Electricity Consumer Behavior Effect on Greenhouse

Gas Emission in Khartoum State

A thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Requirement of the

Master Degree in Sanitary Engineering, Civil Engineering
Department

By: Zeinab Osman Ali

Supervisor: Dr. Mohd. EL muntasir I. Ahmed

2008
 DEDICATION

To my dear parents,
To whom I owe my success in
conducting this study,
To those who paved my way to
reach, by encouraging,
motivating and asking ALLAH for
me.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I
First of all I would like to thank ALLAH, who gave me health, strength and
patience to accomplish this research.

My deep gratitude must be expressed to my supervisor Dr. Mohammed

Almuntasir Ibrahim, for his great support and help. His encouragement was a
strong motivating force for writing this thesis.

I would like to thank powerfully my colleagues in DAR Consult for their

continuous following and support with data.

Special thanks to such governmental sectors which support my thesis with

valuable information. They include: National Electricity Corporation, Ministry
of Energy & Mining, Nile Petroleum Company, and HCENR.

ABSTRACT

The largest portion of greenhouse gases (GHGs) rated by human activity, over the
course of a year, result from the energy that is produced and consumed worldwide, the
emission of GHGs result in global warming. Lately global warming has received a lot

II
of attention, in Sudan; Part of this attention has fallen upon the energy end-use sector
and the role it plays in generating greenhouse gases.
The main objective of this Study is to illustrate the electricity consumer behavior
which accelerates the greenhouse gas emissions growth by increasing energy
consumption, and to formulate recommendations to control the GHG emission.
The greenhouse gases emission from thermal power generation plants was evaluated
based on different types of fuels.
The residential sector was selected as an indicator since the electrical consumption of
this sector represent more than 47% of the total power consumption, further more the
consumer behavior of this sector represents to some extent, other sectors.
Questionnaire had been prepared and distributed among random sample of 50
householders with different social categories; this Questionnaire was then subjected to
data analysis.
It was been extracted from the results that the growth rate of GHG which emitted
from thermal power plant would increase in 2014 by a factor of 4.5 relative to that of
2000.
More than 25% of the energy consumption and CO2 emissions attributed by the
residential sector is the result of energy “lost” by the users' behavior and used old
technology.
The acceptance of the society to have a role in the reduction of electrical consumption
is very low due to their poor awareness of the sequence their behavior and the benefit
they are going to gain, if they respond positively.
The study has formulated recommendations for mitigations, which include mainly:
Implementation of new technologies related to all energy end-users activities,
escalating energy conservation awareness of the different social categories, in other
way improving the efficiency of thermal power plants to decrease the pollution.

III
 ‫الـــخـــــلصـــــة‬
‫لقد جذب الحتباس الحرارى الكثير من النتباه فى السودان مععؤخرًا‪ ،‬ويلعععب‬
‫إلستخدام النهائى للطاقة بواسطة القطاعات المختلفة الععدور الكععبر فععى توليععد‬
‫غازات الدفيئة نتيجة لزيادة معدل الستهلك‪.‬‬

‫تهدف هذه الدراسة ليجاد حلول للتغلب على سلوك المستهلك الذى يؤدى إلى‬
‫تعجيل نمو إشعاعات غاز الدفيئة بزيادة إستهلك الطاقة الغير مرشدة ومععن ثععم‬
‫صياغة توصيات تساعد على ذلك ‪.‬‬

‫الشعاعات الناتجععة عععن محطععات الكهربععاء الحراريععة تععم تقييمهععا إسععتنادا ً علععى‬
‫النواع المختلفة للوقود‪ .‬كمععا أن القطععاع السععكنى قععد أخععتير كمؤشععر حيععث أن‬
‫الستهلك الكهربائى لهذا القطاع يمثل أكثر من ‪ %47‬من السععتهلك الكهربععائى‬
‫الكلى بالضافة إلى أن سلوك مستهلك هذا القطاع يمثل إلى حد مععا القطاعععات‬
‫الخرى‪.‬‬

‫لقد تم تجهيز إستبيان وتوزيعه على عينة عشوائية مكونة مععن ‪ 50‬مسععتهلك مععن‬
‫مختلف الطبقات الجتماعية‪.‬‬
‫من اهم المتائج التي تم التوصل إليها‪:‬‬
‫أن معععدل نمععو غععازات الععدفيئة المنبعثععة مععن محطععات الكهربععاء‬ ‫•‬
‫الحرارية سيزيد فى العام ‪ 2014‬بمعدل ‪ 4.5‬نسبة إلى ماكان عليععه فععى‬
‫العام ‪. 2000‬‬
‫أكثر من ‪ %25‬من الشعاعات الناتجة عن الطاقة المستهلكة وغاز‬ ‫•‬
‫ثاني اكسيد الكربون فى القطاع السكنى ناتج من فقدان الطاقة بسععبب‬
‫سلوك المستهلكيين وإستخدام التقنيات القديمة‪.‬‬
‫كما أن قابلية المجتمع فى تخفيععض السععتهلك الكهربععائى ضعععيفة‬ ‫•‬
‫جدا ً وذلك بسععبب نقععص الععوعى بالثععار الناجمععة والمنفعععة المكتسععبة إذا‬
‫تفاعلوا باليجاب‪.‬‬

‫وقد صاغت الدراسة بعض التوصيات من أهمها‪:‬‬

‫‪IV‬‬
‫التركيز على ادخال تقنية جديدة لكل الجهزه المستخدمة في جميععع القطاعععات‬
‫ورفع معدل الوعي لقطاعات المجتمع المختلفة وعلى صعععيد اخععر زيععادة كفععاءة‬
‫المحطات المنتجة للكهرباء لتقليل كمية الوقود المحترقة ‪.‬‬

‫‪V‬‬
 LIST OF CONTENTS

Dedication …………………………………….. ………….………………………I

Acknowledgement ………………………………….…........……………...……..II

Abstract – (English) ……………………………………………………………..III

Abstract- (Arabic) …………………………………………………….…………IV

List of contents ………………………………………………………….………..V

List of Tables ……………………………………………….………………..….IX

List of Figures ……………………………………………………….………….XI

List of Plates ……………………………………………………..……………XIII

CHAPTER 1: Introduction

1.1 General …………………………………………...……………………..…….1

1.2 The importance of the study ………………………………………..………….1

1.3 The problem assessment ……………………………………………………….2

1.4 Objectives of the study ………………………………...………………………2

1.5 Research structure ……………………………………………………………..3

CHAPTER 2: Literature Review

2.1 Introduction ………………………………………..……………………. ……4

2.2 Pollution ……………………………………………………………..……….4

2.3 Air pollution sources of Effects ………………………………….…..…………4

2.3.1 Natural Sources ………………………………………………..…………...…5

2.3.2 Man Made sources ………………………………………………………...….6

2.3.3 Health Effects of Air Pollution ……………………………………….…...…11

2.4 Greenhouse effects ………………………...………………………………..…13

2.4.1 Climate Change………………..…………………………………..…………13

2.4.2 Global Warming ……………………………...……..……………………….15

VI
 2.4.3 Ozone Layer Depletion …………..……………………………………...…..16

2.5 International Agreements Concerning Environment …………………………..18

2.5.1 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer –

Vienna (1985) …………………………………………………………….……18

2.5.2 Montreal Protocol on Substances that deplete the Ozone Layer –

Montreal (1987) ………………………………………………….……….18

2-5-3 Brazil Conference (1992) International Convention and the

21st Century Agenda ………………………………………….…….…….19

2.5.4 Challenges facing the Agreements Execution ………………….……………24

2.5.5 Sudan Obligations to Execute the Agreements ………………………...……25

2.6 Power Generation ……………….…………………………………….….……26

2.6.1 General Setting …………...……………………………………...……..……26

2.6.2 Thermal Generating Plants ………..………………………….…………...…28

2.6.3 Kinetic Generating Plants ……………………………..……………..…...….32

2.6.4 Alternative Generation ………………………………..…………………....34

2.7 Power and Energy in Sudan ………………..………………………..………...34

2.7.1 General ……………………………………………………...…………...…..34

2.7.2 Generation Technology ………………………………………………...……37

2.7.3 Summary ……………………………………………………………...……..39

CHAPTER 3: Methodology

3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………. ………………...…44

3.2 Emission of Greenhouse Gases from Thermal Power Plants in the

2000 -2014 Period ………………………………………………………...……44

3.2.1. Methodology for Evaluating Emissions Causing the

Greenhouse Effect ………………………………………………….…………44

VII
3.2.2 Uncertainty Assessment ……………………………………………..………45

3.3 Questionnaire survey ……………………………………………………………46

3.3.1 Methodology ……………………………………………………………..……46

3.3.2 Questionnaire components and parts …………………………………….…….47

3.3.3 The study ………………………………………………………………………47

3.3. 4 Questionnaire design ………………………………………………….………48

CHAPTER 4: Results and Discussion

4.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………… ……51

4.2 Emission of Greenhouse Gases from Thermal Power Plants in the

2000 -2014 Period ……………………………………………………...………51

4.2.1 Evaluation of Emissions ………………………………………………….……51

4.3 Questionnaire survey ……………………………………………………………51

4.3.1 Survey finding …………………………………………………………...……56

4.3.2 Monthly consumption …………………………………………………………60

4.3.3 Electricity consumed for illumination of unoccupied rooms ……………….…61

4.4 Energy conservation ………………………………………………………….…75

4.4.1 Scope for savings………………………………………………………………75

4.5 Summary …………………………………………………………………..…….80

CHAPTER 5: Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusions ……………………………………………. ……………...……..82

5.1.1 Emission of greenhouse gases from thermal power plants ………………..…82

5.1.2 Energy conservation ……………………………………………..……………83

5.2 Recommendations …………………………………………………………….…84

References …………………………………………………………….……85

VIII
 Appendices

1- Appendix -1 Health Effect of Power Plant Pollutants ………………….……88

2- Appendix -2 Fuel Specification Report …………………………………...…91

Appendix -3 CO2 Emission Factor ……………………………………..……96

3- Appendix -4 SO2 Emission Factor ……………………………………...….101

4- Appendix -5 Emission Values for Equivalent Fuel Consumption /year

Mainly in Khartoum State ……………………………………………….….104

5- Appendix - 6 Questionnaire Design

…………………………………………117

IX
 LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Percentage of NO2 emission 1995, all sectors….. ………………………...

…07

2.2 Percentage of NO2 emission 1995………………………………..…………

08

2.3 Percentage of CO emission 1995, all sectors……………………………...…

08

2.4 Percentage of CO2 emission 1995, all sectors………………………….……

09

2.5 More ten diseases hospital admission in Khartoum

state…………………….12

2.6 More ten diseases causing death in Khartoum state……………………....

….12

2.7 Represents the census of the population from 1973 to

2006…………………27

2.8 The number of the population of the State of Khartoum ………………..

…..27

2.9 Existing Hydro Power Generation Plant in Sudan ……………………..……

37

2.10 Existing Thermal Generating Plants in Sudan ………………...…………38

2.11 NEC Development Medium Term Plan (2004-2009)………...………...…40

2.12 Transmission Line Planning……………………………………...……….41

2.13 NEC Load Forecast …………………………………………….…………42

3-1 Type of lighting used………………………………..…….…………..…. 49

3-2 Equipments used in home……………………...………………….………49

3-3 Monthly electricity consumption ……………………………...…….…….49

X
3-4 Sample distribution………………………………………….…….….…....50

3-5 Response to questionnaire…………………………………….….….…….50

4-1 CO2 Emission Gg /year ……………………………………….….….……52

4-2 SO2 Emission Gg /year ………………….……………………..…………53

4-3 NOX Emission Gg /year ………………………………..…………..……54

4-4 CO Emission Gg /year …………………………………………..………55

4-5 greenhouse gas emissions by activity ………………………...…………..56

4-6 Electricity consumption by household equipment on standby……….……

59

4-7 Monthly Consumption………………………………………………... …60

4-8 The number of lights on in unoccupied rooms…………………………..61

4-9A Total Daily kWh consumed for Illumination unoccupied

Rooms per sample……………………………………..…………...……62

4-9B Total Daily kWh consumed for Illumination unoccupied

Rooms per Khartoum state ………………………………………...……62

4-10A Maximum percent electricity consumed for

Illumination of unoccupied rooms ……………………………….…….63

4-10B Minimum percent electricity consumed for

Illumination of unoccupied rooms ……………………………..……63

4-11 Carbon Dioxide Emitted From Total Electricity Consumed

By Khartoum City Residences ………………………………………….71

4-12 Carbon Dioxide Emitted From Eliminating Lighting

Consumption of Unoccupied Rooms ………………………………..…72

4-13 Greenhouse gas emissions by activity ……………………………...……80

4-14 Greenhouse gas emissions reduction by activity …………………..……81

XI
 LIST OF FIGURES

2.1 Carbon Dioxide Concentration in the atmosphere…………………..………13

2.2 Peak Demand and Installed Capacity………………………………….……42

2.3 Future transmission line and generation (2004-2009)………………..….…43

4-1 CO2 Emission Gg /year…………………….…………………………... …52

4-2 SO2 Emission Gg /year ……………………………………..………...…..53

4-3 NOX Emission Gg /year ……………………………………….…………54

4-4 CO Emission Gg /year …………………………………………..………55

4-5 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Khartoum Residential Sector

