Pressure Measurements

Pressure definition
Pressure is action of force against some opposite
force.
Pressure is Force in nature of thrust distributed
over a surface.
Pressure is force acting against a surface within a
closed container.

Pressure measurement terms.

Atmosphere pressure (Pat): The pressure exerted
by the envelop of air surrounding earths surface.
Usually determined by mercury column barometer.

Pat Pvp = gh
Pvp = 1.6 x 10(-6) kgf/cm2
So it can be neglected.

Pat = gh

Pressure measurement terms.

Absolute pressure (Pabs): pressure intensity measured
from the state of vacuum or zero pressure is called
absolute pressure.
Gauge pressure(Pg) : Instruments and gauges used to

measure the fluid pressure generally measure the

difference between unknown pressure p and the
existing atmosphere pressure.
-If unknown pressure is more than atmospheric
pressure than it is known as gauge pressure.
-If unknown pressure is less than atmospheric
pressure, than it is known as vacuum pressure.

Pressure measurement terms.

Static pressure (Ps): Force per unit area acting on
the wall by at fluid at rest or flowing parallel to the
wall.
Difference between total (stagnation) and static
pressure is dynamic pressure.

Instruments for pressure measurements

For low pressures (below 1mm of Hg) :- Manometers
and low pressure gauges.
For medium and high pressure gauges (between 1mm
of Hg to 1000 atm) : Bourdon tube and diaphragm
gauges.
For low vacuum and ultralow vacuum : McLeod,
thermal conductivity and ionization gauges.
For very high pressures : Bourdon tube, diaphragm
and electrical resistance gauge.
For varying pressure : engine indicator and cathode
ray oscilloscope.

Propositions for pressure measurements

1) Pressure at any point in a body of liquid at rest is
proportional to depth of point below the free
surface of liquid.

2) Pressure is same at two pints which lie in a

horizontal plane.

Piezometer
Vertical transparent glass tube, upper end of which is
open to atmosphere.
Lower end is in communication with the gage point.

Pressure Measurement Methods

1.

Elastic pressure transducers

2.

Manometer method

3.

Pressure measurement by measuring vacuum

4.

Electric pressure transducers

5.

Pressure measurement by balancing forces produced on a known

area by a measured force

Wet Meters (Manometers)

Manometer basics
Characterized
by
its
inherent
accuracy and simplicity of operation.
Its the U-tube manometer, which is a
U-shaped glass tube partially filled
with liquid.
This manometer has no moving parts
and requires no calibration.
Manometer
measurements
are
functions of gravity and the liquids
density, both physical properties that
make the U-tube manometer a
standard for accuracy.

Manometer
With both legs of a U-tube
manometer open to the
atmosphere or subjected to
the same pressure, the liquid
maintains the same level in
each leg, establishing a zero
reference.

Manometer
With a greater pressure
applied to the left side of a
U-tube manometer, the
liquid lowers in the left leg
and rises in the right leg.

The liquid moves until the

unit weight of the liquid, as
indicated by h, exactly
balances the pressure.

Manometer
When the liquid in the tube is mercury,
for example, the indicated pressure h is
usually expressed in inches (or
millimeters) of mercury.
To convert to pounds per square inch
(or kilograms per square centimeter), P2
= h
Where
P2 = pressure, (kg/cm2)
= density, (kg/cm3)
h = height, (cm)

Manometer
Gauge pressure is a
measurement relative to
atmospheric pressure and
it varies with the
barometric reading.
A gauge pressure
measurement is positive
when the unknown
pressure exceeds
atmospheric pressure (A),
and is negative when the
unknown pressure is less
than atmospheric
pressure (B).

Variations on the U-Tube Manometer

The pressure reading is

always the difference between
fluid heights, regardless of the
tube sizes.

With both manometer legs

open to the atmosphere, the
fluid levels are the same (A).

With an equal positive

pressure applied to one leg of
each manometer, the fluid
levels differ, but the distance
between the fluid heights is
the same (B).

