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Review article
Central Laboratory of Mineralogy and Crystallography, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Street, Block 107, Soa 1113, Bulgaria
Institute for Energy, Joint Research Centre, European Commission, P.O. Box 2, NL-1755 ZG Petten, The Netherlands
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 13 July 2009
Received in revised form 20 October 2009
Accepted 21 October 2009
Available online 10 November 2009
Keywords:
Biomass
Biomass ash
Chemical composition
Chemical associations
a b s t r a c t
An extended overview of the chemical composition of biomass was conducted. The general considerations and some problems related to biomass and particularly the composition of this fuel are discussed.
Reference peer-reviewed data for chemical composition of 86 varieties of biomass, including traditional
and complete proximate, ultimate and ash analyses (21 characteristics), were used to describe the biomass system. It was shown that the chemical composition of biomass and especially ash components
are highly variable due to the extremely high variations of moisture, ash yield, and different genetic types
of inorganic matter in biomass. However, when the proximate and ultimate data are recalculated respectively on dry and dry ash-free basis, the characteristics show quite narrow ranges. In decreasing order of
abundance, the elements in biomass are commonly C, O, H, N, Ca, K, Si, Mg, Al, S, Fe, P, Cl, Na, Mn, and Ti. It
was identied that the chemical distinctions among the specied natural and anthropogenic biomass
groups and sub-groups are signicant and they are related to different biomass sources and origin,
namely from plant and animal products or from mixtures of plant, animal, and manufacture materials.
Respective chemical data for 38 solid fossil fuels were also applied as subsidiary information for clarifying
the biomass composition and for comparisons. It was found that the chemical composition of natural biomass system is simpler than that of solid fossil fuels. However, the semi-biomass system is quite complicated as a result of incorporation of various non-biomass materials during biomass processing. It was
identied that the biomass composition is signicantly different from that of coal and the variations
among biomass composition were also found to be greater than for coal. Natural biomass is: (1) highly
enriched in Mn > K > P > Cl > Ca > (Mg, Na) > O > moisture > volatile matter; (2) slightly enriched in H;
and (3) depleted in ash, Al, C, Fe, N, S, Si, and Ti in comparison with coal. The correlations and associations
among 20 chemical characteristics are also studied to nd some basic trends and important relationships
occurring in the natural biomass system. As a result of that ve strong and important associations,
namely: (1) CH; (2) NSCl; (3) SiAlFeNaTi; (4) CaMgMn; and (5) KPSCl; were identied
and discussed. The potential applications of these associations for initial and preliminary classication,
prediction and indicator purposes related to biomass were also introduced or suggested. However, future
detailed data on the phasemineral composition of biomass are required to explain actually such chemical trends and associations.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
914
914
914
916
917
923
923
923
924
* Corresponding author. Address: Central Laboratory of Mineralogy and Crystallography, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Street, Block 107, Soa 1113,
Bulgaria. Tel.: +359 2 9797055; fax: +359 2 9797056.
E-mail address: vassilev_stan@yahoo.com (S.V. Vassilev).
0016-2361/$ - see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2009.10.022
914
3.
2.1.3.
Ultimate composition of biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4.
High-temperature ash (HTA) composition of biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Correlations and associations among chemical composition of biomass and their potential applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1.
Correlations and associations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2.
Potential applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
925
926
928
928
928
931
932
932
Table 1
General classication of biomass varieties as solid fuel resources according to their biological diversity, source and origin.
Biomass groups
Coniferous or deciduous; angiospermous or gymnospermous; soft or hard; stems, branches, foliage, bark, chips,
lumps, pellets, briquettes, sawdust, sawmill and others from various wood species
Annual or perennial and eld-based or processed-based such as:
2.1. Grasses and owers (alfalfa, arundo, bamboo, bana, brassica, cane, cynara, miscanthus, switchgrass, timothy,
others)
2.2. Straws (barley, bean, ax, corn, mint, oat, rape, rice, rye, sesame, sunower, wheat, others)
2.3. Other residues (fruits, shells, husks, hulls, pits, pips, grains, seeds, coir, stalks, cobs, kernels, bagasse, food,
fodder, pulps, cakes, others)
Marine or freshwater algae; macroalgae (blue, green, blue-green, brown, red) or microalgae; seaweed, kelp, lake
weed, water hyacinth, others
Bones, meat-bone meal, chicken litter, various manures, others
Municipal solid waste, demolition wood, refuse-derived fuel, sewage sludge, hospital waste, paper-pulp sludge,
waste papers, paperboard waste, chipboard, breboard, plywood, wood pallets and boxes, railway sleepers,
tannery waste, others
Blends from the above varieties
3. Aquatic biomass
4. Animal and human biomass wastes
5. Contaminated biomass and industrial biomass
wastes (semi-biomass)
6. Biomass mixtures
915
Nomenclature
A
AB
am
CB
daf
db
EDF
FC
HAB
HAG
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
ash yield
animal biomass
as measured
contaminated biomass
dry, ash-free basis
dry basis
enrichment/depletion factor
xed carbon
herbaceous and agricultural biomass
herbaceous and agricultural grass
HAS
HAR
HTA
LTA
M
R2
SFF
VM
WWB
%
(7) It is commonly accepted that the concentration and behaviour of elements such as Ca, Cl, K, Na, P, S, Si and heavy metals
(more precisely trace elements) are mostly responsible for
many technological and environmental problems during biomass processing. However, the experience from the studies
of other solid fuels [915] shows that the actual reasons for
such problems are most likely connected with the abundance
and behaviour of modes of element occurrence (specic
phases or minerals) in biomass and biomass products.
(8) Most studies used the data from ash yield (shortly ash) or the
bulk chemical composition of ash to explain mineral matter,
mineral composition, minerals, inorganic matter or inorganics, which is not fully correct and can lead to confusion. Furthermore, the inorganic matter in biomass has generally
been divided into two classes, namely inherent (or intrinsic)
and entrained (or extraneous, adventitious, extrinsic, added,
dirt) materials. However, the actual inorganic matter in
biomass could be divided into detrital (terrigenous) and
authigenic genetic classes which are more informative,
well-known and accepted for the solid fossil fuels (SFFs) [16].
(9) Many ndings about the behaviour of organic and inorganic
matter during biomass heating are based only on theoretical
equilibrium and stoichiometric calculations of chemical
data. These indirect investigations may be quite unrealistic
for actual predictions of phases in a multicomponent (polycomponent) system under non-equilibrium conditions. Such
calculations can be used only as a subsidiary prediction procedure of the real and direct (input, output) phase studies of
the systems.
Table 2
Major advantages and disadvantages of biomass or biomass fuels.
Advantages
Disadvantages
916
(10) Sequential chemical fractionation is mostly used to distinguish the speciation of elements in biomass fuels and their
ashes. However, this indirect procedure cannot be applied
to identify the actual modes of element occurrence. Leaching
alone has many limitations and can be used only as preliminary information for some possible associations of elements. Other direct methods applied for coal [17] and coal
ash [18] should be used for such a purpose.
(11) The problems related to biomass ash utilization are only at
an initial stage of investigation and they need further clarication. For instance, there is no doubt that biomass ashes
contain plant nutrients, namely some compounds of Ca,
Mg, Na, K and P, that have to be recycled back to the soil.
However, the problem is if these compounds occur in accessible (bioavailable) forms in the ash. There are indications
that signicant proportions of the above nutrients are present as water insoluble phases (glass, silicates, phosphates),
while other dangerous trace elements are highly mobile
impurities in surface enriched salts on ash particles. In this
case the fundamental question is what amount of: (1) accessible (water-soluble) or non-accessible (bound into glass)
nutrients; and (2) bioavailable or non-bioavailable trace-element contaminants; will be returned to the biomass cycle
with these ashes? Furthermore, washing of alkali-rich biomass fuels prior to their use may reduce some technological
and environmental problems. However, such future largescale washing may create new environmental concerns
related to the fate of alkali metals, Cl, S, P, and some hazardous trace elements leached from biomass.
(12) There is a strange acceptance that biomass ash does not contain toxic metals like in the case of coal ash. However, certain results for biomass ashes are very disturbing. For
example, maximum concentrations of elements such as As
(243 ppm), Ba (0.37%), Cd (657 ppm), Cr (0.17%), Cu
(0.24%), Hg (7.3 ppm), Mn (4.7%), Mo (114 ppm), Pb (5.0%),
Sb (264 ppm), and Zn (16.4%) were detected in some biomass ashes, particularly lter y ashes [1925]. These concentrations are much greater than in coal ash and they
even have a unique resource recovery potential. Additionally, the trace elements in biomass ash tend to occur in much
more mobile and hazardous compounds than in coal ash
[4,8,9,14,2629]. Systematic studies about the trace elements in biomass and biomass products are also only at an
initial stage of investigation.
(13) Regulations exist in some countries which specify the limiting and guiding values for the contents of Ca, Cl, K, N, S, and
some trace elements (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, V, Zn) in biomass
fuel or ash in respect of their unrestricted use. However, the
bulk concentrations of these elements are less informative
than the abundance of their modes of element occurrence.
(14) There are quite limited data about the exploration of the
impact of biomass varieties during their blending with other
solid fuels.