Energy Use by Activity………………………….……………...…….…..56

4-6 Minimum and Maximum Percent Electricity Consumed for

Illumination of Unoccupied Rooms of the Residential Sector………..….64

4-7 Saved Energy from Eliminating Lighting Consumption

Of Unoccupied Rooms in Khartoum City Residences ………………...…64

4-8 Saved Energy from Eliminating Lighting Consumption of

Unoccupied Rooms in 2nd .class Khartoum City Residences………….…65

4-9 Saved Energy from Eliminating Lighting Consumption of

Unoccupied Rooms in 1st .class Khartoum City Residences…………...…65

XII
 4-10 Electricity Consumption Savings from Khartoum

residential sector …………………………………………………………66

4-11 Electricity Consumption Savings from 1st. class …………… ……...…..…67

4-12 Electricity Consumption Savings from 2nd.class ……………………......…68

4-13 Khartoum Energy Usage by Sector (2007) ……………………………… 70

4-14 Carbon Dioxide Emitted From Khartoum City Residences

2007 (elec. powered by 100%thermal) …………………………… …. 73

4-15 Carbon Dioxide Emitted From Khartoum City Residences

2007 (elec. powered by 74%thermal) …………………………….……

73

4-16 Carbon Dioxide Emitted From Eliminating Lighting Consumption

Of Unoccupied Room in Khartoum City Residences

(elec. powered by 100% thermal) ……………………………...……. 74

4.17 Carbon Dioxide Emitted From Eliminating Lighting Consumption

Of Unoccupied Room in Khartoum City Residences

(elec. powered by 74% thermal) ………………………………….…. 74

XIII
 LIST OF PLATES

2.1 An enormous ice sheet, 3250 km2 wide, collapses from Larsen B platform,

Antarctica Peninsula, forming icebergs; March 19, 2002………………………14

2.2 Ozone layer hole …………………………………………………………..…17

XIV
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

Over the past three decades pollution has become one of the world most dangerous
problems. In order to provide sustainable future for covering generation, the IEPA an
international agency created in the 80s to monitor and provide solutions to protect the
environment, has raised serious concern over the current trends in developed countries
pollution emission.

This pollution will deteriorate the ozone layer and increasing the earth geothermal
temperature. This deterioration and hazardous emission created by power plants,
factories and consumer bad behavior is seriously jeopardizes the planets eco-system.
The rapid buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is the source of the problem.
By burning ever-increasing quantities of coal, oil and gas, we are choking our planet
in a cloud of this pollution. If we don’t begin to act now to curb global warming, our
children will live in a world where the climate will be far less hospitable than it is
today.

1.2 The Importance of the Study

We all use electricity in our daily lives, almost without thinking about it -- turning on
the lights, listening to the radio, and using computers. If we stopped and learned about
the energy we use, we would encounter some shocking realities about the impacts of
the energy production process on the environment and our health.

Energy conservation is the practice of decreasing the quantity of energy used. It may
be achieved through efficient energy use, in which case energy use is decreased while
achieving a similar outcome, or by reduced consumption of energy services. Energy
conservation may result in increase of financial capital, environmental value, national
security, personal security, and human comfort. Individuals and organizations that are
direct consumers of energy may want to conserve energy in order to reduce energy
costs and promote economic, political and environmental sustainability. Industrial and
commercial users may want to increase efficiency and thus maximize profit.

1
On a larger scale, energy conservation is an important element of energy policy. In
general, energy conservation reduces the energy consumption and energy demand per
capita, and thus offsets the growth in energy supply needed to keep up with
population growth. This reduces the rise in energy costs, and can reduce the need for
new power plants, and energy imports. The reduced energy demand can provide more
flexibility in choosing the most preferred methods of energy production.

By reducing emissions, energy conservation is an important part of lessening climate

change. Energy conservation facilitates the replacement of non-renewable resources
with renewable energy. Energy conservation is often the most economical solution to
energy shortages, and is a more environmentally benign alternative to increased
energy production.

1.3 The Problem Statement

Due to the expected rapid growth in Sudan economy the produced electricity is not
sufficient. More hydro and thermal power plants will be constructed as planned by
national electricity corporation (NEC), as stated in their development medium term
plan up to 2014 (1250MW will be added by hydro and 2000 MW added by thermal ).

Such mass production of electrical power will increase the emission of gasses.
Existing level of greenhouse gases (GHG) in Sudan is low right now, but expected it
is to increase due to above mentioned factors.

The consumers bad behavior toward the use of the electrical power lead to major
losses that increase the level of GHG.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of power plants emission on the
environment due to electricity demand in the Sudan, and how to control that, by
changing consumer behavior.

Therefore the specific objectives are:

1- Estimate the GHG emission from thermal power plants.

2- Evaluate the waste of energy by consumer usage, and the effect of using old
technology.

2
 3- Study the mitigation which can reduce these losses, via questionnaire.

4- Infer upon Study the consumer acceptance for measure to be implement

1.5 Research Structure

The research has been presented in five chapters as follows:

a. (Chapter one) presents the research parameters; the important of the study,
problems and the Objectives of the Study.

b. (Chapter two) presents literature review about air pollution, Health Effects of Air
Pollution, the International Agreements Concerning Environment, identify the
general information about Sudan, also identifying the generation power plant
and then explain the Power and Energy in Sudan.

c. (Chapter three) presents the source of data used and the methodology.

d. (Chapter four) presents the details result for the evaluation of the greenhouse
gases emission from thermal power plant, and analyzes the questionnaire
survey.

e. (Chapter five) a conclusion highlights the main finding followed by

recommendation.

3
 CHAPTER 2
Literature Review

2.1 Introduction
Abundance of literature review has been conducted pertaining to issue. They include
books, researches, seminar paper, and reports. But most of them have been
directed towards greenhouse gases and the international agreement with
emphasis on power and energy in Sudan.

2.2 Pollution
Pollution, whether of air, water or land, is certainly not new problem, poisonous
substances have been released into the environment for many years in all industrial
countries and areas of dense human habitation.

Smoke- filled air, dirty rivers and contaminated land have become familiar features of
the landscape what is changing however is the attitude of the public.

It has become increasingly clear in recent years that if pollution goes unchecked it
could result in serious and possible irreversible damage to this planet.

Of crucial importance is the need to understand the problems, such understanding

brings with it the knowledge which will allow control of the adverse effects on human
health and the environment. The search continues to identify and control new
problems and find solutions to old ones.

Provided that man can develop and practice a proper respect for the world there is no
reason to suppose that he will not be able to continue to enjoy life on this planet for
many generations. .(Michael 1999)

2.3 Air Pollution Sources of Effects

Air is essential to life, its natural quality must be protect man’s health and well-being
and to protect his surrounding.

Industrialization and urbanization result in release of gaseous pollutants into

atmosphere, presuming it to be on endless reservoir.

4
the most common gaseous contamination is the urban atmosphere are sulphur dioxide
carbon mono- oxide, ozone and oxidants, oxides of nitrogen, hydro carbons and
aldehydes except under special conditions the carbon dioxide is not considered as an
atmospheric contaminant, because of its role in the photosynthesis of green plants.
(Michael 1999)

There are two main sources of air pollution: natural and man made sources, these two
sources are further discussed in the coming sections.
2.3.1 Natural Sources
The lower atmosphere of the earth extends to about 13km. above the earths surface.
Sources of natural origin have contributed to the composition of the earth’s
atmosphere. In the lower atmosphere, the substances are being added constantly
through man’s activities .in addition to the water vapor, other variable gaseous
constituents of natural origin also pollute the atmosphere. These gaseous constituents
include oxides of nitrogen from electrical storms, hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen
chloride from volcanic disturbances, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide from seepage of
sour natural gases from volcanoes or from action of sulfide bacteria and ozone formed
photo chemically or by electrical discharge.

During the growing season considerable number of viable particles is found in the
atmosphere over land. These particles consist of pollens micro-organisms and insects.

Carbon –dioxide gas is released by all forms of life during respiration and is
assimilated by green plants in photo synthesis the increasing consumption of
carbonaceous fuel to supply heat and power for man’s activities has also released
enormous quantities of CO2 in the atmosphere. The sea form a natural reservoir
containing about 60 times more CO2 than is present in the atmosphere it has been
estimated that 6 milliar tones per year CO2 is added in the atmosphere by all the
sources . The total contamination due to this CO2 is relatively uncreative and may be
accumulating also at a rate of about 0.03 ppm. per year.

Oxides of nitrogen which are discharged to the atmosphere from the combustion of
fuels and industrial processes are highly reactive chemically and form products that
have relatively short life.

5
Most of the H2S librated to the atmosphere comes from natural sources. Other sulfur
compounds including organic sulfides and mercaptans constitutes have minor
emission quantities. (Michael 1999)

2.3.2 Man Made Sources

In the urban areas, the main sources of air pollution are the products of combustion of
fuel in the houses. Such as coal, oil, gases and exhaust gases from automotive
vehicles.

Important sources of air pollution in specific areas are also present in industrial
activities connected with non-ferrous metal smelting and refining, iron and steel
manufacturing, oil refining, chemical and petrochemical operations, manufacture of
pulp and paper and so many other such industries. Day by day new air pollution
problems are created and the old ones are intensified due to rapid growth of
population and industries. With the increased use of the combustible fuels and other
particular matter sources the burden of solids in the atmosphere will present
continuing problem. The larger coarse particles will settle out of the atmosphere fairly
rapidly by gravity and collects on the surface of the earth. The dust fall distribution in
cities is a useful indication of the amount of fly ash and dust deposited from stack
emission. Most of the particles collected in this manner are larger than 20-40m in size.
In most contaminated areas the quantity of such dust can be 50-100 t / km2 / month.
(Garner, J.F.1998)

(I) Smoke and sulfur dioxide (SO2)

The first recognized and most widely researched pollutants are the fine particles
suspended in the atmosphere (called smoke for convenience) and sulphur dioxide
(colorless gas with a choking taste).smoke is produced by the incomplete combustion
of carbon-based fuel.

And sulfur dioxide by the burning of sulfur- a natural constituent of both coal and oil.

Thermal power houses plants are the main contributor to SO2 emissions and accounts
for 40% of the total emission. In the world total combustion of coal and petroleum
products for energy liberates more than 18 million tones of SO2 to the atmosphere and
this is 80% of the total emission. As a matter of fact air pollution by SO2 is the main
nation’s major air pollution problem in world. (IPCC 2003)

6
In Sudan SO2 emitted to the atmosphere in 1995 amount to IGg (1000 ton) which
constitutes 0.0039% of the total emission of GHG. This percentage comes mainly
from combustion of petroleum products for energy liberates and this is 0.0145% of
the total emission from energy sector. (HCENR 2003)

(II) Nitrogen Oxides NOX

Of all the oxides of nitrogen, the significant ones in the context of air pollution are
nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Both NO2 are found in combustion
gases, NO predominate as its formation is favored at high temperatures. Some of the
colorless NO oxidizes in the atmosphere to NO2 a reddish- brown gas.

The major man made source of nitrogen oxides is the combustion of fuels (in power
generation, road vehicles) indoor sources include smoking, gas fired appliances of oil
stoves.