Manometer

Manometer

Example

Reservoir (Well) Manometer

In a well-type manometer,
the cross-sectional area of
one leg (the well) is much
larger than the other leg.
When pressure is applied
to the well, the fluid lowers
only slightly compared to
the fluid rise in the other
leg.

Reservoir (Well) Manometer

In this design one leg is replaced by a large
diameter well so that the pressure differential is
indicated only by the height of the column in the
single leg.
The pressure difference can be read directly on a
single scale. For static balance,
P2 P1 = d (1 +A1/A2) h
Where
A1 = area of smaller-diameter leg
A2 = area of well
If the ratio of A1/A2 is small compared with unity,
then the error in neglecting this term becomes
negligible, and the static balance relation becomes
P2 P1 = dh

Typical pressure sensor functional blocks.

Sensing Elements
The main types of sensing elements are
Bourdon tubes,
diaphragms,
capsules, and
bellows .
All except diaphragms provide a fairly large displacement
that is useful in mechanical gauges and for electrical sensors
that
require
a
significant
movement.

Primary Pressure Sensing Elements

Capsule, Bellows & Spring Opposed Diaphragm

Bellows

Made of Bronze, S.S., BeCu, Monel etc..

The movement is proportional to number of convolutions
Sensitivity is proportional to size
In general a bellows can detect a slightly lower pressure than a
diaphragm
The range is from 0-5 mmHg to 0-2000 psi
Accuracy in the range of 1% span

Bellows

Pressure Gauges

Bourdon tube pressure gauge

In C type Bourdon tube, a section of tubing that is closed at one end is

partially flattened and coiled.
When a pressure is applied to the open end, the tube uncoils.
This movement provides a displacement that is proportional to the applied
pressure.
The tube is mechanically linked to a pointer on a pressure dial to give a
calibrated reading.

Bourdon Tube

Bourdon Tubes

(a) C-type tube.

(b) Spiral tube.
(c) Helical tube

Bourdon Tubes

Pressure Gauges

Diaphragm-type pressure gauge

To amplify the motion that a diaphragm capsule produces, several

capsules are connected end to end.
Diaphragm type pressure gauges used to measure gauge, absolute, or
differential pressure.
They are normally used to measure low pressures of 1 inch of Hg, but
they can also be manufactured to measure higher pressures in the
range of 0 to 330 psig.
They can also be built for use in vacuum service.

Diaphragm

(a) flat diaphragm; (b) corrugated diaphragm

A diaphragm usually is designed so that the deflection-versuspressure characteristics are as linear as possible over a
specified pressure range, and with a minimum of hysteresis and
minimum shift in the zero point.

Diaphragm

Capsule
A capsule is formed
by joining the
peripheries of two
diaphragms through
soldering or welding.

Used in some
absolute pressure
gages.

Use of capsule element in pressure

gage

Range of Elastic-Element Pressure

Gages

Pressure Measurement Methods

1.

Elastic pressure transducers

2.

Manometer method

3.

Pressure measurement by measuring vacuum

4.

Electric pressure transducers

5.

Pressure measurement by balancing forces produced on a known

area by a measured force

Dead weight tester

Pressure Measurement Methods

1.

Elastic pressure transducers

2.

Manometer method

3.

Pressure measurement by measuring vacuum

4.

Electric pressure transducers

5.