Table 3
Phase composition of biomass.
Matter
1. Organic matter
2. Inorganic matter
Mineral species from phosphates, carbonates, silicates, chlorides, sulphates, oxyhydroxides, nitrates, and other
mineral classes
Poorly crystallized mineraloids of some silicates, phosphates, hydroxides, others
Amorphous phases such as various glasses, silicates, others
Moisture, gas and gasliquid inclusions associated with both organic and inorganic matter
3. Fluid matter
917
Table 4
Origin of phases in biomass.
Formation process
Place of formation
Time of formation
Formation mechanism
1. Natural
2. Anthropogenic
36.3
70.9
67.5
71.9
46.1
67.0
68.7
30.4
34.5
65.9
35.4
70.1
76.3
73.0
74.3
70.2
66.9
43.3
70.4
79.7
73.6
55.1
67.3
75.7
63.7
74.2
77.5
57.4
62.9
30.4
79.7
9.1
18.3
17.0
17.8
12.9
17.2
15.1
6.5
7.3
23.4
7.0
17.8
11.9
20.0
16.1
23.3
20.0
7.9
14.2
11.5
16.0
9.3
21.4
17.1
24.1
14.3
14.5
12.2
15.1
6.5
24.1
52.6
8.4
8.4
8.4
37.8
8.4
12.0
62.9
56.8
8.4
49.2
8.4
11.5
6.5
6.6
4.7
7.6
47.4
15.3
6.8
8.4
34.9
8.4
6.7
8.4
10.1
7.8
26.4
19.3
4.7
62.9
16.9
9.1
35.3
46.5
71.0
70.2
73.5
73.5
71.9
67.8
72.4
71.8
70.8
69.0
46.5
73.5
71.6
67.4
67.7
Sum
VM
FC
Sum
2.0
2.4
7.1
1.9
3.2
7.4
4.2
0.2
1.4
2.3
8.4
3.7
0.3
0.5
3.0
1.8
5.5
1.4
0.1
2.0
2.0
0.7
2.9
0.5
3.8
1.4
0.2
4.0
2.7
0.1
8.4
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
76.6
77.4
73.7
78.5
74.2
73.1
78.0
82.0
79.9
72.0
69.7
76.6
86.3
78.1
79.6
73.7
72.4
82.2
83.1
85.6
80.3
84.6
73.4
81.2
69.5
82.5
84.1
78.0
78.0
69.5
86.3
19.2
20.0
18.5
19.4
20.7
18.8
17.2
17.5
16.9
25.5
13.8
19.4
13.4
21.4
17.2
24.4
21.6
15.1
16.8
12.3
17.5
14.3
23.4
18.3
26.3
15.9
15.7
16.6
18.5
12.3
26.3
4.2
2.6
7.8
2.1
5.1
8.1
4.8
0.5
3.2
2.5
16.5
4.0
0.3
0.5
3.2
1.9
6.0
2.7
0.1
2.1
2.2
1.1
3.2
0.5
4.2
1.6
0.2
5.4
3.5
0.1
16.5
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
53.2
54.0
51.4
57.0
54.5
50.9
48.7
51.4
52.7
55.0
50.7
52.0
50.1
50.6
49.0
53.8
52.8
51.9
51.0
51.6
53.6
49.8
53.6
52.3
57.0
49.8
49.6
51.4
52.1
48.7
57.0
40.2
39.5
41.8
35.7
38.7
42.5
45.3
42.5
41.1
38.8
42.8
41.3
43.9
42.9
44.9
39.9
40.5
41.3
42.9
41.7
39.3
43.7
40.0
41.2
32.0
43.4
44.1
41.9
41.2
32.0
45.3
6.1
6.2
6.0
6.7
5.9
5.8
5.7
6.0
5.4
5.9
6.0
6.2
5.9
6.1
5.4
5.9
6.1
6.3
6.0
6.1
6.7
6.0
6.2
6.1
10.2
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.2
5.4
10.2
12.0
4.4
47.9
5.1
0.8
18.6
100.0
75.2
59.3
85.5
19.1
12.4
37.9
5.7
0.9
20.1
100.0
49.9
42.2
58.4
42.6
34.2
49.0
9.5
15.2
15.9
12.3
15.7
14.0
16.3
12.6
16.8
12.8
14.1
9.5
16.8
42.0
13.0
4.5
10.0
7.5
11.4
7.7
11.3
7.0
11.9
12.6
4.5
42.0
2.0
0.8
9.4
4.2
3.3
2.7
8.2
3.7
4.4
4.5
4.3
0.8
9.4
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
80.2
81.6
73.6
81.6
79.4
81.2
73.4
81.6
77.2
80.4
79.0
73.4
81.6
16.4
17.5
16.6
13.7
17.0
15.8
17.7
14.2
18.1
14.5
16.2
13.7
18.1
3.4
0.9
9.8
4.7
3.6
3.0
8.9
4.2
4.7
5.1
4.8
0.9
9.8
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
48.7
52.0
50.1
46.1
48.4
49.2
49.4
49.4
49.7
49.7
49.2
46.1
52.0
14.3
16.4
17.8
9.3
11.5
7.4
4.8
4.7
7.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
78.9
76.2
73.1
15.8
18.5
19.2
5.3
5.3
7.7
100.0
100.0
100.0
49.9
49.4
48.7
nd
Reference used
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.02
0.01
0.05
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
4
1
1
11
1
2
28
28
28
[63]
[51]
[51]
[51]
[63]
[51]
[74,75]
[63]
[63,67,68]
[51]
[63]
[51]
[63]
[43]
[54,81]
[51,73]
[77]
[79]
[73]
[63]
[51]
[52]
[51,73]
[35,43]
[51]
[63,67,73]
[72]
[63]
Cl (db)
N
Sum
0.5
0.2
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.3
0.1
0.7
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.1
0.3
0.7
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.1
0.6
0.3
0.5
0.1
0.3
0.7
0.6
0.1
0.5
0.4
0.1
0.7
0.04
0.10
0.11
0.10
0.42
0.11
0.05
0.03
0.10
0.10
0.07
0.11
0.01
0.10
0.03
0.07
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.10
0.02
0.10
0.10
0.11
0.06
0.06
0.08
0.08
0.01
0.42
100.04
100.00
100.01
100.00
100.02
100.01
100.05
100.03
100.00
100.00
99.97
100.01
100.01
100.00
100.03
99.97
99.99
100.01
100.01
100.02
100.00
100.02
100.00
100.00
100.01
99.96
99.96
99.98
99.98
6.2
3.2
9.2
1.2
0.1
3.4
0.15
0.01
0.60
100.05
0.20
0.01
0.83
44
44
44
44.5
42.5
42.9
44.5
44.5
44.2
42.7
44.0
43.7
43.4
43.7
42.5
44.5
6.1
5.1
6.0
6.5
6.0
6.0
6.3
6.3
6.1
6.1
6.1
5.1
6.5
0.6
0.4
0.9
2.6
1.0
0.4
1.5
0.3
0.4
0.7
0.9
0.3
2.6
0.13
0.04
0.13
0.27
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.05
0.09
0.11
0.13
0.04
0.27
100.03
100.04
100.03
99.97
100.05
99.95
100.05
100.05
99.99
100.01
100.03
0.20
0.08
0.83
0.17
0.13
0.06
0.04
0.30
0.08
0.21
0.04
0.83
1
3
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
3
10
10
10
[63]
[64]
[63]
[63]
[73]
[63,73]
[73]
[63]
[73]
[63]
40.8
43.6
44.1
6.3
6.2
6.4
2.8
0.7
0.7
0.21
0.13
0.08
100.01
100.03
99.98
0.50
0.27
0.64
1
2
1
[63]
[69,73]
[77]
0.02
0.26
0.19
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.06
0.01
0.03
0.03
0.01
VM
918
Table 5
Chemical composition of 86 varieties of biomass plus algae and four solid fossil fuel types based on proximate and ultimate analyses. The Cl contents are additionally given, wt.%.