It has been estimated that about 18 million Tones of nitrogen oxides are added in the
atmosphere every year. Out of this quantity about 46% are produced from
transportation vehicles, 25% from electrical generation plants, 17% from industries,
9% from residences and remaining 3% from commercial operation. In other way 64%
are derived from combustion of fuel oil and gasoline, 26% from coal burning and
remaining 10% use of natural gas. (IPCC 2003)

In Sudan NO2 emitted to the atmosphere in 1995 amount to 130 Gg (130000 ton) and
account at 0.51% of total GHG emission. Out of this quantity shown in Table (2-1),
(2-2). (HCENR 2003)

Table (2-1) Percentage of NO2 emission 1995, all sectors

Percentage % Source and sink categories
35.4% agriculture
26.2% Commercial and residential
17.7% land use change and forestry
13.8% transportation
4.6% electrical generation plant
2.3% industries

In other way;

7
Table (2-2) Percentage of NO2 emission 1995
Percentage % Source and sink categories
Are derived from burning of agricultural residues
53.1%
of wood fuel burning ( fire wood and charcoal )
Are derived from combustion of fuel oil and
27.9%
gasoline
19% The use of natural gas
Because of continue increase in the number of vehicles, power plants, and industries,
the pollution of the atmosphere due to nitrogen oxides are increasing day by day,
there is urgent need to control the oxides of nitrogen, especially in view of their photo
chemical activity.

(III) Carbon- monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide is an invisible gas which is produced by the in complete
combustion of carbon- based fuels. The main source of man – made discharge to the
atmosphere is from the exhaust of petrol engines and coal of wood fuel burning also
burning of agriculture residues. At 200 century estimated that about 460 million tones
of carbon monoxide discharge to atmosphere per year. Out of this quantity, 99.5%
contributed by transportation. (IPCC 2003)

In Sudan carbon monoxide discharged to the atmosphere at 1995 amount to 3280 Gg

(3.280.000 ton) its account 30.5% of total GHG. Out of this quantities shown in
Table (2-3). (HCENR 2003)

Table (2-3) Percentage of CO emission 1995, all sectors

Percentage % Source and sink categories
42% Produced from commercial and residential
24% Land use change and forestry
11.8% Agriculture
2.5% Transport
1.3% Industries
18.4% others

(IV) Carbon dioxide (CO2)

The burning of fossil fuels (natural gas, coal and oil) is contributing to an increase in
the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. It has been suggested that if this
trend continues the surface of the earth will become slightly hotter than it is to day.
This is because carbon dioxide is better at transmitting short wave radiation from the

8
sun than it is the longer wave infra- red radiation reflected back from the earth’s
surface. This is called the (green house effect). If, as some researchers predict, the
level of carbon dioxide double in the atmosphere in the next 50 years, temperature
patterns through out the world could change. It could eventually lead to the melting of
the polar ice caps, which would result in the sea level rising by several feet, producing
widespread flooding.

In 1995 the total global carbon emitted from energy activities was estimated at 6
billion metric ton.

In Sudan carbon dioxide discharged to the atmosphere in 1995 amount to 20.077 Gg

(20.077.000 ton) account of 78% of total GHG emission. Out of this quantity about
77.58% produced from land- use change of forestry. As Shown in Table (2-4).

(HCENR 2003)

The 1995 per capita emission of CO2, as an example is 0.003 Gg (3 ton) per person
(i.e.89.220 Gg / 28.7 million people) (/89.220.00 ton)

Table (2-4) Percentage of CO2 emission 1995, all sectors

Percentage % Source and sink categories
77.58% Land use change and forestry
9.6% Transport
5.1% Electricity generation and oil refinery
3.1% Commercial and residential
Manufacturing industries and
2.9%
construction
0.85% Industrial processes
0.87% Others

(V) Total suspended particulates

a - Particulate Matter
The category particulate pollutant, which includes about 5% of the weight of all air
pollutants, is a miscellaneous category. The term “particulate” itself implies a single
kind of gritty entity. However, particulate pollution has multiple components,
including sulfate salts, sulfuric acid droplets, and salts of metals (like lead or oxides of
iron), dust from finely divided particles of carbon or silica, liquid sprays and mists,
and a host of un- cataloged substances.

9
The size of particulate matter is an important characteristic. Individual particles are
measured in units called micrometers (μm), one million of which add up to one meter.
Particulate range in size from 0.005 (μm) to about 100 um (U.S. Environmental
protection Agency, 1982). While natural dusts constitute half the total mass of
particulate matter in the atmosphere at any one time, this dust has a relatively small
impact because it tends to be coarse. Being heavy, these particles settle out of the
atmosphere quickly and otherwise do not get to delicate lung tissue. Fine particulate
matter (less than 2.5 um in diameter as defined by the EPA) is generally considerably
more hazardous to human health than coarse ( diameters greater than 2.5 um )
particulate matter.

Although rain generally tends to clean particulate matter out of the air, it is not very
effective in removing pieces smaller than 2 um in diameters. Particulates in this
category tend to remain suspended and, depending on turbulence and wind conditions,
can be transported over long distances. Very fine particles behave almost identically
to gases.

Particulates occur as sprays, mists, and dusts from spraying and grinding activities,
land clearing, and highway building. Soot and fly ash are emitted from electrical
power plants and factories. Significant amounts of particulates also come from forest
fires and agricultural fires. Secondary particulate particles can be created in the
atmosphere by the reaction of gases producing a solid or droplets or when one
substance acts as a nucleus onto which other materials condense to produce new
chemical entities. Hydrocarbons, for example, can react with oxidants in the
atmosphere to produce peroxide radicals, which, through chemical chain reactions,
eventually from large organic molecules, stored in bone. Depending on the rates of
storage and excretion relative to the amount absorbed, blood levels may reach the
limits of toxicity. Hormone changes and stress may cause the lead in bone to be
released, causing surges in blood lead and health problems in individuals who
previously carried blood lead burdens near threshold. The specific biochemical,
physiological, and health effects of lead will be considered in the next paragraph.

b - Air Toxics

Beyond the general kinds of pollutants found in air almost anywhere are toxic
substances called air toxics that get into the air only from particular kinds of industry

10
or from certain types of accidents at the local level. Perhaps the most serious
industrial accident was the escape of toxic gas from a union Carbide plant in Bhopal,
India, in1984 that killed several thousand people and injured many thousand more.
More commonly, we hear about less serious railroad tanker car accidents and tanker
truck accidents that require people to be evacuated. While such dramatic accidents
obviously deserve considerable attention, the more routine emissions of highly toxic
chemicals from chemical facilities are also a serious problem.

2.3.3 Health Effects of Air Pollution

Over the past few decades, medical researchers examining air pollution and public
health have shown that air pollution is associated with a host of serious adverse
human health effects, including asthma attacks, heart attacks, hospital admissions, and
premature Death.

The adverse health consequences of breathing air pollution caused by emissions from
utility power plants are severe and must be documented in the published medical and
scientific literature.

One of the air pollutants most carefully studied in last decade is fine particles. Fine
particles, such as those that result from power plant emissions, can bypass the
defensive mechanisms of the lung and become lodged deep in the lung where they can
cause a variety of health problems. Indeed, the latest evidence indicates that short-
term exposure not only causes respiratory damage, but also causes cardiac effects,
including increasing the risk of heart attacks. (Conrad G.Schneider 2004)

Moreover, long-term exposure to fine particles increases the risk of cardiac,

respiratory, and lung cancer death and has been estimated to shorten life expectancies
of people living in the most polluted cities relative to those living in cleaner cities.
(See Appendix 1).

More than 25% from the hospital admission in Khartoum state suffer each year from
asthma attacks, cardiac problems, and respiratory problems associated with air
pollution from power plants and other activities. These illnesses result in emergency
room visits, hospitalizations, and lost work days each year. Table (2-5) summarize the
more ten diseases hospital admission, Table (2-6) summarize the more ten diseases
causing death annually. (Ministry of Health (2006))

11
Table (2-5) More ten diseases hospital admission in Khartoum state

The admissions 2002 2003 2004 2005

1 Respiratory tract infection 12 % 10.6% 26.2% 27.3%
2 Malnutrition _ _ 4.3% 4.4%
3 malaria 21.8% 19.4% 15.7% 13.9%
4 Urethral inflammation 4.4% 4.8% 5.4% 5.3%
5 injury 3.1% 3.1% 3.3% 3.6%
6 Hyper tension 2.7% 3% 3.5% 3.4%
7 Gastro intestinal tract infection 2.4% 2.9% 3.3% 3.3%
8 Heart diseases 2.7% 3.0% 3.1% 3.0%
9 Diabetes meltius _ _ 2.7% 2.6%
10 dysentery _ _ _ 1.9%
Source: Ministry of Health, Statistic and Information Department,
"Annual Statistic Report (2006)"

Table (2-6) More ten diseases causing death in Khartoum state

The admissions 2002 2003 2004 2005

1 Malnutrition 13.0 12.3% 11.5% 13.8%
2 Toxemia 11.2 12.3 10.4% 9.5%
3 pneumonia 11.4% 11.7% 6.2% 8.3%
4 Heart diseases 2.7% 4.5% - 7.9%
5 malaria 10.7% 8.0% 3.9% 6.2%
6 diarrhea 4.4% 3.7% - 4.8%
7 meningitis 6.3% 4.8% 7.0% 4.5%
8 dehydration 4.8% 7.0% 3.5% 4.2%
9 tuberculosis 3.0 3.7 4.9% 3.9%
10 Hyper tension _ _ 2.9 3.6%
Source: Ministry of Health, Statistic and Information Department,
"Annual Statistic Report (2006)"

2.4 Greenhouse Effects

2.4.1 Climate Change

12
Some gases in the atmosphere produce the "greenhouse effect", trapping the heat of
Earth without allowing it to escape in the outer space.

The greenhouse effect is normally natural and beneficial: without it Earth would be at
least 15 ° C colder; it is becoming more and more important due to the increasing
concentration of these gases ("greenhouse gases") in the atmosphere due to human
activity in pursuit of development, such as fuel combustion, industrial processing,
intensive agriculture, land use change &forest utilization

The main greenhouse gases are : carbon dioxide (CO2) , methane(CH4), nitrous oxide
(N2O),nitrogen oxides(NOX) chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs); also water vapor (H2O) is
producing the greenhouse effect.

13
Figure (2-1) Carbon Dioxide Concentration in the atmosphere

The most authoritative studies have been carried out on behalf of UN by IPCC
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change); according to a report by this
Committee, underwritten by hundred of scientists (IPCC WGI Third Assessment
Report - SPM, issued in January 2001), the Earth is really warming :

• The global average surface temperature has increased over the 20th century
by about0.6°C.Globally; it is very likely that the 1990s was the warmest
decade and 1998 the warmest year in the instrumental record, since 1861.

• Satellite data show decreases of about 10% in the extent of snow cover since
the late 1960s. In particular equatorial snows and glaciers are disappearing
quickly, on the Peruvian Ands and in Africa (33% of Kilimanjaro an ice has
melted over the past 20 years); the thickness of Arctic sea-ice in late summer
is decreased.

• Warming of the whole Antarctica has not been demonstrated; but in West
Antarctica, especially in the Antarctica Peninsula (southern of the Latin
America), massive landslides of enormous icy areas forming icebergs are
observed. It is not clear if this process is related to the greenhouse effect or if
it is the result of regional climatic changes.

14
Plate (2-1) (An enormous ice sheet, 3250 km2 wide, collapses from Larsen B
platform, Antarctica Peninsula, forming icebergs; March 19, 2002)

Global average sea level has risen, mainly due to the thermal expansion of seas (ice
retreat is not the main reason): the increase over the 20th century has been between 10
and 20 centimeters.

2.4.2 Global Warming

The 1990s were the hottest decade on record. Average global temperatures rose one
degree Fahrenheit during the last century and the latest projections are for an average
temperature increase of two to as much as ten degrees during this century. In February
2001, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported that global
warming threatens human populations and the world's ecosystems with worsening
heat waves, floods, drought, and extreme weather and by spreading infectious
diseases. To address the problem of global warming, steps need to be taken to slash
the amount of CO2 power plants emit. We need to switch from burning fossil fuels
coal to cleaner burning natural gas and dramatically increase energy efficiency and
renewable wind and solar energy. (IPCC 2001)

15
A. Global Climatic Trend: Projections until 2100.
The projections of the IPCC, carried out with greatly improved methods compared to
the past, indicate big increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration due to human
activity, with significant Climatic consequences:

• The globally averaged surface temperature is projected to increase by 1.4 to

5.8°C over the period 1990-2100: the rate of warming, too, should increase
compared to last century.

• Warming should be most notable in some areas of our planet (northern

regions of North America, northern and central Asia).

• Heat waves, droughts, drier soils.