Pressure measurement by balancing forces produced on a known

area by a measured force

Material Selection
Poisson's
Ratio
Upper limit 0.5
Aluminum 0.334
Aluminum,
0.35
6061-T6
Aluminum,
0.32
2024-T4
Beryllium
0.285
Copper
Brass, 700.331
30
Brass, cast 0.357
Bronze
0.34
Copper
0.355
Cork
0
Inconel
0.27 - 0.38
Iron, Cast 0.211
gray
Iron, Cast 0.22 - 0.30
Iron,
0.26 - 0.31
Ductile
Iron,
0.271
Malleable
Lead
0.431
Magnesium 0.35
Material

Ashby Chart

Magnesium
Alloy
Marble
Molybdenum
Monel metal
Nickel Silver
Nickel Steel
Polystyrene
Phosphor
Bronze
Rubber
Stainless
Steel 18-8
Steel, cast
Steel, Coldrolled
Steel, high
carbon
Steel, mild
Titanium
(99.0 Ti)
Wrought iron
Z-nickel
Zinc

0.281
0.2 - 0.3
0.307
0.315
0.322
0.291
0.34
0.359
0.48 ~0.5
0.305
0.265
0.287
0.295
0.303
0.32
0.278
0.36
0.331

Ring balance manometer

rotating moment = (p1 - p2)Ar1
restoring moment = mgr2 Sin

So,
(p1 - p2)Ar1 = mgr2 Sin
(p1 - p2) = mgr2 Sin/Ar1
(p1 - p2) = K Sin
K= mgr2 /Ar1

Data: d=100mm, r1=200mm

R2=275mm; m=? For =300 and
dp= 200 mm of water

Pressure Measurement Methods

1.

Elastic pressure transducers

2.

Manometer method

3.

Pressure measurement by measuring vacuum

4.

Electric pressure transducers

5.

Pressure measurement by balancing forces produced on a known

area by a measured force

V1 = V+ahc

P2= P1+h in mm of H

P1V1 = P2V2 (Boyles La

P1V1= (P1+h)ah
P1V1 = P1ah + ah2

P1V1-P1ah = ah2
P1 = ah2/(V1-ah)
P1 = ah2/V1
V1=250 cc; a=0.1 sq cm; h=1 cm p1=?

Pirani gage (1 wire)

Two filaments, platinum, are used
as two arms of a Wheatstone bridge.
Reference filament is immersed in a
fixed-gas pressure, while the
measurement filament is exposed to
the system gas.
Both filaments are heated by the
current through the bridge at
constant filament temperature.
Gas molecules hitting the immersed
element conduct energy away that is
detected and replaced by the
feedback circuit to the power
supply.
Cover a pressure range from about
10 Torr to 1 x 10-5 Torr.

Thermal Designs:
The thermal conductivity of a gas changes
with its pressure in the vacuum range.
If an element heated by a constant power
source is placed in a gas, the resulting
surface temperature of the element will be
a function of the surrounding vacuum.
Because the sensor is an electrically
heated wire, thermal vacuum sensors are
often called hot wire gauges. Typically, hot
wire gauges can be used to measure down
to 10-3 mm Hg.

Pirani:
In this design, a sensor wire is heated
electrically and the pressure of the gas
is determined by measuring the current
needed to keep the wire at a constant
temperature

Thermocouple gage
Works 10 Torr and 10-3 Torr
Filament, fed from a constant
current
supply,
reaches
a
temperature determined by the
amount of energy extracted by the
gas.
At higher pressures, more
molecules hit the filament and
extract more energy than at low
temperatures.
The filament temperatures induce
thermocouple voltage changes.
Used extensively in fore line
monitoring and to provide the
signal to automatically switch the
main chamber from backing and
high-vacuum pumps at the
crossover pressure.

Ionization gage
Energetic electrons ionize the
residual gases
The positive ions are collected at
an electrode and the current is
converted
to
a
pressure
indication.
Hot filament gauges (BayardAlpert,
Schulz-Phelps)
use
thermionic emission of electrons
from a hot wire,
while cold cathode gauges
(Penning, Inverted Magnetron)
use electrons from a glow
discharge or plasma.
Gauge sensitivities (S) ranging
from 0.6 Torr-1 to 20 Torr-1

Gas pressure (P): ip = S x ie x P

or P = 1/S x ip/ie

Ionization Gauges

Ionization Gauges

Pressure range for gages

Pressure Measurement Methods

1.

Elastic pressure transducers

2.

Manometer method

3.