58.0
73.9
70.7
59.4
64.3
67.2
66.7
58.0
73.9
16.2
12.5
16.3
14.4
13.8
16.3
15.3
12.5
17.8
16.8
8.2
8.7
7.6
12.4
10.1
10.2
7.4
16.8
9.0
5.4
4.3
18.6
9.5
6.4
7.8
4.3
18.6
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
69.7
80.5
77.4
64.3
73.4
74.8
74.3
64.3
80.5
19.5
13.6
17.9
15.6
15.8
18.1
17.1
13.6
19.5
10.8
5.9
4.7
20.1
10.8
7.1
8.6
4.7
20.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
50.6
48.8
48.5
50.1
48.8
49.4
49.4
48.5
50.6
40.1
44.6
44.5
43.0
44.5
43.6
43.2
40.1
44.6
6.2
6.0
6.4
5.7
5.6
6.1
6.1
5.6
6.4
2.8
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
0.7
1.2
0.5
2.8
0.28
0.08
0.10
0.16
0.13
0.17
0.15
0.08
0.28
99.98
99.98
100.00
99.96
100.03
99.97
100.05
0.43
0.09
0.03
0.58
0.54
0.61
0.41
0.03
0.64
1
1
1
3
2
12
9
9
9
[63]
[74,75]
[77]
[63,65,76]
[66,72]
[43,63,69,73,76,78]
69.0
69.5
70.5
68.2
73.0
59.2
68.1
71.5
68.5
73.7
72.3
60.2
46.3
68.8
60.5
58.5
75.5
53.7
56.1
69.6
76.6
69.1
61.8
41.5
55.3
64.6
41.5
76.6
18.8
20.2
22.0
18.5
16.9
23.8
20.9
19.9
22.0
17.4
18.7
22.8
12.0
15.6
19.5
24.4
15.7
11.8
17.2
19.0
11.1
19.0
12.9
9.1
35.3
18.6
9.1
35.3
6.5
7.2
4.4
10.8
6.9
10.0
7.9
7.2
5.6
6.8
6.1
10.6
36.4
11.0
6.5
9.7
7.5
33.6
10.6
6.3
10.4
9.1
23.5
47.9
6.8
12.4
4.4
47.9
5.7
3.1
3.1
2.5
3.2
7.0
3.1
1.4
3.9
2.1
2.9
6.4
5.3
4.6
13.5
7.4
1.3
0.9
16.1
5.1
1.9
2.8
1.8
1.5
2.6
4.4
0.9
16.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
73.8
74.9
73.8
76.5
78.4
65.8
73.9
77.1
72.6
79.0
77.0
67.3
72.8
77.3
64.7
64.8
81.6
80.8
62.8
74.3
85.5
76.0
80.7
79.6
59.3
74.0
59.3
85.5
20.1
21.8
23.0
20.7
18.2
26.4
22.7
21.4
23.3
18.7
19.9
25.5
18.9
17.5
20.9
27.0
17.0
17.8
19.2
20.3
12.4
20.9
16.9
17.5
37.9
21.0
12.4
37.9
6.1
3.3
3.2
2.8
3.4
7.8
3.4
1.5
4.1
2.3
3.1
7.2
8.3
5.2
14.4
8.2
1.4
1.4
18.0
5.4
2.1
3.1
2.4
2.9
2.8
5.0
1.4
18.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
50.6
50.3
51.1
45.4
50.4
54.0
50.9
51.5
45.8
50.0
52.8
58.4
51.5
51.0
42.2
45.7
50.9
49.9
49.3
45.4
49.8
50.4
54.9
55.1
49.9
50.2
42.2
58.4
41.7
42.5
43.1
48.3
39.8
37.4
40.4
41.6
44.4
42.1
39.4
34.2
40.1
39.5
49.0
47.1
41.8
42.4
43.7
46.9
43.9
43.0
36.9
36.5
42.4
41.9
34.2
49.0
6.4
6.2
5.6
4.9
8.4
6.1
7.5
5.5
9.2
6.2
6.6
5.8
6.6
6.5
5.0
3.2
6.4
6.7
6.1
6.7
6.0
5.5
6.7
6.7
6.2
6.3
3.2
9.2
1.2
1.0
0.1
1.1
1.4
2.4
1.2
1.4
0.4
1.6
1.1
1.4
1.5
2.7
3.2
3.4
0.7
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.2
1.1
1.4
1.6
1.4
1.4
0.1
3.4
0.07
0.05
0.10
0.35
0.01
0.15
0.02
0.04
0.20
0.05
0.07
0.23
0.30
0.27
0.57
0.60
0.22
0.08
0.08
0.10
0.06
0.03
0.11
0.12
0.09
0.16
0.01
0.60
99.97
100.05
100.00
100.05
100.01
100.05
100.02
100.04
100.00
99.95
99.97
100.03
100.00
99.97
99.97
100.00
100.02
99.98
99.98
100.00
99.96
100.03
100.01
100.02
99.99
99.96
0.02
0.06
0.03
0.10
0.02
0.02
0.15
0.09
0.01
0.21
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
25
25
25
[63]
[35,43,63]
[53]
[53]
[53]
[79]
[53,71]
[35,43]
[53]
[35,43]
[54,63,81]
[77]
[53]
[77]
[77]
[53]
[63]
[63]
[63,82]
[53]
[63]
[43,53]
[63]
[63]
[43]
43.3
61.7
52.5
13.1
12.4
12.8
9.3
2.5
5.9
34.3
23.4
28.8
100.0
100.0
100.0
47.8
63.3
55.5
14.4
12.7
13.6
37.8
24.0
30.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
60.5
57.3
58.9
25.3
20.8
23.1
6.8
8.0
7.4
6.2
12.2
9.2
1.20
1.69
1.45
100.00
99.99
100.05
0.50
0.87
0.69
1
1
2
[77]
[77]
4. Mixture of biomass
75. Biomass mixture
76. Wood-agricultural residue
77. Wood-almond residue
78. Wood-straw residue
Mean
Minimum
Maximum
63.3
54.7
59.7
69.6
61.8
54.7
69.6
16.5
12.7
12.3
15.5
14.2
12.3
16.5
8.8
30.3
22.7
7.3
17.3
7.3
30.3
11.4
2.3
5.3
7.6
6.7
2.3
11.4
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
69.4
78.5
77.2
75.1
75.1
69.4
78.5
18.1
18.2
15.9
16.7
17.2
15.9
18.2
12.5
3.3
6.9
8.2
7.7
3.3
12.5
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
56.7
52.4
50.9
51.7
52.9
50.9
56.7
33.1
41.2
42.5
41.5
39.6
33.1
42.5
6.6
6.0
5.9
6.3
6.2
5.9
6.6
2.7
0.4
0.6
0.4
1.0
0.4
2.7
0.85
0.04
0.08
0.13
0.28
0.04
0.85
99.95
100.04
99.98
100.03
99.98
0.09
0.03
0.03
0.13
0.07
0.03
0.13
1
2
1
1
4
4
4
[77]
[63]
[63]
[63]
79.0
63.4
72.9
76.8
61.0
70.3
11.1
14.5
11.8
6.8
5.5
0.5
4.7
16.3
12.1
8.8
2.5
4.2
5.2
5.8
3.2
7.6
31.0
25.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
82.9
75.8
83.0
84.2
62.6
73.4
11.6
17.3
13.4
7.5
5.6
0.5
5.5
6.9
3.6
8.3
31.8
26.1
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
45.4
51.7
51.8
52.3
70.9
53.8
46.1
40.7
41.8
40.2
16.4
36.8
6.3
6.4
6.1
7.2
11.2
7.8
1.9
1.1
0.3
0.2
1.5
1.1
0.32
0.09
0.04
0.08
0.01
0.47
100.02
99.99
100.04
99.98
100.01
99.97
1
4
1
1
1
2
[63]
[52,63,65,77]
[63]
[63]
[77]
[25,63]
0.01
0.20
0.20
0.04
0.20
0.21
0.13
0.01
0.01
0.12
0.06
0.01
0.05
0.83
919
920
Table 5 (continued)
Biomass group, sub-group and variety
c
d
VM
FC
Sum
VM
FC
Sum
45.0
40.9
63.7
40.9
79.0
5.3
8.4
8.0
0.5
14.5
6.4
38.1
11.6
2.5
38.1
43.3
12.6
16.7
3.2
43.3
100.0
100.0
100.0
48.0
66.0
72.0
48.0
84.2
5.7
13.6
9.4
0.5
17.3
46.3
20.4
18.6
3.6
46.3
100.0
100.0
100.0
50.9
52.2
53.6
45.4
70.9
33.4
40.4
37.0
16.4
46.1
7.3
6.0
7.3
6.0
11.2
64.3
30.4
79.7
15.3
0.5
35.3
14.4
2.5
62.9
6.0
0.1
43.3
100.0
75.4
47.8
86.3
17.8
0.5
37.9
6.8
0.1
46.3
100.0
51.3
42.2
70.9
41.0
16.4
49.0
Natural biomass
Mean
Minimum
Maximum
64.4
30.4
79.7
16.0
6.5
35.3
14.7
2.5
62.9
4.9
0.1
34.3
100.0
75.8
47.8
86.3
18.6
12.3
37.9
5.6
0.1
37.8
100.0
51.1
42.2
60.5
Aquatic biomass
Marine macroalgae
45.1
23.1
10.7
21.1
100.0
50.5
25.9
23.6
100.0
57.8
30.8
12.2
44.5
32.8
33.4
29.1
24.3
43.9
17.9
70.4
25.7
34.1
52.6
14.6
5.5
0.4
20.2
10.5
8.2
3.1
3.3
19.8
5.0
48.9
31.0
24.3
15.2
100.0
100.0
67.6
32.8
12.4
51.8
36.7
36.4
30.0
28.5
46.3
20.0
71.8
28.7
37.2
54.3
3.9
20.9
5.7
52.0
34.6
26.4
15.7
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Cl (db)
nd
Reference used
Sum
6.1
1.1
1.7
0.2
6.1
2.33
0.30
0.46
0.01
2.33
100.03
100.00
100.06
0.04
0.30
0.31
0.04
0.83
2
1
8
8
8
6.3
3.2
11.2
1.2
0.1
12.2
0.19
0.01
2.33
99.99
0.17
0.01
0.87
86
86
86
41.4
20.8
49.0
6.2
3.2
10.2
1.1
0.1
12.2
0.20
0.01
1.69
100.00
0.17
0.01
0.87
78
78
78
43.2
45.8
6.2
2.2
2.60
100.00
3.34
11
[94,95]
56.3
78.2
62.9
86.9
64.0
74.4
83.1
36.2
13.6
4.4
29.9
23.7
17.7
9.5
5.8
5.2
3.5
6.3
5.5
5.6
5.0
1.5
1.3
0.5
2.9
1.0
1.4
1.3
0.2
1.7
0.2
9.8
5.8
0.9
1.1
100.0
100.0
0.04
0.03
0.005
0.11
0.01
0.03
0.04
1
37
37
37
5
10
22
[74,75]
[16,83]
[16,83]
[16,83]
[16,83]
[16,83]
[16,83]
As measured at different basis. For some samples without moisture data the mean contents measured for similar biomass varieties were used.