• Increased evaporation and precipitation due to higher energy in the

atmosphere: more frequent and extreme weather events (storms, tornados,
hurricanes).

• Sea levels will go on rising: erosion of sandy beaches or flooding of coastal

areas (e.g., Bangla Desh, Nile Delta) and small islands (specially the atolls
in South Pacific).

• Easier transmission of some infectious diseases, including malaria and

yellow fever.

2.4.3 Ozone Layer Depletion

Ozone is a bluish, very reactive gas, whose molecule is made by three oxygen atoms.

The ozone layer is a concentration of ozone molecules in the stratosphere. About 90%
of the planet's ozone is in the ozone layer. The layer of the Earth's atmosphere that
surrounds us is called the troposphere. The stratosphere, the next higher layer, extends
about 10-50 kilometers above the Earth's surface. Stratospheric ozone is a naturally-
occurring gas that filters the sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation. A diminished ozone
layer allows more radiation to reach the Earth's surface. For people, overexposure to
UV rays can lead to skin cancer, cataracts, and weakened immune systems. Increased
UV can also lead to reduced crop yield and disruptions in the marine food chain. UV
also has other harmful effects.

16
Only a minor part of ozone is in the troposphere, the internal atmospheric layer, where
the meteorological phenomena happen. Tropospheric ozone is mainly produced by
photochemical reactions involving other pollutant gases, especially over large cities.

Ozone depletion caused by the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other

ozone-depleting substances (ODS), which were used widely as refrigerants, insulating
foams, and solvents. Toxic emissions and the burning of fossil fuels by power plants,
factories, and engines also play a role in the alteration of ozone layer functioning.

The overall amount of ozone is essentially stable in a natural cycle. This has been true
for millions of years.

Now, according to atmospheric measurements, ozone layer is getting thinner,

specially over Antarctica, where a seasonal ozone layer "hole" appears

(URL: http://www.epa.gov/docs/ozone/science/q_a.html )

17
 Plate (2-2) Ozone layer hole
(In the NASA image the blue color means lack of ozone).

18
2.5 International Agreements Concerning Environment (Awad. N. 1999)
2.5.1 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer –
Vienna (1985)

This agreement is concerned with the preservation of health standards and the
environment against the negative effects caused by the deterioration of the ozone
layer. The agreement also stipulates that member countries should conduct scientific
research and continuous monitoring on the ozone layer. And corporate in finding
measures to prevent activities that cause the damaging of the layer and to exchange
experience, information, technology and laws related to the agreement. The
convention entered into the implementation phase in the Sudan in 1988 and lies
signed on 29/1/1993. And Sudan became a member on 29/4/1993.

2.5.2 Montreal Protocol on Substances that deplete the Ozone Layer –

Montreal (1987)

The Montreal protocol identifies the actions members’ states are to take in order to
stop production and use of vehicles that are restricted by the protocol and to stop their
use by the year 2000.

The protocol also allowed developing countries to be given a 10 year period in order
to complete the time scheduled to get rid of the products that are destroying the ozone
layer by the end of 1999. The chemical products that are harmful to the ozone layer
are chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s), halons (used in fire extinguishers) and methyl
bromide (used as a pesticide) which is the most notable.

The protocol allows and encourages member’s states to exchange technology and
information. The protocol are also created a Montreal fund for varying needs for the
assistance of developing nations in covering the expense needed for it to comply with
the protocol and to provide alternative technology suitable for each country depending
on its needs for projects decided from the member’s in the protocol within their
program .

The Sudan signed the protocol in April 1993, a national commission was formed to
comply with the Montreal protocol under the auspices of the higher council for the
environmental & natural resources to identify the scope and measures to limit the use

19
of material that is harmful to the ozone layer according to the protocol and to establish
a program to be used nation wide.

Research has shown that the Sudan is not higher contributor to the decay of the ozone
layer as it was shown in a nation wide study that the Sudan consumes around 602
metric tons of harmful material in the base year 1991, Consumption rate is less than
300 gms. Per capita per year which grants Sudan according to the protocol to be
technical and financial assistance from the Montreal fund

The national commission has achieved through the ozone unit in the ministry of
industry the following:

1- The completion of investment projects funded by the ozone monetary fund in

2- the Field of cooling, aerosols

3- Setting the target to decrease harmful emission from 602 tons (1991) to 311

tons By 1997.

4- Preparation of feasibility studies for future projects concerning

5- Conducting educational campaigns through the visual, audio and written

media and academic institutes and local authorities in all the Sudanese states.

6- Setting a target to decease harmful emission from 602 tons (1991) to 311
tones by 1997.

2-5-3 Brazil Conference (1992)

International Convention and the 21st Century Agenda
A/ United Nation Framework Convention on climate Change (Rio
1992)

The aim of this agreement is to regulate the levels of the green house gas emissions
and its concentration in the earth atmosphere, to prevent the global weather changes
that will lead to defect in the earth sustainable future.

The agreement has gone through a lot of phases until its final ratification In the Brazil
summit in 1992. The 1988 IPCC provided the scientific background in order for the
political decision maker agree to the absent negotiation.

20
155 nation signed this agreement in 1992 and it come into action in Rio in March
1993. Sudan was one of the countries that endorsed the agreement in 1992 and a fully
complied with it in 1994.

In the third party conference set in Kyoto in Japan (Dec.1997) to ensure each nation
commitment to reduce gaseous emission and to identify the role of members states
specifically the industries countries in confronting this issue. The representative's
recalled the Kyoto protocol which aims at the following:

1- The commitment of 38 industrial nations to reduce global warming to

1990 levels for the period between 2008-2112 the gasses to be reduced are 6
(carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen protoxide, perfluorocarbons,
hydrofluorocarbons and sulfur hexafluoride) countries which are incapable of
reducing their quotas. Of harmful gases are capable of buying a slare from
countries who have a surplus in the emission quotas.
2- An agreement to produce and mention a viable environment in which
developed countries will provide monetary aid and passion to developing
countries technology in exchange for a percentage of their unused quota for
global warming gases.

The Sudan is currently performing schemes to facilitate the completion of its

obligations towards the global warming change in the following area:

3- Improving the work face standard and prepare basic communication

infrastructure for the Sudan. Improving the GHG correction method and
training personal to plan assesses and improve Procedures to reduce the effects
of global warming.
4- Developing the process which is used for planning and proposing
projects for development schemes to consider the United Nation Framework
Convention on climate Change.
The project has achieved the following
1- Preparation of information came for the whole country.
2- Preparation of heat retaining GHG.
3- Identifying the options for reducing the effects of different emission origins
and identifying the options for cooling.

21
The project is currently in the preparation phase nationally and the strategic plan to
face the climate Change

B- Kyoto Protocol Japan, 1–10 December 1997

Draft of an international agreement, underwritten in 1997 from 84

countries, committing developed countries to reducing their overall emissions of
greenhouse gases: an average 5% cut has been fixed within 2012, compared to 1990
emissions level. Each country took on a different percentage target within this overall
target.
An average 5% cut would be a great result (many countries should reduce their
emissions instead of increasing them sharply), but unfortunately not enough to stop
the temperature increase; for this reason the term "climate change mitigation" is often
used.

Six greenhouse gases are mentioned in the agreement: carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrogen protoxide, perfluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons and sulfur hexafluoride.
Emission limits are foreseen for 38 industrialized countries; among them, starting
from the largest global warming polluters:

USA , European Union (15 countries), Russia , Japan, Canada, Poland , Bulgaria and
other East European countries , Switzerland and Norway.

(I) The flexibility mechanisms

In order to get the targets agreed in Kyoto, it is possible to act on gas emissions at
local, national or transnational level.

Three instruments are foreseen in the Protocol:

• Emission trading: Forests planted since 1990 are counted as carbon sinks,
and as credits that offset required cuts in emissions. Industrialized countries
can buy and sell emission permits, in order to find the cheapest way to cut
emissions.
• Joint Implementation and Clean Development Mechanism: They aim at
maximizing the cost-effectiveness of climate change mitigation of
industrialized countries by allowing them to take up opportunities to cut
greenhouse gas emissions by investing in sustainable development projects

22
 in foreign countries. Joint Implementation projects are mostly intended for
East Europe and Russia, however in theory they can take place with every
country with a reduction commitment; Clean Development Mechanism
projects take place in a country with no reduction target .The flexibility
mechanisms are considered supplementary compared to the domestic
actions.

(II) Adverse Criticism to the Kyoto Protocol

The main objection is concerning the effectiveness of the Protocol:

Even the full implementation of the agreement would have a limited impact at very
high costs; in any case we have to be prepared to some degree of climate change.

Another objection comes mainly from the USA, and is related to the fact that
practically no sacrifice is requested to developing countries, due to the so called
"Responsibility Principle ": the industrialized countries, as the main source of the
greenhouse effect, should be the first to take steps to control emissions.

The flexibility mechanisms are often criticized. For instance, they don't consider
carbon debts for old forests destruction, but only carbon credits for planting new
forests.
Recently, anyway, a spontaneous market for emission permits has been created,
mainly due to US companies.

C - The 21st Century Agenda

Work programmers for this century to achieve the international cooperation in the
continuous development. It depends on four axis:

(I)- Social and Economical aspects

1- Combat of Poverty.
2- Changing consumption habits.
3- Protection of Human beings health.
4- Development of Humans settlements.
5- Integration between continuous development and environment in decision
making.

23
(II)- Resources Management to achieve continuous development
1- Atmosphere protection.
2- Integrated view of resources planning and management.
3- Combat of unfair cutting of forests.
4- Management of unsettled environmental systems.
A- Development of Mountainous areas.
B- Combat of Desertification and Drought.
5- Increasing of plants productivity and development of rural areas.
6- Preservation of organic Mixture.
7- Development of organic technology suitable for certain environment.
8- Protection of oceans, seas, and coastal areas with reasonable usage.
9- Protection of fresh water resources.
10- Good management of poisoned chemicals and the prohibition of its
international transferring.
11- Good management of poisoned garbage and the prohibition of its international
transferring through nations, and controlling it without affecting the
environment.
12- Good management of ionized garbage.

(III)- Strengthen of Different Groups

1- Care about Woman and justice in development.
2- Identification of youth and children’s roles in continuous development.
3- Strengthen of Indigenous Population.
4- Strengthen of Public Organizations’ role.
5- Strengthen of Private Sector role.
6- Strengthen of farmer’s role.
7- Strengthen of International group’s role.

(IV) Methods of Execution

1- Preparation of needed finance and its ways.
2- Transferring of environment oriented technology and abilities building.
3- Preparation of Education, Environmental Knowledge, and Training
Programs.
4- Development of Rules and its Execution ways.

24
 5- Review of Different organizations and its ways of organizing.
6- Preparation of Information for Decision Making.
2.5.4 Challenges Facing Agreements Execution

The International agreements concerning environment has a close relation with

environment and development affairs. And if we have a look at the relatively modern
environmental agreements like : Vienna agreement for Ozone Protection, Montreal
Protocol, Organic Mixture Agreement, International agreement to combat
Desertification, and the weather changes agreement, we find that these agreements
has an interrelation goals, its lawful obligations, and its organizational relations, these
interrelations requires practical options that must be executed in a complementary
way, so as to reduce conflict of goals, programmes, and activities, and to avoid double
efforts and getting the maximum benefit from scarce resources. Each of these
agreements has its assistance to present scientific and technical help for the parts of
the mentioned agreement, but the most challenges facing developing countries
(including Sudan) to execute these agreements are:

1- The great distance between developing countries and industrial counties in

aspects of technology and information.
2- The presence of great regional alliances between the industrial countries and
the lack of capabilities and growth in developing countries.
3- Debts that stop the growth of developing countries.
4- The engagement of most developing countries in wars and internal conflicts.
The shortening of this long distance requires a great effort from developing countries,
as the industrial countries start preparing for this change from the half of the past
century. Also the industrial countries didn’t respect all its obligations from the Brazil
Conference in 1992, which includes financing, transferring of technology to the
developing countries. Despite this, there are some partial gains for developing
countries including the commitment of the International agreement to combat
Desertification, the alliance between the public organizations and the developing
countries, and the presence of some regional alliances which represent pressure
groups as the African group, Latin group, 77 and China group.

