in the owner's manual or "instructions" sheet.
For example, a product specification sheet for a water pump might list items
such as: weignt 3 pounds,, 120 volts, and pumps 5 gallons per minute. Also,
r lnput
Operating environment
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Chapter
Engineering Design
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Geometric lirnitations
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beverage
246
supply voltage
Safety
r Will
Pollution
r Will not
a<
Ease of use
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Human factors
No large forces or torques required to operate
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1.5
and males
Appearance
8.5
example
Company Requirements
Markeling
' Retail price should be
less
than $30
Manufacturing
E Production run quantity is estimated at about 25.000 units
.*L
plant
Financial
Other
135
775
Temperature ("F)
Appendices
SaleslMarketing data
House of Quality
FIGURE 3.10 Customer satisfaction versus beverage brewing temperature (in degr:ees Fahrenheit) for the example coffeemaker.
65