Dry basis.
Dry, ash-free basis.
Number of samples.
100.0
100.0
100.0
[53,72]
[63]
a
b
921
Table 6
Chemical ash composition of 86 varieties of biomass plus algae and four solid fossil fuel types based on high-temperature ash analyses (normalized to 100%), wt.%. The Mn
contents are additionally given, ppm.
Biomass group, sub-group
and variety
SiO2
CaO
K2O
P2O5
Al2O3
MgO
Fe2O3
SO3
Na2O
26.41
45.76
68.20
69.06
9.75
83.46
57.74
15.10
47.55
59.62
5.79
67.36
15.56
17.48
41.47
56.83
7.89
44.10
48.88
57.33
77.31
44.11
72.39
17.20
53.50
46.09
37.35
11.66
43.03
5.79
83.46
6.10
10.70
2.60
8.99
8.06
5.47
9.29
8.89
10.23
5.12
2.19
7.03
31.99
9.49
25.16
7.78
4.51
22.32
14.38
18.73
8.93
10.83
7.22
9.60
5.64
23.40
11.59
4.85
10.75
2.19
31.99
2.02
4.87
2.30
4.13
2.46
1.62
2.35
3.65
5.05
2.34
0.66
0.79
1.90
1.80
10.75
5.02
1.56
5.73
6.08
0.85
2.48
2.27
2.69
1.90
5.00
13.01
2.90
1.37
3.48
0.66
13.01
12.23
1.91
0.12
0.55
15.12
0.12
3.10
5.02
2.99
2.34
14.85
3.98
4.27
9.49
2.02
7.20
7.04
2.75
2.34
0.68
0.62
4.53
0.68
9.40
8.94
1.96
5.75
12.64
5.09
0.12
15.12
4.04
2.33
11.50
5.92
2.59
2.49
10.91
5.83
7.20
14.57
1.81
6.59
5.92
1.10
3.03
6.19
2.43
11.33
13.80
13.11
2.36
5.34
4.97
1.10
9.04
4.03
7.26
3.06
6.07
1.10
14.57
TiO2
Sum
8.09
2.65
1.10
2.24
9.54
0.37
1.12
8.36
1.42
1.45
5.27
1.43
4.20
8.49
0.88
2.79
5.45
1.25
2.10
1.16
0.74
1.82
1.90
8.30
3.83
0.74
3.27
6.24
3.44
0.37
9.54
0.83
2.86
0.80
2.75
11.66
1.00
3.47
3.72
2.91
2.11
0.36
1.99
3.84
2.60
2.65
2.83
1.19
4.18
2.22
3.77
0.74
2.05
1.88
2.60
2.77
3.00
4.95
1.99
2.78
0.36
11.66
1.81
2.65
0.90
1.85
0.54
0.87
1.86
29.82
1.60
1.22
2.70
1.76
2.00
0.50
3.67
1.97
1.20
0.42
0.35
0.22
4.84
2.48
2.02
0.50
3.40
1.61
2.57
4.47
2.85
0.22
29.82
0.98
0.21
0.10
0.13
0.37
0.12
0.12
0.35
0.40
0.11
0.55
0.12
0.39
0.10
0.13
0.19
0.55
0.17
0.14
0.28
0.12
0.40
0.12
0.10
0.11
0.06
1.20
0.57
0.29
0.06
1.20
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
26.65
2.29
63.90
6.48
0.54
31.06
3.66
0.10
14.60
5.62
0.19
16.21
3.26
0.22
36.27
3.61
0.01
14.74
2.29
0.09
26.20
0.18
0.01
2.02
100.00
32.16
53.38
49.08
41.40
19.14
19.75
2.93
8.97
9.49
9.64
24.59
2.93
53.38
6.60
20.33
3.14
10.96
3.89
5.54
3.88
4.43
3.47
3.92
6.62
3.14
20.33
0.86
0.67
0.92
1.88
2.59
0.79
1.32
1.83
0.81
2.22
1.39
0.67
2.59
3.29
6.57
1.96
5.24
8.64
3.01
1.42
2.21
3.12
4.71
4.02
1.42
8.64
0.92
0.67
0.73
0.90
1.73
0.94
1.04
0.95
0.58
1.36
0.98
0.58
1.73
5.17
3.68
0.97
9.89
8.20
2.28
1.04
1.11
3.47
0.83
3.66
0.83
9.89
0.53
0.31
0.44
6.20
1.87
0.47
0.09
0.25
1.74
0.58
1.25
0.09
6.20
0.11
0.01
0.08
0.06
0.12
0.03
0.05
0.02
0.06
0.28
0.08
0.01
0.28
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
7.87
50.78
49.95
23.49
37.79
40.80
77.20
57.14
50.35
43.94
7.87
77.20
24.87
9.89
14.73
17.63
12.03
30.68
2.46
6.70
8.21
14.13
2.46
30.68
38.14
28.18
18.53
32.01
26.84
13.45
12.59
25.82
24.89
24.49
12.59
38.14
10.38
2.97
2.42
5.77
6.14
2.22
0.98
2.74
3.54
4.13
0.98
10.38
0.10
0.67
5.06
5.57
4.69
5.45
0.55
0.76
1.54
2.71
0.10
5.57
14.10
2.87
4.49
6.90
4.45
2.00
2.71
1.67
2.74
4.66
1.67
14.10
0.41
0.95
2.53
2.82
2.17
2.00
0.50
0.53
0.88
1.42
0.41
2.82
2.62
2.22
1.84
3.50
4.93
2.67
1.18
3.89
4.24
3.01
1.18
4.93
1.49
1.39
0.16
1.98
0.72
0.44
1.79
0.70
3.52
1.35
0.16
3.52
0.02
0.08
0.29
0.33
0.24
0.29
0.04
0.05
0.09
0.16
0.02
0.33
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
11.21
16.96
66.75
14.65
10.93
9.53
27.70
9.75
11.55
2.41
13.05
20.95
28.52
24.80
63.90
53.48
8.48
52.45
50.20
36.84
8.50
6.17
4.93
1.54
4.94
4.05
8.80
3.70
2.52
2.99
8.48
7.07
1.32
2.63
8.30
4.00
4.51
1.54
4.32
7.59
4.77
5.40
0.92
2.78
6.16
2.06
1.92
1.77
10.30
0.41
0.93
0.01
0.53
1.72
6.29
10.40
1.06
1.76
4.62
0.66
1.31
0.67
0.80
0.06
0.11
0.01
0.27
0.01
0.18
0.10
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
na
Reference used
[63]
[51]
[51]
[51]
[63]
[51]
[74]
[63,76]
[44,63,67]
[51]
[63]
[51]
[63]
[31,43]
[54]
[51,73]
[77]
[79]
[19,73]
[31,63]
[51]
[40,52]
[51]
[35]
[51]
[63,67,73]
[72]
[63]
13160
775
35740
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
3
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
1
11
1
2
28
28
28
1330
155
4570
44
44
44
Mn
(ppm)
20160
3100
22870
775
10850
13640
13180
9300
5430
14900
12400
2090
10550
4500
2330
27910
13950
26360
35740
3100
3100
620
775
310
2790
155
540
865
155
2790
1
3
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
3
10
10
10
[63]
[64]
[63]
[63]
[73]
[40,63,73]
[73]
[63]
[73]
[63]
1
2
1
1
1
1
3
2
14
9
9
9
[63]
[69,73]
[77]
[63]
[74]
[77]
[63,65,76]
[66,72]
[43,44,51,63,69,73,76,78]
1
2
1
3
1
1
1
[63]
[43,63]
[53]
[53]
[53]
[79]
[53]
(continued on next page)
922
Table 6 (continued)
Reference used
[43]
[53]
[43]
[54,63]
[77]
[53]
[77]
[77]
[53]
[63]
[63]
[51,63,70,80,82]
[53]
[63]
[43,53]
[63]
[63]
[43]
1590
155
4570
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
5
1
2
2
1
1
1
25
25
25
100.00
100.00
100.00
853
78
466
1
1
2
[77]
[77]
0.95
0.93
100.00
100.00
1550
1
2
[77]
[63]
3.18
3.11
2.53
1.25
3.18
0.56
0.52
0.74
0.52
0.95
100.00
100.00
100.00
1
1
4
4
4
[63]
[63]
10.55
4.12
0.99
1.73
2.65
4.06
2.83
2.34
0.54
0.80
27.58
1.60
0.50
4.37
0.81
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
1
3
1
1
1
[63]
[63,65,77]
[63]
[63]
[77]
6.26
15.70
1.98
9.78
0.82
22.18
3.01
2.05
2.46
3.45
0.99
10.55
1.36
2.25
1.01
1.90
0.54
4.06
1.90
0.80
0.32
4.74
0.32
27.58
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
[63]
[53,72]
[63]
1475
155
2330
1
2
1
8
8
8
5.42
0.19
16.21
4.00
0.22
36.27
3.28
0.01
14.74
2.48
0.09
29.82
0.66
0.01
27.58
100.00
7540
78
35740
86
86
86
4.49
0.10
15.12
5.60
0.19
16.21
3.41
0.22
36.27
3.27
0.01
14.74
2.54
0.09
29.82
0.24
0.01
2.02
100.00
8096
78
35740
78
78
78
9.76
0.85
12.50
1.87
25.74