25
2.5.5 Sudan’s Obligations to Execute the Agreements
1- The formation of national organizations or the reformation of existing
organizations to assure the effective execution of agreements, also the presence
of national coordination organizations.
2- The preparation of national interrelated programmes between the connection
points of these agreements
3- especially in interrelated activities as knowledge, environmental education,
training, researches and public cooperation.
4- The preparation of ways to assure the cooperation of public organizations and
private sector in the decision making process and in execution.
5- Building of capabilities at different levels: technical level, the rules, preparation
of policies and plans.
6- Preparation of national plans to execute the desertification agreements, the
organic mixture, the weather changes and the complementation of these plans
with social and development plans of the country.
7- The preparation of a complete programme concerning the development of
scientific research and its relation with development.
8- The preparation of a complete programme for information technology.
9- The cooperation in finding a national information network which gives the
ability the information exchange nationally, regionally and globally.
10- The importance of making environmental law which enables the execution of
integrated plans and policies and detailed laws for problems like organic
mixture, weather changes, desertification.

26
2.6 Power Generation
2.6.1 General Setting

Sudan as the largest country in Africa covers area of 2.600.000 km2. Regarding the
geographical location Sudan has common boundaries with Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya,
Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo, central Africa Republic, Chad Republic,
Libya and Egypt.

Despite the vastness of the country, the population according to the Central Bureau of
Statistics is 36.3million people of the end of 2006; the greater bulk of this population
is resident along the banks of the River Nile. Table (2-7) Show that the annual
population growth at an average rate more than 2%. The State of Khartoum represents
the highest figures of population density (16.5%); also the population of Khartoum
now equals half of the population of the urban canters in Sudan. Table (2-8) shows the
number of population of the State of Khartoum at both the urban and rural levels.
(Central Bureau Statistics .2006)

The climatic conditions in Sudan can be described, generally hot in the north with
typical Sahara climate, change gradually into Savanna up Tropical climate in the
southern area, with increasing humidity. The range of ambient temperature is varying
with a maximum of 500 C and nearly 00 in the night.

The Sudanese economic is mainly based on agriculture. The industrial sector includes
light industries, mining, services and trade with a growing share in oil production.

After a number of years of stagnation the Sudan economy started to pick up again and
it can be stated that it is now in a transitional period. This has been affected by
introduction of measures regarding the fiscal and external imbalances. The monetary
stability was supported by adopting a floating currency convention mechanism, a
decontrol of essential prices and foreign exchange retention scheme.(Dar Iktisas
Technology 2001)

27
Table (2-7) Sudan Population from 1973 to 2006

Calendar year Females Males Total

1973 6979642 7133948 14113590
1983 10085478 10508719 20594197
1993 12748137 12841292 25588429
1994 12957736 13330992 26288728
1995 13316035 13692158 27008193
1996 13864222 14063126 27747348
1997 14061963 14444769 28506732
1998 14527956 14738449 29266405
1999 14826576 15219746 30046322
2000 15478773 15602227 31081000
2001 15611951 16014575 31626526
2002 16027564 16440837 32468401
2003 16540342 16793306 33333648
2004 17122000 17390000 34512000
2005 17559000 17838000 35397000
2006 18004000 18293000 36297000

Source: The Central Bureau of Statistics.

Table (2-8) Population of the State of Khartoum at both the urban and
rural levels.

1998 1999 2000 2001 2005 2006

Population number in 4.37 4.55 4.74 4.94 5.76 5.97

millions

Rural population 16.9 14.5 13.7% 13.3% 11.8% 11.2%

Urban population %
83.1 %
85.5 86.3% 86.7% 88.33 88.8
% %
Source: The Central Bureau of Statistics.

28
2.6.2 Thermal Generating Plants
Thermal plants use the energy of heat to make electricity. Water is heated in a boiler
until it becomes high-temperature steam. This steam is then channeled through a
turbine, which has many fan-blades attached to a shaft. As the steam moves over the
blades, it causes the shaft to spin. This spinning shaft is connected to the rotor of a
generator, and the generator produces electricity. (R.K.Rajput 2005)

(I)- Types of Thermal Plants

a- Fossil-fueled plants

After 100 years of research and development, fossil-fueled plants are generally
reliable, and problems that do occur are usually confined to a local area. Many electric
utilities have operated fossil-fuel plants for decades, and these plants (now fully paid
for) are very profitable to run. This not only increases profits to the utility, but keeps
down the direct cost to users.

However, fossil-fuel plants can create serious environmental problems. Burning these
fuels produces sulfur-dioxide and nitric-oxide air-pollution requiring expensive
scrubbers. Wastewater from the used steam can carry pollutants into water-sheds.
Even with very good pollution controls, there is still waste material produced.
Carbon-dioxide gas, and ash are the current concerns.

b- Combined-Cycle and Biomass Plants

Some natural gas plants can produce electricity without steam. They use turbines very
much like those on jet-aircraft. Instead of burning jet-fuel and producing thrust,
however, these units burn natural gas and power a generator. Gas-turbine generators
have been popular for many years because they can be started quickly in response to
temporary demand surges for electricity. A newer twist is the "Combined-Cycle"
plant which uses gas-turbines in this fashion, but then channels the hot exhaust gas to
a boiler, which makes steam to turn another rotor. This substantially improves the
overall efficiency of the generating plant.

c- Cogeneration

Coal and natural gas these two fuels are being used more efficiently in "cogeneration"
plants. Cogeneration is not a new idea, and takes advantage of the way many large

29
electricity users operate. Many factories use steam in their production process.
Utilities often make and sell steam for these customers, as well as for running their
own generators.

Rather than simply condensing and exhausting waste-steam after it has passed thru the
turbine, "top-cycle" co generators pipe this usable commodity to nearby customers.
"Bottom-cycle" co generators operate in reverse and use the waste steam from
industrial processing to drive turbines. By reusing steam, thermal-efficiency at
cogeneration plants can exceed 50%.

d- Nuclear Plants

Although there are some important technical (and social) differences, nuclear power
stations are thermal plants that make electricity in much the same way as fossil-fuel
plants. The difference is that they generate steam by using the heat of atomic fission
rather than by burning coal, oil, or gas. The steam then turns a generator as in other
thermal plants.

Nuclear plants don't use large amounts of fuel and do not refuel often, unlike a coal
plant which must have train-loads of fuel shipped in regularly. The fact that green-
house gasses and air-borne particulates are minimal during normal operation makes
nuclear power attractive to many who are concerned about air-quality. Waste water is
hotter than that from a fossil plant, and large cooling towers are designed to address
this problem.

(II) Main Air Pollution Coming From Thermal Plant and Their Effect
The wastes generated by thermal power plants are typical of those from combustion
processes. The exhaust gases from burning coal and oil contain primarily particulates
(including heavy metals, if they are present in significant concentrations in the fuel),
sulfur ,nitrogen oxides and Carbon Dioxide (SOx ,NOx and CO2), and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs).(Maghrabi,A.2002)

a- Oxides of Nitrogen (NOX)

Is the general designation for NO plus NO2.while NO itself is considered relatively
harmless, it is oxidized in the atmosphere to NO2 which is toxic and participates in the
formation of photochemical smog. NO2 is further more harmful to plants both directly

30
and in the form of acid rain. Most of the NOX is NO (normally 85-98%) which is the
stable compound at high temperature, while NO2 is mainly formed when the hot
combustion products cool down and later on, in the atmosphere.

b- Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Replaces oxygen in human blood and exposure to larger concentrations over
prolonged periods of time may lead to unconsciousness or even death .CO is formed
as an intermediate product in the combustion of all fuels containing carbon and its
existence in exhaust gas is assign of incomplete combustion and /or flame quenching.

c- Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Is not toxic, but it has recently attracted much attention due to possible effect on the
global temperature level (the so-called green house effect). CO2 is the result of
complete combustion of carbon and the CO2 measurement is only used to calculate
the air: fuel ratio.

d- Oxides of Sulphr (SOX)

Is harmful to the lungs especially in combination with particles where a synergistic

effect is found .in the atmosphere SOX combines with water to form acid rain which is
harmful to plants and life in lakes. SOX is the result of complete combustion of the
fuel’s sulphur content which is nearly 100% converted into SO2. a small amount of
SO3 may also be formed.

e- Hydrocarbons (HC)
Is not a specific chemical compound, but a general designation of a large group of
compounds which contain carbon and hydrogen, but have different environmental
characteristics, Methane (CH4) is almost harmless to health. Some hydrocarbons take
parts in the formation of photochemical smog, but are otherwise not toxic; certain
others are carcinogenic. HC is the exhaust gases is assign of incomplete ,due to
factors such as incomplete mixing of fuel and air ,flame quenching, fuel nozzle
malfunction, misfiring etc.

HC are products of incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels, especially partly

oxygenated fuel such as methanol and ethanol. They are irritating to the palmary
system and in some cases have an unpleasant smell.

31
f- Particulate emissions
Are solid or fluid particles in the exhaust gas. The chemical composition is strongly
dependent on fuel characteristics and (for piston engines) on lube oil type and
consumption .the main constituents are usually carbon, sulphr components with
absorbed

g- Smoke emissions
Is the general designation for the visibility of the exhaust gas which may be caused by
the content of particles, condensed water vapour and/or NO2 (which is a yellow/brown
gas).

h- Aldehydes

Water and hydrocarbons from the fuel and lube oil. For health effects, see the above
discussion regarding HC and SOX.

i- Other pollutant
Certain exhaust gas after treatment method, like ammonia –injection/ selective
catalytic reduction of NOX, may introduce new compounds in the exhaust gas
stream .in the case mentioned; uncreated ammonia may be present, together with
ammonia sulphate and worn-off particles from the catalyst itself.

(III) There's Other Pollutant Coming From Thermal Plant Mainly

a - Noise Emission

Noise Emission depending on the availability of adequate buffer zones between the
power plant and residential zones. The major noise contributors are:

• Boiler units
• Compressors
• Mill machine
• Aeration blower at silo area
• ID Fan
• Turbine units
b- Wastewater discharge
Cooling water discharge

Cooling system is provided for removal of residual heat from (i) lubricating oil

32
(ii) Scavenger air (iii) cylinder jackets

The water is also provided for cooling (i) generator air cooler (ii) absorption chillers
(iii) air compressors (v) surplus steam condenser (vi) stem of water sample cooler.

Temperature changes ,affecting both the physical and chemical properties of the
water, such as density , vapour pressure ,viscosity ,surface tension and gas solubility
which is turn affect both chemical and biochemical reactions. This result in complex
chain of events involving hydrodynamic, chemical and biological processes.

c - Effluent discharge for operational processes

The energy conversion process entails the burning of heavy fuel oil (HFO) in an
internal combustion engine to change the fuel oil into electrical energy using the
technology of low speed diesel engine generator. In this process, the by-products are
the effluent discharge in the form of oily water, sludge, contaminated water.

The seepage of contaminated effluent into the ground water that can cause other far-
reaching implications.

d - Sludge disposal:
The tendency towards burning higher viscosity, higher density fuel oils, together with
an increasing usage of residuals as fuel for diesel engines, means that the amount of
sludge being created both from fuel oil systems and lube oil systems is increasing.

Oil, water and solids can represent 2.5% of the fuel consumed.

2.6.3 Kinetic Generating Plants

Hydro-electric plants and wind-mills also convert energy into electricity. Instead of
heat energy, they use kinetic energy, or the energy of motion. Moving wind or water
(sometimes referred to as "white coal") spins a turbine, which in turn spins the rotor
of a generator. Since no fuel is burned, no air pollution is produced. Wind and water
are renewable resources and, while there have been many recent technical
innovations; we have a long history of harnessing these energy sources. Problems
exist even with these technologies, however. (R.K.Rajput 2005)

(I) Hydro-electric Plants

Two basic types of hydro-electric plants are in service. One type, a "run-of-river"
plant, takes energy from a fast moving current to spin the turbine. The flow of water

33
in most rivers can vary widely depending on the amount of rain-fall. Hence, there are
few suitable sites for run-of-river plants.

Most hydro-electric plants use a reservoir to compensate for periods of drought, and
to boost water-pressure in the turbines. These man-made lakes cover large areas, often
creating picturesque sport and recreational facilities. The massive dams required are
also handy for controlling floods. In the past, few questioned the common assumption
that the benefits outweighed the costs.

These costs stem from the loss of land submerged by the reservoir. Dams have
displaced people, and destroyed wild-life habitat and archeological sites. A dam-burst
can be disastrous. Some environmental costs can be avoided by thoughtful design;
using fish-ladders to permit fish to travel around a dam is one good example.
However, other costs remain, and protests against some recent hydro-power projects
have become as angry as anti-nuclear protests.