Pressure measurement by measuring vacuum

4.

Electric pressure transducers

5.

Pressure measurement by balancing forces produced on a known

area by a measured force

Electric Pressure Transducers

Why Electrical Pressure Transducers?

Transmission requirements for remote display via
Cable or Cordless
Quicker responses and high accuracy
The linearity property
Immune to hysteresis, shock and mechanical
vibrations.
They can be used for extreme pressure applications,
i.e. high vacuum and pressure measurements.

Electric Pressure Transducers

1.

Pressure sensing element such as a bellow , a diaphragm or a bourdon tube

2.

Primary conversion element e.g. resistance or voltage

3.

Secondary conversion element

Strain Gage
If a wire is held under tension, it
gets slightly longer and its
cross-sectional area is reduced.
This changes its resistance (R)
in proportion to the strain
sensitivity (S) of the wires
resistance.
The strain sensitivity, which is
also called the gage factor (GF),
is given by: GF = ( R/R)/(
L/L) = ( R/R)/ Strain

Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer

Construction and Working

Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer

-- Strain gauge pressure transducers are used for narrow pressure

span and for differential pressure measurments

-- Available for pressure ranges as low as 3 inches of water to as high

as 200,000 psig

-- Inaccuracy ranges from 0.1 % of span to 0.25 % of full scale

Inductance-Type Transducers

The inductance-type transducer consists of three parts: a coil, a

movable magnetic core, and a pressure sensing element.
An AC voltage is applied to the coil, and, as the core moves, the
inductance of the coil changes.

LVDT
Another type of inductance
transducer, utilizes two coils
wound on a single tube and is
commonly referred to as a
Differential Transformer or
sometimes as a Linear
Variable
Differential
Transformer (LVDT).

Capacitive Pressure Transducer

C=0 r A/d
Where,
C = the capacitance of a capacitor in farad
A = area of each plate in m2
d = distance between two plates in m
r= dielectric constant
0 = 8.854*10^-12 farad/m2

Thus, capacitance can be varied by changing distance

between the plates, area of the plate or value of the
dielectric medium between the plates. Any change in
these factors cause change in capacitance.
In capacitive transducers, pressure is utilized to vary any of the above mentioned
factors which will cause change in capacitance and that is a measureable by any
suitable electric bridge circuit and is proportional to the pressure.

Capacitive Pressure Transducer

When the two input pressures are equal the diaphragm is positioned
centrally and the capacitance are equal.
A difference in the two input pressure causes displacement of the sensing
diaphragm and is sensed as a difference between the two capacitances

Capacitive Pressure Transducer

-- Originally developed for use in low vacuum research

-- Wide rangeability from high vacuum in the micron range to 10,000 psig
-- Differential pressure as low as 0.01 inch can be readable
-- Accurate within 0.1 % of reading or 0.01 % of full scale
-- More Corrosion resistant

Potentiometer Pressure Transducer

The device consists of a precision potentiometer whose wiper arm
is mechanically linked to bourdon tube or bellow.
The movement of wiper alarm across the potentiometer converts
the mechanically detected sensor deflection into a resistance
measurement using a Wheatstone bridge circuit.

Piezoelectric
When pressure, force or acceleration is applied to a quartz
crystal, a charge is developed across the crystal that is
proportional to the force applied.
Piezoelectric devices can further be classified according to
whether the crystals electrostatic charge, its resistivity, or its
resonant frequency electrostatic charge is measured.
Depending on which phenomenon is used, the crystal
sensor can be called electrostatic, piezoresistive, or resonant.

Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer

When a pressure , force or acceleration is applied to a quartz crystal ,

a charge is developed across the crystal that is proportional to the
force applied

Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer

Signals generated by crystals decays rapidly so unsuitable for

static force or pressure measurements

Measure rapidly changing pressure resulting from blasts,

explosions or pulsation pressures

Range : 5,000 to 10,000 psi

Rugged construction, small size and high speed

Ends Here