19.88
99.99
326
11
[94,95]
2.75
0.50
0.10
1.70
0.20
0.08
0.22
20.14
23.18
11.32
35.23
17.11
22.86
24.82
2.14
1.83
0.31
3.98
2.50
2.14
1.55
13.83
6.85
0.79
16.44
10.80
5.30
6.68
12.11
3.54
0.27
14.42
8.64
4.07
2.16
0.10
0.82
0.09
2.90
0.48
1.09
0.77
100.00
100.00
775
543
233
1780
736
509
511
1
37
37
37
5
10
22
[74]
[14,16]
[14,16]
[14,16]
[14,16]
[14,16]
[14,16]
SiO2
CaO
K2O
P2O5
Al2O3
MgO
Fe2O3
SO3
Na2O
33.70
17.43
32.70
21.48
22.26
63.20
18.26
12.60
15.39
8.43
3.64
94.48
2.01
46.79
23.66
6.41
8.29
23.32
24.47
2.01
94.48
15.40
44.13
14.50
19.97
12.93
9.00
9.33
32.20
10.02
10.26
14.86
0.97
25.26
4.91
15.31
27.64
20.03
16.72
16.58
0.97
44.13
30.40
7.63
4.30
16.44
42.79
9.00
16.54
24.60
35.32
18.66
45.51
2.29
36.00
6.95
28.53
34.67
39.65
33.03
28.25
2.29
63.90
3.20
2.06
2.50
9.71
6.09
2.80
31.06
5.20
11.19
12.10
20.40
0.54
5.79
3.87
7.13
10.28
7.52
6.21
7.27
0.54
31.06
3.10
1.55
8.40
5.95
4.10
4.50
6.19
4.90
8.39
2.23
0.11
0.21
8.74
14.60
8.75
2.25
2.92
2.40
4.90
0.11
14.60
7.90
9.48
4.20
3.84
5.84
3.80
6.59
7.40
4.55
3.34
11.79
0.19
8.38
4.56
7.33
14.34
16.21
13.51
6.62
0.19
16.21
3.80
0.82
6.30
4.25
1.99
3.90
9.23
2.00
3.38
36.27
0.69
0.22
2.95
11.12
4.27
1.05
1.37
1.50
4.84
0.22
36.27
1.10
14.74
0.60
2.30
3.73
2.80
2.54
9.70
10.61
3.89
2.51
0.92
4.37
3.57
4.07
2.33
2.71
2.20
3.80
0.01
14.74
1.30
2.06
26.20
15.77
0.12
0.80
0.14
0.90
1.05
4.61
0.47
0.16
6.26
1.61
0.80
0.92
1.19
1.00
3.05
0.12
26.20
0.10
0.10
0.30
0.29
0.15
0.20
0.12
0.50
0.10
0.21
0.02
0.02
0.24
2.02
0.15
0.11
0.11
0.10
0.22
0.01
2.02
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
5.77
0.02
2.90
56.85
41.22
49.04
12.19
3.16
7.67
15.40
40.94
28.17
1.01
2.37
1.69
4.11
1.38
2.75
0.45
0.25
0.35
3.59
4.24
3.91
0.60
6.41
3.50
0.03
0.01
0.02
34.75
37.18
13.15
25.70
3.11
7.76
18.07
2.22
11.35
11.07
2.31
4.77
10.44
5.77
4.62
2.03
1.25
2.57
47.00
57.83
44.19
34.75
57.83
19.55
11.51
17.48
11.51
25.70
6.45
6.67
6.00
3.11
7.76
1.52
1.08
5.72
1.08
18.07
11.08
9.77
10.82
9.77
11.35
4.35
2.66
3.52
2.31
4.77
4.19
4.97
6.34
4.19
10.44
2.12
1.88
2.66
1.88
4.62
3.39
36.27
57.17
28.62
28.40
14.05
21.36
13.78
7.63
25.80
2.20
6.98
3.74
0.16
9.70
0.89
5.09
0.50
0.20
3.84
13.53
9.67
12.14
53.53
3.90
1.57
4.77
3.25
2.40
5.70
22.18
7.31
5.59
0.82
18.40
38.67
33.28
60.10
35.73
3.39
60.10
26.81
13.04
23.92
18.30
7.63
26.81
0.23
1.60
2.98
3.45
0.16
9.70
0.77
15.88
1.98
3.64
0.20
15.88
14.54
12.91
3.08
15.41
3.08
53.53
6.45
2.49
2.17
3.60
1.57
6.45
29.76
0.02
94.48
25.27
0.97
83.46
17.91
0.16
63.90
5.71
0.20
40.94
5.51
0.10
53.53
29.14
0.02
94.48
25.99
0.97
83.46
19.40
2.19
63.90
5.92
0.54
40.94
1.65
12.39
15.35
37.53
54.06
32.04
68.35
44.87
54.74
56.14
9.97
6.57
0.43
27.78
13.11
7.05
4.90
1.12
1.60
0.29
4.15
1.48
1.67
1.61
na
TiO2
0.31
1.05
0.62
1.61
0.81
1.00
1.15
Sum
100.00
100.00
100.00
Mn
(ppm)
310
4570
1320
155
1550
1940
2330
155
Number of samples.
923
Table 8
Decreasing order of mean values for the chemical characteristics of the biomass
groups and sub-groups specied.
Symbol
M (am)
VM (db)
FC (db)
A (db)
C (daf)
O (daf)
H (daf)
N (daf)
S (daf)
Cl (db)
SiO2
CaO
K2O
P2O5
Al2O3
MgO
Fe2O3
SO3
Na2O
TiO2
Mn
WWB > HAG > HAR > HAB > CB > HAS > AB
HAG > WWB > HAB > HAS > HAR > CB > AB
HAR > HAB > WWB > HAS > HAG > AB > CB
AB > CB > HAS > HAB > HAR > HAG > WWB
AB > CB > WWB > HAR > HAB > HAS > HAG
HAG > HAS > HAB > HAR > WWB > CB > AB
AB > CB > HAR > (WWB, HAB) > (HAG, HAS)
AB > CB > HAR > (HAB, HAS) > HAG > WWB
AB > CB > HAR > (HAB, HAS) > HAG > WWB
AB > HAS > CB > HAG > HAB > HAR > WWB
HAG > HAS > CB > HAB > HAR > WWB > AB
AB > WWB > CB > HAR > HAB > HAS > HAG
HAR > HAB > HAG > HAS > WWB > AB > CB
AB > HAR > HAG > HAB > HAS > CB > WWB
CB > WWB > HAR > HAB > HAS > AB > HAG
HAR > WWB > HAB > HAS > HAG > CB > AB
CB > HAR > WWB > HAB > HAS > HAG > AB
AB > HAR > HAG > HAB > CB > HAS > WWB
AB > HAR > WWB > HAB > CB > HAS > HAG
CB > WWB > HAR > HAB > HAS > HAG > AB
WWB > HAG > HAR > CB > HAB > HAS > AB
Table 7
Characteristic enrichment and depletion trends for the chemical characteristics (mean values) among the biomass groups and sub-groups specied.
Biomass group and sub-group
Enriched in
Depleted in
924
ash yield, xed carbon, Al, C, Fe, S, Si, and Ti. Relatively comparable
contents (EDF = 0.81.2) show H, N and sulphate S. Similar EDF
trends are also observed between natural biomass and the different SFF types (Tables 5 and 6). The literature data show that biomass or biomass ash generally has greater moisture, volatile
matter, Ca, Cl, H, K, Mg, Mn, O and Si contents, and lower Al, C,
Fe, N, S and Ti concentrations in comparison with coal or coal
ash [2,20,35,38,43,46,49]. The relatively comparable N content in
biomass and coal has been also reported earlier [49,53]. Hence,
there is agreement between the present data and reference observations, excluding only Si and the additional results supplied for
ash, xed carbon, Na, and P in the present study. The disagreement
for Si could be related to the much lesser set of coal and biomass
samples used in the reference investigations than herein.
The present data also indicate some leading tendencies for the
chemical composition of biomass and SFFs. For example, the above
listed EDF trend is indicative for the potential of biomass and biomass products to contain preferably phases with:
(1) more oxygen-containing functional groups (hydroxyl, carboxyl, ether and ketone groups) with highly reactive functionalities (COOH, OCH3 and OH), chelates, light
hydrocarbons, carbohydrates, oxyhydroxides, carbonates,
chlorides, and phosphates; and
(2) less aromaticity, functionalities, silicates, and sulphatessulphides; in comparison with SFFs [6,16,30,34,52].