A special type of hydro-power is called "Pumped Storage". Some non-hydro plants

can take advantage of periods of low demand (and low costs) by pumping water into a
reservoir. When demand rises, some of this water is channeled through a hydro-
turbine to generate electricity. Since "peak-load" generating units (used to meet
temporary demand surges), are generally more expensive to run than "base-load" units
(which run most of the time), and pumped-storage is one way to boost system
efficiency.

(II) Wind Power

Wind-farms do not need reservoirs and create no air pollution. Small wind-mills can
provide power to individual homes. Air carries much less energy than water; however,
so much more of it is needed to spin rotors. One needs either a few very large wind-
mills or many small ones to operate a commercial wind-farm. In either case,
construction costs can be high.

Like run-of-river hydro-plants, there are a limited number of suitable locations where
the wind blows predictably. Even in such sites, turbines often have to be designed
with special gearing so that the rotor will turn at a constant speed in spite of variable
wind speeds. Some find less technical problems with installations that can turn a
scenic ridge or pass into an ugly steel forest, or that can take a toll on birds.

34
2.6.4 Alternative Generation
Other types of power plants do not use traditional equipment to produce electricity.
Geo-thermal plants replace boilers with the Earth itself. Photo-voltaic ("PV") and Fuel
Cells go further by dispensing with turbo-generators entirely. These alternate energy
technologies have been under development for several decades, and advocates believe
the technical and political situation will now bring them into the market-place.

(I) Geothermal Plants

Pressure, radioactive decay, and underlying molten rock make the deep places in the
Earth's crust hot indeed. A vivid example of the heat available underground is seen
when geysers erupt, sending steam and hot water high in the air. Natural sources of
steam and hot water have attracted the attention of power engineers since early in this
century.

By tapping this naturally-created thermal energy, geothermal plants provide electricity

with low levels of pollution. There are several different varieties of plants, and the
product from a geothermal site is used for heating as well as electricity production.
Finding suitable sites can be difficult, although as technical innovations occur, more
sites are made practical. Tapping geothermal sources can also have the effect of
"turning off" natural geysers, and this possibility must be taken into account during
the planning stage. (R.K.Rajput 2005)

2.7 Power and Energy in Sudan

2.7.1 General

One of the basic and main parts of the infra-structure for the development of Sudan is
the availability of electrical power.

The National Electricity Corporation (NEC ) is responsible for generation ,

transmission and distribution of electricity in Sudan .the electrification ratio of the
Sudan (percentage of the population with electricity supply) is so low , estimated at
about 15% of the country .70% of the available electric energy is consumed in cities
namely Khartoum , the capital. The power sector in Sudan has been constrained for
number of years by unavailability of domestic and external financing required for
adequate expansion of generation, transmission and distribution capacities.

35
Since 2001 an electricity act has been issued to allow the private sector to invest in
the electricity generation based on Boot format.

Till to-date the source of power in NEC depends on the hydro-generation (seasonal)
and thermal generation. The two sources are complementary. Simply generation
through the year can be divided in three parts; in one third of the year wholly, one
third on thermal and one third on combination of hydro and thermal. NEC power
system consists of a national grid and seventeen isolated supplies to towns. The
national grid covers mid-Sudan. However, the government of Sudan has set an
ambitious program to electrify 75%-80% of the country by the year 2020 to promote
agriculture, industry and social development to improve living standard of people.

The plans of NEC are to connect and up-grade all the isolated systems with the
national grid in the medium and long term plans (2004 -2009 -2014).

This generation is intended first to eliminate suppressed demand in the national grid
and to start meeting the supply and expansions required to fulfill the government
policy to electrify 80% of population.

The foreseen energy sources for power generation are hydro-electric resources,
petroleum products, Red sea gas and geothermal resources. NEC medium term plan
(2005 -2010) estimated load forecast range between 724 MW to 2800 MW .The
generation expected to be installed in the same period range between 1200 MW to
3900 MW. The load forecast in 2014 is expected to be 4900 MW .The strategy within
15 years time to install12000 MW generation .at the same time to extend the national
grid at the suitable voltage levels 500,220,110 KV to cover strategic area.

Studies for hydro- electric potential are estimated to be 5000 MW. Till to-date only
about 300 MW is generated and an additional of 1250 MW is expected to enter the
national grid by 2009 from Marwi dam (now under construction). Interconnection of
power lines (transmission lines) with neighboring countries is part of Sudan power
plans – to export and import power with Egypt in the north, Ethiopia in the east and
with East Africa through Uganda.

NEC load forecast indicates a high development in the private sector (consumers),
which shall involve usage of switchgears, motors and stand-by generators. The main

36
problem facing the development and expansion of the power sector in Sudan is the
financing of generation, transmission and distribution programs

The total investment required for NEC plan (2004 -2009 )is about 4600 millions US
dollars , 77 % constitutes the foreign component and 23 % as local component ,this to
cover the generation demand as well as the transmission system re-enforcements .
(Abu Gedairi ,S.H..(2006)

(I) NEC development medium term plan (national electricity corporation 2004)

a- Generation

Hydro- generation

The planned of 1300 MW ranging from 50MW in Sennar to 1250 MW in Marewe.

Thermal generation

Thermal generation includes,

- Combined cycle GT 483MW

- Crude and Furnace 1122 MW

- Coal generation 300 MW

Steam generation

The expected total steam generation is 200MW.

b –Transmission

The transmission voltage levels in Sudan are 66, 110, 220 and 500 KV.

The expected new double circuits 220 KV lines about 2000 km length.

c – New Substations:-

22 Nos .high voltage transformers of rating range between 40 and 50 MVA for
voltages 220 / 110 / 11 KV and 220 /33 /11 KV.

37
Table (2-11), (2-12), (2-13) summarize NEC medium plan for generation and
transmission. As seen in Figure (2-2) the installed capacity exceeds peak demand
According to the medium term plan established by the NEC in 2004.

Keeping in mind that the main part of expected production shown in figure (2-2) is
not completed till now.

2.7.2 Generation Technology

Sudan has tow main energy sources, hydro power and petroleum products, which
could be used to meet its growing demands for electrical energy. Other available
resources include geothermal as well as biomass, solar, and wind energy, has been
studied but they are not suitable for scale of energy to be supplied by NEC. (national
electricity corporation)

(I) National Grid

a- hydro power generation

The existing hydro power generation plant in Sudan located in Blue Nile and on the
Main Nile

Table (2-9) Existing Hydro Power Generation Plant in Sudan

Installed Effective Expected

No. of Total
PLANT capacity capacity retirement
Unit (MW)
(MW) (MW) date
Rosseries Power
7 40 40 280
Station
Sennar Power
2 7.5 7.5 15 2012
Station
Kashm Algerba
5 3.12 and 2.07 3.12 and 2.07 12 2013
Power Station

b- Thermal Generation

The existing Thermal Generation units in Sudan are diesel units, steam turbines, and
gas turbines. The diesel units use both Gas Oil and heavy fuel oil, and the steam
turbines use heavy fuel oil where the gas turbines use Gas Oil. Table (2-10)

c- Red Sea Gas

The most important natural gas discoveries in Sudan are in the red sea area on
Bashayer and Suakin structure .estimates of total natural gas reserves in the tow

38
 structure are in range of 1000 to 4000 x 1099 ft3. Studies estimated the potential for
Power Generation for Port Sudan area to be about 10 x 103 ft3/day for 40 MW Power
plant.

Table (2-10) Existing Thermal Generating Plants in Sudan

Plant Description Installed Effective Fuel Plant Expected

Capacity capacity type availability Retirement
(MW) (MW) date
Khartoum North Turbine , HFO 2015
Steam Turbine Boiler & 180 160 3500RW 82% 2025
Generators
Garri I Combined Gas Turbine LPG /
Cycle and 228.8 190.4 Gas oil 100% 2023
steam Turbine
Garri II Simple Gas Turbine 114 90 Gas oil 2023
Cycle
Burri III Diesel Diesel Engine 63 34 HFO 52% 2003
3500RW
Khartoum North Gas Turbine 90 80 -
Gas Turbine LPG
Killo x Gas Turbine 15 10 Gas oil -
Gas Turbine
Burri Combustion 26 20 LPG 2003
Gas Turbine turbine
Kuku Combustion 18.5 23 Gas oil 2010
Gas Turbine turbine
Kassala 5.3 3 Diesel 2010
Oil

d- Geothermal Resources
Sudan has a number of areas which are geologically favourable for geothermal energy
development .these areas include the jebel marra Volcanic complex and adjacent areas
in the western Sudan, the Volcanic field in the bauoda desert in the northern Sudan
and the suakin area on the red sea coast the geothermal resources may provide
alternative sources for present power generation in the isolated areas and future
supply of the national grid .preliminary studies estimated the potential in jebel marra
area to be sufficient to maintain a power capacity of up to 400 MW.

39
(II)- Isolated Grid
In addition to this there are many thermal power station (diesel generators) for the
isolated area for example, port Sudan, malakal , wadi halfa , shendi , dongla ….

With total installed capacity currently stand at 137 MW. Of which available capacity
amount to 92 MW. (67% of total installed capacity).

2.7.3 Summary
The Total Installed Capacity from National Grid about 959 MW. (2003)
67.97% From Thermal Generation.
32.03% From Hydro Generation.
Total Effective Capacity from National Grid about 864 MW
64.45% From Thermal Generation.
35.55% From Hydro Generation.
The electrification ratio of the Sudan (percentage of the population with electricity
supply) is so low, about 15% of the country. 70% of the available electric energy
is consumed in cities namely Khartoum the capital.
That mean about 605MW. Consumed in Khartoum.
The government of Sudan has set an ambitious program to electrify 75% - 80% of
the country by the year 2020 to promote deferent sector to improve living standard
of people.
That mean about 605MW. Consumed in Khartoum
390MW. From Thermal Generation
215MW. From Hydro Generation.
Percentage of Power Generation Depending on Fuel Type (2003)
H.F.O 28.44%
Gas oil 40.192%
LPG 31.36%
DIESEL 0.008%

40
 Table (2-11) NEC Development Medium Term Plan (2004-2009) (national
grid) Generation Expansion plan.

years Load Forecast ADDITIONS System

Install.
MW GWh Description Timing Capacity
MW
-10x0.38MW (jebel Aulia) Sep.2004
2004 3487 -10x0.38MW (jebel Aulia) Oct.2004 1200
724
-10x0.38MW (jebel Aulia) Dec.2004
-10x0.38MW (jebel Aulia) Mar.2005
-10x0.38MW (jebel Aulia) May.2005
2005 3960 1211.4
818 -10x0.38MW (jebel Aulia) July.2005
-100 MW CCGT Garri(2) Dec.2005
-141MW -1st CCGT Garri(3) Mar.2006
-22MW-1ST Unit kilo X July.2006
2006 1135 5537
-40MW-2nd Unit kilo X Sep.2006 1322.4
-40MW-3rd Unit kilo X Nov.2006
-2x100MW Steam Kh.N(phase#3) Nov.2006
-40MW-4th Unit kilo X Jan.2007
-50 MW 1st Unit Garri(4) Feb.2007
-40MW-5th Unit kilo X Mar.2007
-141MW -1st CCGT Garri(3) Mar.2007
2007 1772 8694 -50 MW- FROM Hydro at sennar Mar.2007
1565.4
-40MW-6th Unit kilo X May.2007
-50 MW 2nd Unit Garri(4) May.2007
300 MW-Thermal Generation at el bagir June.2007
-40MW-7th Unit kilo X June.2007
2x125 MW Morewe Dec.2007
2x125 MW Morewe Mar.2008
2x125 MW Morewe Jun.2008
2008 2372 11637 2x125 MW Morewe Sep.2008 2566.4
-300 MW- Coal/generation port sudan Sep.2008
-300 MW- Thermal Generation at kosti Oct.2008
-2x125 MW Morewe Jan.2009
2009 2800 13782 3916.4
-300 MW Thermal Generation at al fula Dec.2009
Source: National Electricity Corporation

41
Table (2-12) Transmission Line Planning
New Lines:

Year From To Circuit No. Length Km Voltage KV

2005 Gaili 220 Shendi 220 No
2 120 220
2005 Shendi 220 Atbara 220 2 140 220
2006 Hasahisa Alginid 2 15 110
2006 Roseires 220 Rank 220 2 160 220
2006 Rank 220 Rabak 220 2 108 220
2007 Rabak 220 Mashkur 220 2 108 220
2007 Mashkur 220 Jebel Aulia 2 154 220
2007 Rabak 220 Obeid 220 2 324 220
2007 Khartoum Around 2 156 220
2008 Singa 220 Gadarif 2 250 220
2009 Gadarif 220 Kassala 2 190 220
2009 Kassala 220 Aroma 2 60 220
2009 Obeid 220 Fula 2 200 220
THE TOTAL Length 1985