The plant materials (dominantly ancient species) are a precursor for coal formation. Therefore, the above EDF trend also indicates the subsequent transformation of plant materials and
formation of SFFs. For instance, coal is enriched in ash, xed carbon, Al, C, Fe, N, S, Si and Ti, and depleted in moisture, volatile matter, Ca, Cl, H, K, Mg, Mn, Na, O, and P in comparison with the
biomass. This observation is in a good agreement with the ndings
about the mobilization, redistribution and formation of stable (enriched in coal) and unstable (depleted in coal) discrete phases or
minerals which are bearing constituents of the above elements,
during coal formation and coal rank advance [83,84].
2.1.2. Proximate composition of biomass
There are large variations for the characteristics determined by
the proximate and ultimate analyses of biomass samples (Table 5).
However, these variations are mostly due to the moisture contents
and ash yields, which vary in the greatest intervals. When the measured parameters are recalculated on dry and dry ash-free basis
their variations are in more narrow ranges for biomass groups
and sub-groups (Table 5). For example, the range values of volatile
matter and xed carbon as measured in grasses are respectively
46.573.5% and 9.516.8%, while these values on dry basis are only
73.481.6% and 13.718.1%, respectively. Therefore, it is better to
use dry, dry ash-free or ash basis for comparative chemical characterization of biomass varieties. The moisture content and ash yield
are important parameters of the biomass system and require a
more detail discussion.
2.1.2.1. Moisture. The moisture content in biomass as measured (at
different basis, but normally as received, air-dried and oven-dried
basis) varies in the interval of 363% (Table 5) and it can reach even
80% for raw wood species [48]. The moisture value seems to decrease in the order: WWB > HAG > HAR > HAB > CB > HAS > AB (Table 8). In contrast, the moisture occurrence in peat and coal as
measured (mostly air-dried basis) is commonly in the more narrow
range of 120% (Table 5). This characteristic seems to have much
higher contents in biomass than in SFFs at least on raw basis,
respectively as collected (harvested) and run of mine status. Similar observations have been also mentioned earlier [2,35,38,43].
The moisture in biomass is mineralized aqueous solution containing cations (Al, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ti), anions (Br, Cl, CO3,
F, HCO3, H2PO4, I, NO3, OH, PO4, SO4) or non-charged species
(H4SiO4) [4,48,51,85]. This uid plays a key role for the composition of biomass because of: (1) high water content in the living
cells; (2) variable total mineralization of water (dissolved solid
matter); and (3) different chemical specication (predominant anions, cations and their ratios) of these water solutions. Therefore,
there is intensive mineral precipitation from a saturated solution
due to moisture evaporation after biomass harvesting and during
biomass drying. This process results mostly in consecutive formation of water-soluble: (1) phosphates; (2) carbonates; (3) sulphates; (4) chlorides; and (5) nitrates, which are a general
sequence of precipitation from less soluble to highly soluble minerals in the water system [83,85]. Such mineral formations are
the reason for enhanced leaching of Ca, Cl, K, Mg, Na, P, and S from
biomass harvested and left in the eld for a prolonged period of
time [25,44,49,54,61,86]. Additional conrmation of the above
statement is also the observation that young foliage of wood (biologically active tissues) shows the highest contents of water and
elements such as Cl, K, Mg, P, and S [48]. These are typical mobile
elements not only in the plant physiology [48], but also in the natural water system [85]. The above observations show the importance of specifying the exact status used for biomass
characterization.
2.1.2.2. Ash yield. The ash yield (db) determined at 550600 C for
biomass varies in the interval of 0.146% (Table 5) and normally
decreases in the order: AB > CB > HAS > HAB > HAR > HAG > WWB
(Table 8). In contrast, the ash content (815 C) in peat and coal
(db) is in the relatively more narrow range of 452% (commonly
430%) (Table 5). The ash normally shows much lower value in biomass than in SFFs, excluding AB and some CB and HAB samples
(Table 5). The extremely high ash content is characteristic of sewage sludge, chicken litter, greenhouse-plastic waste, refuse-derived
fuel, meat-bone meal, and rice straw. The reference data show that
WWB has much lower ash content comparing with HAB because
straws, grasses, cereals, and fruits take up nutrients during their
growing periods [23,38,39]. The ash in WWB decreases in the order: foliage > bark > wood [48]. The high ash yields of some wood
fuels such as chemically treated wood and waste wood are an indication for increased amounts of mineral and metallic impurities
and other contaminants due to the manufacturing process
[23,56]. Hence, there is agreement between the present and reference data, but some additional elucidation of this important
parameter is required.
The ash is one of the most studied characteristics of biomass,
but unfortunately with the poorest understanding. The complex
character of this parameter is the reason for such a problem because ash originates simultaneously from natural and technogenic
inorganic, organic and uid matter during biomass combustion. It
should be stated that the terms ash, inorganic matter and mineral
matter of biomass (Tables 3 and 4) are not synonymous because
they comprise constituents with different nature and quantity,
similar to coal [1618,87]. The inorganic matter comprises solid
crystalline, semi-crystalline and amorphous phases in biomass.
The actual mineral matter, as a part of inorganic matter, excludes
inorganic amorphous matter and includes only minerals and mineraloids in biomass that belong to mineral classes, groups and species strictly divided and dened in the mineralogical sense. In
contrast, the ash yield is the inorganic residue that results from
the complete combustion (or oxidation) of biomass and is composed of original and newly formed inorganic phases generated
from the inorganic, organic and uid components in biomass.
LTA and HTA are laboratory-produced biomass ashes at regulated
temperatures, respectively: (1) in oxygen plasma at 100250 C;
925
and (2) in air above 500 C. The combustion temperature signicantly affects the total yield of ash from biomass. For example,
the ash yields determined at 10001300 C are 2070% lower than
those produced by LTA or HTA at 500550 C [31,51,56,88]. Such
weight losses for biomass are much higher than for coal and these
differences are a result of more intensive phase transformations
and subsequent volatilization of elements from biomass phases
in the high temperature intervals [89,90]. It should be stated that
the ash yield itself brings relatively limited information when the
composition, abundance and origin of the biomass constituents
are not considered. Hence, the ash should always be interpreted together with the genesis of constituents in biomass. Such interpretations have a great importance for both organic and inorganic
elements in biomass because their modes of occurrence are related
to mixed natural (authigenic and detrital) and technogenic origin.
Despite the above limitations, the ash yields of biomass can be
measured routinely, while the actual determination of inorganic
constituents is a complex procedure and cannot be quickly and
routinely achieved. Therefore, ash is still an important parameter
for approximating: (1) the bulk inorganic matter; (2) predominant
afnity of elements and compounds to inorganic or organic matter;
and (3) possible contamination of biomass.
2.1.2.3. Volatile matter. The volatile matter content (db) in biomass
varies in the interval of 4886% (Table 5) and normally decreases in
the order: HAG > WWB > HAB > HAS > HAR > CB > AB (Table 8). In
contrast, the volatile matter value in peat and coal (db) is commonly in the larger range of 1268% (Table 5). This parameter typically shows much higher content in biomass than in SFFs (Table
5). The extremely high volatile matter value is characteristic of
some WWB, sugar cane bagasse, and paper waste (Table 5). The
volatile matter yield of biomass commonly includes light hydrocarbons, CO, CO2, H2, moisture, and tars [43].
2.1.2.4. Fixed carbon. The xed carbon content (db) in biomass varies in the interval of 138% (Table 5) and normally decreases in the
order: HAR > HAB > WWB > HAS > HAG > AB > CB (Table 8). In contrast, the xed carbon value in peat and coal (db) is commonly in
the larger range of 2072% (Table 5). This parameter typically reveals lower content in biomass than in SFFs (Table 5). The extremely high xed carbon content is characteristic of some wood
926
2.1.3.3. Hydrogen (H). The H content in biomass varies in the interval of 311% (Table 5). In contrast, the H concentration in peat and
coal is in the narrow range of 46% (Table 5). This element commonly shows higher content in biomass than in SFFs (Table 5).
The extremely high H content is characteristic of greenhouse-plastic waste, tamarack bark, mustard and cotton husks, meat-bone
meal, refuse-derived fuel, and groundnut shells (Table 5). The H value normally decreases in the order: AB > CB > HAR > (WWB, HAB)
> (HAG, HAS) (Table 8). The similar order of H and C indicates their
association (occurrence and behaviour) in biomass probably as
hydrocarbons and carbohydrates. It is well-known that photosynthesis results in the production of structural and non-structural
carbohydrates comprising the plant tissues [34].
2.1.3.4. Nitrogen (N). The N content in biomass varies in the interval
of 0.112% (Table 5) and normally decreases in the order:
AB > CB > HAR > (HAB, HAS) > HAG > WWB (Table 8). In contrast,
the N value in peat and coal is in the narrow range of 13% (Table
5). This mobile element normally has slightly lower content in biomass than in SFFs, excluding AB and some varieties from CB and
HAB groups. The extremely high N content is characteristic of
meat-bone meal, chicken litter, sewage sludge, pepper residues, alfalfa and mint straws, palm kernels, and buffalo gourd grass (Table
5). The samples from WWB group typically show the lowest N concentration (Table 5) and this nding has been reported earlier [39].
It was also noted that grasses usually show the highest N values
[39]; however, the present data do not support this observation.
2.1.3.5. Sulphur (S). The S content in biomass varies in the interval
of 0.012.3% (Table 5) and normally decreases in the order:
AB > CB > HAR > (HAB, HAS) > HAG > WWB (Table 8). This order is
identical to N and indicates the close association of both N and S.
In contrast, the S concentration in peat and coal is in the range of
0.29.8% (Table 5). This mobile element has typically much lower
content in biomass than in SFFs, excluding AB and some varieties
from CB and HAB groups (Table 5). The extremely high S content
is characteristic of sewage sludge, meat-bone meal, chicken litter,
biomass mixture, pepper residues, refuse-derived fuel, and Christmas trees (Table 5). It was also noted that bark and straw have a
higher S content than wood, but some wood products (pellets
and briquettes) can also contain S-bearing additives [56].
CaO > SiO2 > K2O > MgO > Al2O3 > P2O5
SiO2 > K2O > CaO > P2O5 > MgO > Al2O3
SiO2 > K2O > CaO > MgO > P2O5 > Al2O3
K2O > SiO2 > CaO > P2O5 > MgO > Al2O3
CaO > P2O5 > K2O > SiO2 > MgO > Al2O3
SiO2 > CaO > Al2O3 > P2O5 > MgO > K2O
for
for
for
for
for
for
WWB;
HAB and HAG;
HAS;
HAR;
AB;
CB.
927
trends in biomass and they are accumulated in the foliage and bark
through the precipitation of Ca oxalate as Mn co-precipitates in the
oxalate as solid solution with Ca [48].
2.1.4.3. K2O. The K2O content in biomass HTAs varies in the large
interval of 0.264% (Table 6) and the value of this oxide normally
decreases in the order: HAR > HAB > HAG > HAS > WWB > AB > CB
(Table 8). In contrast, the K2O concentration in peat and coal HTAs
is commonly in the narrow range of 0.34% (Table 6). This oxide
represents mobile K components in biomass and mostly shows
much higher content in biomass ash than in SFF ash, excluding
some CB varieties and individual WWB, HAG and AB samples.
The extremely high K2O content is characteristic of HAB group
and particularly HAR sub-group (Table 6). These observations are
in accordance with the literature data. For example, it was found
that the biomass with high annual growth is abundant in alkaline
elements because they are readily taken up from the soil [44].
2.1.4.4. P2O5. The P2O5 content in biomass HTAs varies in the large
interval of 0.241% (Table 6) and the value of this oxide normally
decreases in the order: AB > HAR > HAG > HAB > HAS > CB > WWB
(Table 8). In contrast, the P2O5 concentration in peat and coal HTAs
is commonly in the more narrow range of 0.13% (Table 6). This
oxide represents mobile P components in biomass and mostly
shows much higher content in biomass ash than in SFF ash, excluding some CB varieties. The extremely high P2O5 content is characteristic of AB group, sewage sludge and some HAB samples (Table
6). The enrichment of this oxide in cereals has been also noted [4].
2.1.4.5. Al2O3. The Al2O3 content in biomass HTAs varies in the large
interval of 0.154% (Table 6) and the value of this oxide normally
decreases in the order: CB > WWB > HAR > HAB > HAS > AB > HAG
(Table 8). In contrast, the Al2O3 concentration in peat and coal
HTAs is commonly in the more narrow range of 1135% (Table
6). This oxide represents less mobile Al components in biomass
and mostly shows much lower content in biomass ash than in
SFF ash, excluding some CB varieties and individual samples from
WWB group and HAR sub-group. The extremely high Al2O3 content
is characteristic of mixed waste paper probably due to the traditional kaolinite additive used in paper production (Table 6). The
high Al concentration is also usually considered as a marker for
contamination of biomass by soil inclusions (predominantly clays
and oxides), dust or dirt [44,51,71].
2.1.4.6. MgO. The MgO content in biomass HTAs varies in the large
interval of 0.216% (Table 6) and the value of this oxide normally
decreases in the order: HAR > WWB > HAB > HAS > HAG > CB > AB
(Table 8). In contrast, the MgO concentration in peat and coal HTAs
is commonly in the more narrow range of 0.34% (Table 6). This
oxide represents mobile Mg components in biomass and normally
shows much higher content in biomass ash than in SFF ash, excluding individual samples from all of the groups and sub-groups specied. The extremely high MgO content is characteristic of alfalfa
straw and some WWB and HAR varieties (Table 6).
2.1.4.7. Fe2O3. The Fe2O3 content in biomass HTAs varies in the
large interval of 0.236% (Table 6) and the value of this oxide normally decreases in the order: CB > HAR > WWB > HAB > HAS > HAG > AB (Table 8). In contrast, the Fe2O3 concentration in peat and
coal HTAs is commonly in the more narrow range of 0.816% (Table 6). This oxide represents less mobile Fe components in biomass
and normally shows lower content in biomass ash than in SFF ash,
excluding some WWB, HAR and CB varieties. The extremely high
Fe2O3 content is characteristic of pistachio shells (probably contaminated by Fe oxyhydroxides), some industrial wastes, sewage
sludge, sugar cane baggase, and groundnut shells (Table 6).
928
2.1.4.8. SO3. The SO3 content in biomass HTAs varies in the large
interval of 0.0115% (Table 6) and the value of this oxide normally
decreases in the order: AB > HAR > HAG > HAB > CB > HAS > WWB
(Table 8). In contrast, the SO3 concentration in peat and coal HTAs
is in relatively more narrow range of 0.314% (Table 6). This oxide
represents the mobile S components in biomass that are captured
in biomass ash as sulphates. SO3 normally shows lower content in
biomass ash than in SFF ash, excluding AB and some WWB, HAB
and CB varieties. The extremely high SO3 content is characteristic
of groundnut shells, mustard husks, and pepper residues. The great
SO3 concentration in Christmas trees, and currency shredded (Table 6) is probably due to S-bearing contaminants and additives,
respectively.
2.1.4.9. Na2O. The Na2O content in biomass HTAs varies in the large
interval of 0.130% (Table 6) and the value of this oxide normally
decreases in the order: AB > HAR > WWB > HAB > CB > HAS > HAG
(Table 8). In contrast, the Na2O concentration in peat and coal HTAs
is commonly in the more narrow range of 0.13% (Table 6). This
oxide represents relatively less mobile Na components in biomass
and normally shows much higher content in biomass ash than in
SFF ash, excluding some WWB, HAB, AB and CB varieties. The extremely high Na2O content is characteristic of olive husks and pits,
and r mill residue probably contaminated by solution with halite
composition (see Tables 5 and 6). For example, it was noted that
the high Na concentrations are frequently an indication of intrusion of salt water or a process additive [51].
2.1.4.10. TiO2. The TiO2 content in biomass HTAs varies in the large
interval of 0.0128% (Table 6) and the value of this oxide normally
decreases in the order: CB > WWB > HAR > HAB > HAS > HAG > AB
(Table 8). In contrast, the TiO2 concentration in peat and coal HTAs
is commonly in the narrow range of 0.31.6% (Table 6). This oxide
represents less mobile Ti components in biomass and normally
shows much lower content in biomass ash than in SFF ash, excluding some CB varieties, sugar cane bagasse and individual wood
samples. The extremely high TiO2 content is characteristic of currency shredded and mixed waste paper probably due to the traditional Ti-bearing additives (Table 6).
2.1.4.11. Mn. The Mn content in biomass HTAs varies in the large
interval of 0.013.6% (Table 6) and the value of this element normally decreases in the order: WWB > HAG > HAR > CB > HAB > HAS > AB (Table 8). In contrast, the Mn concentration in peat and coal
HTAs is commonly in the narrow range of 0.020.18% (Table 6).
This less mobile element in biomass mostly shows much higher
content in biomass ash than in SFF ash, excluding some HAB, AB
and CB varieties. The extremely high Mn content (together with
Ca) is characteristic of some WWB samples (Table 6).
The contents of CO2 and water are occasionally determined and
included in the bulk chemical composition of biomass HTAs
[23,34,36,44,51,60,6365,67,68,76,91]. These are useful subsidiary
characteristics during the phase identication and characterization
of ashes. However, they are less informative for the bulk balance
and actual chemical ash composition because signicant parts of
them are xed in HTAs from the air CO2 and moisture. Both compounds intensively react with the active and highly abundant alkaline and alkaline-earth oxides to form hydrates, hydroxides, and
carbonates in ash during the sample oxidation and storage [14].
On the other hand, the loss on ignition content is occasionally also
determined (4501000 C) and included in the bulk chemical composition of biomass HTAs to represent the unburned matter
[54,65,76,77,80,92]. However, this parameter is also less informative because it could not represent the actual organic matter content in biomass ashes due to their specic phase composition
and ash transformations during heating [14,89,90].
929
Table 9
Signicant positive (+) and negative ( ) correlation coefcient values (R2) at 99% (bold font)a and 95% (italic font)b condence levels, and insignicant (normal font) R2 values for
the chemical composition of 78 varieties of natural biomass (excluding eight contaminated biomass varieties).