New Substations

Years Substation Trans. No. Rating MVA Voltage KV

2005 Shendi 220 No

2 50/50/15 220/110/11
2006 Atbara 220 2 50/50/15 220/110/11
2006 Rank 220 2 40/40/15 220/110/11
2006 Rabak 220 2 40/40/15 220/110/11
2007 Mashkur 220 2 40/40/15 220/110/11
2007 Obeid 220 2 40/40/15 220/33/11
2007 Jebel Aulia 2 40/40/15 220/33/11
2008 Gadarif 220 2 50/50/15 220/33/11
2009 Fula 220 2 40/40/15 220/33/11
2009 Kassala 220 2 50/50/15 220/33/11
2009 Aroma 220 2 50/50/15 220/33/11

Source: National Electricity Corporation

42
Table (2-13) NEC Load Forecast

Years MW GWH
2004 724 3487
2005 818 3960
2006 1135 5537
2007 1772 8694
2008 2372 11637
2009 2800 13782
2010 3191 15796
2011 3638 18071
2012 1075 20239
2013 4564 22748
2014 1929 24589

Source: National Electricity Corporation

Figure (2-2) Peak Demand and Installed Capacity

Source: National Electricity Corporation

43
Figure (2-3) future transmission line and generation (2004-2009)

44
 CHAPTER 3
Methodology

3.1 Introduction
Several methods of data collection exist for the purpose of research or analytical
study .observation may be record, processed or further edited to ensure consistency.
Usually raw data is edited to be put in a practical and summarizes pattern ready for
statistical analysis.

3.2 Emission of Greenhouse Gases from Thermal Power Plants in the

2000 -2010 Period and 2014.
Human activities in the pursuit of development such as fuel combustion in thermal
power plant have caused a substantial increase in greenhouse gas emission into the
atmosphere. GHG emissions linked to such activity include carbon dioxide (CO2),
Nitrogen oxides (NOx), Carbon monoxide (CO), and sulfur dioxide (SO2).

3.2.1. Methodology for Evaluating Emissions Causing the Greenhouse

Effect
In the present evaluation of long-term impact we have used for fuels (petroleum data)
the parametric data compiling from NEC Central Lab & Nile Petroleum Company
represents the actual allocation of different petroleum products to the various
consuming sectors. Electricity consumption data obtained from National Electricity
Corporation. Statistic data was obtained from statistical reported by the Central
Bureau of Statistics.

For the assessment of the greenhouse gases emissions we employed the Revised IPCC
Guideline (2006) and (Emission Inventory Guide book 2006) by using their
methodology and default value.

By using general approach, for years up to 2007 actual fuel consumption was
obtained. And for years 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2014 projection were made based
upon energy consumption forecast by NEC medium term plan and previous fuel usage
records (national electricity corporation 2004) . After estimating actual consumption, the
following steps are taken to calculate the emissions of Greenhouse Gases:

45
 1- Convert fuel data to energy unit (TJ) according to annual indexes for each
fuel and according to the NEC Central lab report for each fuel analysis.
(See Appendix 2) .( NEC Central lab 2007)
2- Select pollutant emission factor for each fuel product type
A- Emissions of the resulting CO2 depend fundamentally on fuel
consumption and on some particularities concerning its use. Specified
emission factors used for CO2. (The equation used to determination the
emission factor and calculation shown in (Appendix 3). (IPCC.2006)
B- Specified emission factors used for SO2. (The equation used to
determinate the emission factor and calculation shown in
(Appendix 4).( EEA.2005)
C- Emission factors of NOx &CO. for different fuel have been calculated
by using default values depending on installed capacity, and type of
fuel used.(EEA.2005)
3- Calculate the total emission released from the use of each fuel, in Gg. gas.

Whenever specific data concerning emission were not available we have used
recommended parametric values. (See Appendix 5) for detailed calculation)

3.2.2 Uncertainty Assessment

(I) Emission Factor Uncertainties
For fossil fuel combustion, uncertainties in CO2 emission factors are relatively low.
These emission factors are determined by the carbon content of the fuel and thus there
are physical constraints on the magnitude of their uncertainty. Petroleum products
typically conform to fairly tight specifications which limit the possible range of
carbon content and calorific value, and are also sourced from a relatively small
number of refineries and/or import terminals.

Uncertainties in Emission factors for SO2 are medium. These emission factors are
defined by the specification of the type of fuel used, sulfur content of the fuel and the
type of primary and secondary measures (if used). Uncertainties in emission factors
ascribed to an insufficient understanding of the emission generating process and for
missing statistical information about the process conditions.

Emission factors for CO and especially NOX are highly uncertain. High uncertainties
in emission factors ascribed to use default value which lacks to relevant

46
measurements and subsequent generalizations, uncertainties in measurements, and an
insufficient understanding of the emission generating process.

(II) Activity Data Uncertainties

Uncertainties of activity data result from missing or inappropriate statistical
information concerning activity data. Statistics of fuel combusted at large sources
obtained from direct measurement or obligatory reporting are likely to be within 3
percent of the central estimate.

In addition to any systematic bias in the activity data as a result of incomplete

coverage of consumption of fuels, the activity data will be subject to random errors in
the data collection that will vary from year to year.

Also in years where we have no specific data we convert forecasting load of energy to
fuel consumption by using a lot of hypotheses, that may create high uncertainty value.

3.3 Questionnaire Survey

3.3.1 Methodology

The study focuses on developing a certain hypothesis which states the problem in a
simple yet well defined sentence. These sentences are broken down to make it easy to
spot the main elements of the problem. A questionnaire is then structure around these
hypotheses. It question the subject addressed and collects the responses of these who
are asked.

A questionnaire was used in this research as a data collecting instrument. It is a mean

of eliciting the behavior, beliefs, and awareness. It is a written form in gathering
information from respondent and distributed personally hand to hand to get the main
purpose of used it.

Also a telephone interview was used to collect data about the daily usage of
equipment.

The aim is to have real data and accurate results. This can never be achieved unless
valid test measures are used and reliable sources of information are used for data
collection.

47
 Validity: It refers to the extent to which the questionnaire measures what is supposed
to.

Reliability: To ensure reliability in the output, control over variation in the inputs is
carried out. For that purpose the questionnaire was broken down to several parts to be
very specific, precise and clear.

3.3.2 Questionnaire Components and Parts

1- Part one consists of three sub-sections:

i. General information to indicate the level of householder.

ii. Type of lighting used and the other equipments used in the house

iii. Monthly electric bill and electricity consumption.

Show Table (3-1, 3-2, 3-3)

2- Part two consists of five type of question to test the behaviour of householders.

3-Part three consist of four types of question and answer to test the acceptance
of the householder to mitigate the problem.

3.3.3 The Study

(I) Questionnaire Samples

Fifty two of the householders from Khartoum state were chosen as a sample for this
study. The classification of the sample was as follow:

1- first class (17)

2- second class (18)

3- third class (15)

Show Table (3-4).

(II) Sample Size

The aim is not large sample rather a representative, credible and true one. The sample
size determination depended on the population variance. The sample represents the
whole population. Therefore, the feasibility of sampling emerges when the population
is large and the elements are quite similar. For the study at hand, the numbers of

48
electricity consumers in residential sector is large, the nature of behaviour of these
consumers is almost similar.

In addition to the purpose of the study and population size, three criteria usually will
need to be specified to determine the appropriate sample size: the level of precision,
the level of confidence or risk, and the degree of variability in the attributes being
measured (Miaoulis and Michener, 1976).

The sample size obtained by applying standard formulas (Yamane (1967:886) )

n = N / (1 + N (e) 2) (3-1)

Where n is a sample size, N is the population size, and e is the level of precision
(Cochran (1977).

For the chosen sample size (52), the level of precision is 14% which seems high but
as said previously the nature of behaviour of consumers is almost similar ,which
makes the chosen sample is reasonable .

(III) The Sample Proportions

It includes who's answered back the question. Their proportion comes to be as shown
in Table (3-5).

3.3. 4 Questionnaire Design

The final form of the questionnaire is designed as shown in (Appendix 6) in

Arabic and English versions respectively.

49
Table (3-1) Type of lighting used

Type of lighting Frequency Percent

Compact Fluorescent lamp 20 40
Incandescent lamp 30 60
Fluorescent lamp 40 80
Halogen lamp 6 12

Table (3-2) Equipments used in home

Equipments Frequency Percent

Refrigerator 49 98
Television 47 94
Fan 50 100
Oven 25 50
Water pump 32 64
Air conditioner 8 16
Air cooler 30 60

50
Table (3-3) Monthly electricity consumption

Equipments Frequency Percent

>700 kwh (very high) 12 24
700-450 kwh (high) 15 30
400-200 kwh (medium) 17 34
<200 kwh (low) 6 12
Total 50 100

Table (3-4) Sample distribution

Settlement / category Frequency Percent

1st .class 17 34
2nd .class 18 36
3rd.class 15 30
Total 50 100

51
Table (3-5) Response to questionnaire

Valid Frequency Percent

Distributed copies 52 100
collected 50 96
Refused immediately to 2 4
answer

52
 CHAPTER 4
Results and Discussion

4.1 Introduction

This chapter is planned to view in details the evaluation of the greenhouse gases
emission from thermal power plant, analyzing the questionnaire survey focusing on
residential sector and then discussing how to conserve the energy by changing the
consumer behavior and following new technology.

4.2 Emission of Greenhouse Effect Gases from Thermal Power Plants in

the 2000 -2010 Period and 2014

Our objective in this work is to evaluate the emission of the thermoelectric power
plants according to the different types of fuels.

4.2.1 Evaluation of Emissions

Figure (4-1) shows the results of historical and projected carbon dioxide emissions.

Figures (4-2) to (4-4) show the evaluation of historical and projected of emissions in
Gg/year and those accumulated in the indicated period for NOx, CO and SO2 in the
period.

Emission values for the selected years 2000/2010 period and 2014 are shown in
Tables (4-1) to (4-4) for the different gases considered.

4.3 Questionnaire Survey

This article analyzes data compiled on household energy consumption, in order to

better understand the role housing plays in emitting greenhouse gases.

Analysis of emission-generating activities carried out within households, estimation

of the scope to carry out projected levels of such activities in ways that reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, and assessment of the scope for change in behavior,
provide essential inputs to the development of effective greenhouse responses.