Symbolc
VM (78)
(+) Mn(0.43) O(0.41) TiO2(0.20) MgO(0.17) Fe2O3(0.16) Na2O(0.13) K2O(0.08) Al2O3(0.01) CaO(0.01)
( ) A( 0.80) S( 0.58) N( 0.52) Cl( 0.46) FC( 0.44) C( 0.24) P2O5( 0.15) SiO2( 0.10) SO3( 0.09) H( 0.06)
(+) MgO(0.19) Mn(0.16) K2O(0.13) SO3(0.13) Al2O3(0.08) C(0.07) CaO(0.06) H(0.02) Fe2O3(0.01)
( ) VM( 0.44) TiO2( 0.21) A( 0.19) SiO2( 0.16) Cl( 0.13) P2O5( 0.12) S( 0.09) N( 0.08) Na2O( 0.04) O( 0.02)
(+) S(0.70) N(0.63) Cl(0.55) P2O5(0.24) C(0.22) SiO2 (0.21) H(0.05) SO3(0.01)
( ) VM( 0.80) Mn( 0.49) O( 0.44) MgO( 0.31) FC( 0.19) Fe2O3( 0.18) K2O( 0.17) Na2O( 0.12) TiO2( 0.08) Al2O3( 0.07) CaO( 0.05)
(+) H(0.31) CaO(0.30) S(0.29) N(0.24) P2O5(0.23) A(0.22) Mn(0.12) Fe2O3(0.08) FC(0.07) Cl(0.06) Al2O3(0.05) MgO(0.04) TiO2(0.01) Na2O(0.00)
( ) O( 0.88) K2O( 0.25) SO3( 0.24) VM( 0.24) SiO2( 0.18)
(+) VM(0.41) SiO2(0.26) K2O(0.19) SO3(0.07) TiO2(0.07) Mn(0.03) Al2O3(0.01)
( ) C( 0.88) N( 0.63) S( 0.62) P2O5( 0.50) H( 0.49) A( 0.44) Cl( 0.30) CaO( 0.26) MgO( 0.03) Na2O( 0.03) FC( 0.02) Fe2O3( 0.02)
(+) C(0.31) Mn(0.24) CaO(0.20) Cl(0.16) N(0.16) MgO(0.14) P2O5(0.14) S(0.10) SO3(0.09) Na2O(0.07) A(0.05) FC(0.02) Fe2O3(0.02)
( ) O( 0.49) SiO2( 0.16) K2O( 0.15) TiO2( 0.11) Al2O3( 0.06) VM( 0.06)
(+) S(0.90) P2O5(0.72) A(0.63) Cl(0.53) C(0.24) SO3(0.18) H(0.16) K2O(0.06) Na2O(0.04) CaO(0.02)
( ) O( 0.63) VM( 0.52) Mn( 0.31) SiO2( 0.24) TiO2( 0.15) Al2O3( 0.10) Fe2O3( 0.10) FC( 0.08) MgO( 0.05)
(+) N(0.90) A(0.70) P2O5(0.63) Cl(0.49) C(0.29) SO3(0.26) H(0.10) CaO(0.04) Al2O3(0.01) Fe2O3(0.00)
( ) O( 0.62) VM( 0.58) Mn( 0.32) MgO( 0.18) SiO2( 0.15) FC( 0.09) K2O( 0.09) TiO2( 0.04) Na2O( 0.03)
(+) A(0.55) N(0.53) S(0.49) P2O5(0.24) H(0.16) K2O(0.10) SiO2(0.08) C(0.06) Na2O(0.03) SO3(0.00)
( ) VM( 0.46) Mn( 0.42) Al2O3( 0.34) O( 0.30) TiO2( 0.29) Fe2O3( 0.27) MgO( 0.19) FC( 0.13) CaO( 0.10)
(+) O(0.26) A(0.21) Al2O3(0.21) TiO2(0.15) Cl(0.08) Fe2O3(0.03)
( ) CaO( 0.63) MgO( 0.58) P2O5( 0.39) K2O( 0.36) Mn( 0.28) SO3( 0.24) N( 0.24) C( 0.18) FC( 0.16) H( 0.16) S( 0.15) Na2O( 0.10) VM( 0.10)
(+) MgO(0.35) C(0.30) Mn(0.30) H(0.20) FC(0.06) S(0.04) N(0.02) SO3(0.01) VM(0.01)
( ) SiO2( 0.63) K2O( 0.31) Al2O3( 0.27) O( 0.26) Fe2O3( 0.24) TiO2( 0.11) Cl( 0.10) A( 0.05) Na2O( 0.05) P2O5( 0.05)
(+) MgO(0.26) P2O5(0.22) O(0.19) FC(0.13) Cl(0.10) VM(0.08) N(0.06) SO3(0.06)
( ) SiO2( 0.36) CaO( 0.31) Al2O3( 0.30) TiO2( 0.29) Mn( 0.27) C( 0.25) Fe2O3( 0.20) A( 0.17) Na2O( 0.16) H( 0.15) S( 0.09)
(+) N(0.72) S(0.63) A(0.24) Cl(0.24) C(0.23) K2O(0.22) H(0.14) SO3(0.13) MgO(0.07) Fe2O3(0.06) Na2O(0.01)
( ) O( 0.50) SiO2( 0.39) Mn( 0.20) TiO2( 0.16) VM( 0.15) Al2O3( 0.14) FC( 0.12) CaO( 0.05)
(+) TiO2(0.63) Fe2O3(0.44) Mn(0.24) SiO2(0.21) Na2O(0.14) SO3(0.09) FC(0.08) C(0.05) O(0.01) S (0.01) VM(0.01)
( ) Cl( 0.34) K2O( 0.30) CaO( 0.27) MgO( 0.23) P2O5( 0.14) N( 0.10) A( 0.07) H( 0.06)
(+) CaO(0.35) Mn(0.27) K2O(0.26) FC(0.19) VM(0.17) H(0.14) SO3(0.12) P2O5(0.07) C(0.04)
( ) SiO2( 0.58) A( 0.31) Al2O3( 0.23) Cl( 0.19) Fe2O3( 0.19) S( 0.18) TiO2( 0.10) Na2O( 0.08) N( 0.05) O( 0.03)
(+) Al2O3(0.44) TiO2(0.32) Na2O(0.19) Mn(0.18) VM(0.16) SO3(0.09) C(0.08) P2O5(0.06) SiO2(0.03) H(0.02) FC(0.01) S(0.00)
( ) Cl( 0.27) CaO( 0.24) K2O( 0.20) MgO( 0.19) A( 0.18) N( 0.10) O( 0.02)
(+) S(0.26) N(0.18) FC(0.13) P2O5(0.13) MgO(0.12) Al2O3(0.09) Fe2O3(0.09) H(0.09) O(0.07) K2O(0.06) A(0.01) CaO(0.01) Mn(0.01) TiO2(0.01) Cl(0.00)
( ) C( 0.24) SiO2( 0.24) VM( 0.09) Na2O( 0.05)
(+) Fe2O3(0.19) Mn(0.17) Al2O3(0.14) VM(0.13) H(0.07) TiO2(0.07) N(0.04) Cl(0.03) P2O5(0.01) C(0.00)
( ) K2O( 0.16) A( 0.12) SiO2( 0.10) MgO( 0.08) CaO( 0.05) SO3( 0.05) FC( 0.04) O( 0.03) S( 0.03)
(+) Al2O3(0.63) Mn(0.36) Fe2O3(0.32) VM(0.20) SiO2(0.15) Na2O(0.07) O(0.07) C(0.01) SO3(0.01)
( ) Cl( 0.29) K2O( 0.29) FC( 0.21) P2O5( 0.16) N( 0.15) CaO( 0.11) H( 0.11) MgO( 0.10) A ( 0.08) S( 0.04)
(+) VM(0.43) TiO2(0.36) CaO(0.30) MgO(0.27) Al2O3(0.24) H(0.24) Fe2O3(0.18) Na2O(0.17) FC(0.16) C(0.12) O(0.03) SO3(0.01)
( ) A( 0.49) Cl( 0.42) S( 0.32) N( 0.31) SiO2( 0.28) K2O( 0.27) P2O5( 0.20)
FC (78)
A (78)
C (78)
O (78)
H (78)
N (78)
S (78)
Cl (56)
SiO2 (78)
CaO (78)
K2O (78)
P2O5 (78)
Al2O3 (78)
MgO (78)
Fe2O3 (78)
SO3 (78)
Na2O (78)
TiO2 (78)
Mn (33)
a
b
c
The signicant R2 values at 99% condence level are: P0.28 and 6 0.28, P0.32 and 6 0.32, and P0.42 and 6 0.42 for 78, 56 and 33 variables, respectively.
The signicant R2 values at 95% condence level are: P0.22 and 6 0.22, P0.25 and 6 0.25, and P0.33 and 6 0.33 for 78, 56 and 33 variables, respectively.
In the parentheses are the number of variables.
930
Fig. 3. Some signicant correlations among the chemical composition of biomass, wt.%.
931
Fig. 4. Chemical classication system of the inorganic matter in high-temperature biomass ashes based on 78 varieties of biomass, wt.%.
932
933
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