53
Table (4-1) CO2 Emission Gg /year

F Heavy Fuel Heavy Coker Total Emission

Gasoline
uel Oil (H.F.O) gas oil Gg.CO2
2000 808.9333332 0 309.3495939 1118.282927
2001 1013.792005 0 405.1158114 1418.907816
2002 1091.606129 0 336.6134215 1428.21955
2003 1091.464819 0 684.0377404 1775.502559
2004 1101.458845 0 903.4921406 2004.950986
2005 1077.292701 0 1150.959661 2228.252362
2006 849.2956134 242.2503139 1144.701417 2236.247345
2007 678.1350534 410.0604459 1403.535348 2491.730848
2008 870.5688857 902.7298073 1819.277882 3592.576575
2009 866.0880221 1018.426554 1868.642723 3753.157298
2010 3943.933527
949.6981781 1030.574678 1963.660671
2014 5010.417481
1271.65278 1344.284041 2394.48066

6000
H.F.O
Heavy C oker gas oil
5000
Gas olin
Total E m is s ion Gg.C O 2
4000
Gg .CO 2

3000

2000

1000

0
200 0 2 0 01 20 02 2 0 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 20 08 20 09 20 10 20 14
Y e ars

Figure (4-1) Total CO2 Emission Gg /year

Table (4-2) SO2 Emission Gg /year

54
 F Heavy Fuel Heavy Coker Total Emission
Gasoline
uel Oil (H.F.O) gas oil Gg.SO2
2000 18.25090481 0 7.026315711 25.27722053
2001 22.87286309 0 9.201471885 32.07433497
2002 0.299940504 0 0.408708709 0.708649212
2003 0.299901676 0 0.830543775 1.130445451
2004 0.302647734 0 1.097000543 1.399648277
2005 0.296007605 0 1.397470235 1.693477839
2006 0.233360868 0.046358977 1.389871611 1.669591456
2007 0.186331099 0.078472479 1.704142151 1.968945729
2008 0.239206123 0.172753668 2.208927709 2.620887501
2009 0.237974917 0.194894332 2.268865428 2.701734677
2010 0.260948471 0.197219095 2.384234158 2.842401724
2014 0.349411903 0.257253054 2.907326436 3.513991393

35
H.F.O
30 Heavy Coker gas oil
Gasolin
25
Total Emission Gg.SO2

20
Gg .SO 2

15

10

0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2014
Y e ars

Figure (4-2) Total SO2 Emission Gg /yea

Table (4-3) NOX Emission Gg /year

55
 F Heavy Fuel Heavy Coker Total Emission
Gasoline
uel Oil (H.F.O) gas oil Gg. NOX
2000 2.112373242 0 0.416744704 2.529117947
2001 2.647322117 0 0.545757526 3.193079643
2002 2.955078854 0 0.464441715 3.419520568
2003 2.954696315 0 0.943799744 3.898496059
2004 2.981751069 0 1.246591526 4.228342596
2005 2.91633108 0 1.588034357 4.504365438
2006 2.299121856 0.821967677 1.579399557 4.70048909
2007 1.835774373 1.391356019 1.936525171 5.163655563
2008 2.356710573 3.063008304 2.510145124 7.929864001
2009 2.34458046 3.455573269 2.578256168 8.378409897
2010 2.570920894 3.496792473 2.709356998 8.777070364
2014 3.442481807 4.561224354 3.30378004 11.3074862

12
H.F .O
H e a vy C o ke r g a s o il
10
G a so lin
To ta l E m iss io n G g .N O X
8
x

6
Gg.NO

0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2014
Y e a rs

Figure (4-3) Total NOX Emission Gg /year

Table (4-4) CO Emission Gg /year

56
 F Heavy Fuel Heavy Coker Total Emission
Gasoline
uel Oil (H.F.O) gas oil Gg.CO
2000 0.15314706 0 0.0708466 0.22399366
2001 0.191930853 0 0.092778779 0.284709633
2002 0.214243217 0 0.078955091 0.293198308
2003 0.214215483 0 0.160445956 0.374661439
2004 0.216176953 0 0.211920559 0.428097512
2005 0.211434003 0 0.269965841 0.481399844
2006 0.166686335 0.04603019 0.268497925 0.481214449
2007 0.133093642 0.077915937 0.329209279 0.540218858
2008 0.170861517 0.171528465 0.426724671 0.769114653
2009 0.169982083 0.193512103 0.438303549 0.801797735
2010 0.186391765 0.195820378 0.46059069 0.842802833
2014 0.249579931 0.255428564 0.561642607 1.066651102

1.2
H.F.O
Heavy C oker gas oil
1
Gas olin
Total Em iss ion Gg.C O
0.8
Gg.CO

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2014
Y e ars

Figure (4-4) Total CO Emission Gg /year

4.3.1 Survey Finding

57
(I) Greenhouse gas emissions due to Home energy consumption averages

A breakdown of greenhouse gas emissions from Khartoum household energy usage

by activity is shown in Figure (4-5) However; this breakdown is based on
approximated measured data, so it should be treated with caution. There is great
variability in equipment ownership, behavior, climate and resulting emissions from
household to household. Nevertheless, this breakdown provides a useful overview of
the significance of each activity's contribution to Khartoum greenhouse gas emissions.

Table (4-5) greenhouse gas emissions by activity

Activity Greenhouse gas Emissions %

Refrigeration 30
Fan 20
Lighting 19
13
Space cooling
(8 air conditioner,5 air cooler)
TV &video 9
Major appliances 4
Motor 5

Major Motor
appliances 5%
4%

TV &video Refrigeration
9% 30%

Space cooling
13%

Lighting Fan
19% 20%

Figure (4-5) Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Khartoum Residential Sector

Energy Use by Activity
(II) Refrigeration

58
Khartoum households have quite a lot of refrigeration equipment, as reflected in the
fact that refrigeration is the first largest contributor to household energy-related
greenhouse gas emissions. Survey data estimates that, 97% of Khartoum city
households have at least one refrigerator, and 40% had freezers .estimates that
electricity consumed by an average household's refrigerators generates around 0.33
tones of CO2 each year (*) - around 1.01 Mt per year in total residential electricity
consumed(**).(electricity powered by 74% thermal). This is equivalent to
approximately 910 kWh per household per year.

Refrigerators use more electricity in warmer weather, due to greater heat flows, lower
compressor efficiency and higher usage. Summer consumption can be 30 to 40%
higher than winter consumption.

Thus household refrigerators are a disproportionately large component of summer

peak electricity demand, which is a major problem for electricity suppliers.

The trend towards larger refrigerators, especially two-door models with large long-
term freezers may not lead to net increases in greenhouse gas emissions. One large
appliance may replace separate refrigerator and freezer, and increased storage
capacity may reduce the amount of transport energy used for shopping by reducing
shopping frequency. Increased capacity to store pre-cooked food may also facilitate
reduction in cooking energy consumption. The decline in household size and changes
in home design (such as reducing size of laundries) may also be limiting use of
separate freezers.

Installation and user behavior are significant influences on refrigerator energy use.
For example, poor ventilation around a refrigerator can increase energy consumption
by 15%, high rates of ice-making can increase consumption by10%, and setting
thermostats too low can increase consumption by 5 to 10% per degree.

(*) Average CO2 emission factor = 0.484 kg/kWh. When we use general approach (see Appendix 3)

(**) Electricity consumed per house hold about 2810 kWh. (74% thermal, elec. per h/h 2079kwh)

59
Information and education programs can influence these factors. That means the
average energy losses from user behavior about 12%, about 110 kWh per household
per year.

The best mass-produced Sudanese family-sized refrigerators consume around 2.3

kWh/liter/year, the best Australian models achieved 1.5 kWh/L/year and the best
European and US models achieved around 1.0 - 0.50 kWh/L/year.(Sustainable
Solutions Pty Ltd 2006)

The best new Sudanese refrigerators are significantly more energy-efficient than those
of previous years, due to the impact of appliance energy labeling.

(III) Lighting

Traditionally, Lighting has been seen as a relatively minor contributor to household

energy use and greenhouse gas emissions; although it is typically responsible for 300
to 500 kWh per year per household in Khartoum state - 10 to 19% of electricity
consumption in residential area.

The popularity of incandescent and low voltage down lights and spotlights has
increased dramatically in many homes, particularly those designed by architects and
interior designers, Also safe compact fluorescent alternatives have now been
developed to reduce power consumption and to have a better lighting levels but this
lamp have Low power factor that mean the supply authorities have to generate much
more current than is theoretically required. (Paul Emrath, 2007)

Top lighting is a classic example of equipment with low initial cost and high
operating cost. A $10 low voltage down light will use electricity costing 10 times its
purchase cost over its 10 year life (assuming 5 hours use per day). Replacement lamps
will add a further $50 to $100 to that cost. Information showing lifecycle cost may
help to shift consumer preferences.

(IV) Electronic Appliances

Electronic appliances have traditionally been seen as minor contributors to household

energy consumption. However, the proliferation of equipment, and the fact that much
of it is left on 'standby' continuously, means that it is an increasingly important issue.
Survey data estimates that, 94% of Khartoum city households have at least one

60
television. It estimates When used for 7 hours per day, they consumed around 260
kWh per year: many TVs run for much longer periods, and some households have
more than one TV operating at a time, so TVs could consume more than 8% of many
households' total electricity. Also survey found the significance of 'standby' power
consumption for many models, with the worst one consuming 20 watts of power
while doing nothing. Has also been found that the Power Factor of most appliances in
operating made and, even more so in standby mode, are poor.

Looking beyond 'standby' power, many items of equipment use much more power
when left switched on but not operating than when they are switched to standby or
turned off at the wall socket. .(Sustainable Solutions Pty Ltd 2006)

For example Measurements have shown that One VCR measured consumed 24W
while running a tape, 16W while left on (so its remote control could be used to
operate the TV) and 8.5W when switched off at the unit (with the digital display
showing the time). The significance of average standby power consumption can be
seen from Table (4-6). This shows that a family can easily consume 69 to 181
kilowatt-hours per annum for this purpose.

Average household in Khartoum electricity consumption is around 2810kWh, making

this component potentially responsible for more than 4% of total household electricity
consumption.

Table (4-6). Electricity consumption by household equipment on standby.

(Sustainable Solutions Pty Ltd 2006)

Consumption - Watts
Annual Annual Number
Appliance Low end High end
low kWh high kWh of items
Plug pack 2 5 34.56 86.4 4
TV (standby) 1 8 4.32 34.56 1
radio-cassette 2 4 8.64 17.28 1
VCR or
5 10 21.6 43.2 1
receiver
Total kWh 69.12 181.44

61
(V) Other Equipment

Other equipment which is known to contribute significantly to Khartoum household

energy-related greenhouse gas emissions includes:

• Water pumps, owned by around 64% of households,

generating around 4% out of total greenhouse gas emitted per year (2007),
although these data are relatively uncertain.

• Ceiling fans, which consume up to 80 watts each, and

can, operate in several rooms for long periods in homes in hot climates, owned
by around 99% of households, generating around 20% out of total greenhouse
gas emitted per year.

• Oven, owned by around 50% of households.

4.3.2 Monthly Consumption

The survey find, that household energy consumption varies between household to
household based on Census region, income level, number of household members,
housing size, and Housing type. The estimation indicate that,

The Average household electricity consumption distribute to level's, kwh700< per

month as very high consumption, 450-700kw high consumption, 200-400kwh
medium consumption and 150or less as low consumption.

Out of the sample, 24% very high consumption, 30% high consumption, 34%
medium consumption and 12% low consumption. Table (4-7).

Table (4-7) Monthly Consumption

Monthly consumption (kwh) Sample size %

700< (very high) 12 24
450-700 (high) 15 30
200-400 (medium) 17 34
150 (low) 6 12

62
4.3.3 Electricity Consumed for Illumination of Unoccupied Rooms

A- Lighting is generally the most wasteful component of residential use. The amount
of electricity used for lighting will depend upon a number of factors, the most
important of these being:

• The number of rooms in a residence

• The number of lighting fixtures

• The lamp type (Incandescent, Fluorescent lamp…) and which

technology use.

• The personal habits of the occupants.

Based on the studies of residential lighting loss examined by questionnaire, out of 50

sample size, 28 household between 1st class and 2nd class leave the lights on in
unoccupied rooms to many hours that shown in Table (4-8). Table (4-9) summarizes
the consumption of household energy that is account by unoccupied room with
different wattage, no of rooms and hours of use.

Table (4-8) 28 out of 50 leaves the lights on in unoccupied rooms

Time 1 to 2 3 to 4 5 and more

(h) rooms rooms rooms Sum
3 to 5 h 1st.class 5 3 3 11
2nd.class 2 3 1 6
2 to 3 h 1st.class 0 1 2 3
2nd.class 1 5 1 7
1h 1st.class 0 1 0 1
2nd.class 0 0 0 0
Total 1st.class 5 5 5 15
2nd.class 3 8 2 13
Sum 8 13 7 28

63
Table (4-9A) Total Daily kWh Consumed for Illumination
Unoccupied Rooms per sample

From all Total Daily Per 1 Total Daily

households sample kWh households kWh
min 11.2 min 0.40
max 16.8 max 0.60
no of 28 no of 445349
households sample households
Khartoum

Table (4-9B) Total Daily kWh Consumed for Illumination Unoccupied

Rooms per Khartoum state

Per Khartoum Total Daily Per Khartoum Total Daily

100% kWh 56% kWh
min 177662.44 min 99490.96
max 266334.60 max 149147.38
average 267527.51 average 149815.4

64
The estimation find that, out of 445349 (total no of household in Khartoum) there is
about 99491 – 149815 kWh. Consumed by lighting which turn on in unoccupied
rooms per day.

As seen in Figure (4-6) Minimum and maximum percent electricity consumed for
illumination of Unoccupied rooms of the residential sector in Khartoum state ranged
between 2.86 to 4.31% out of total household consumption , in 1st class there is 6.14-
9.24% consumed for illumination of Unoccupied rooms, and about 3.32 – 5.01
in 2nd class.

That mean we can save about 35.82 – 53.93 GWh. annually from Eliminating
Lighting Consumption of Unoccupied Rooms in Khartoum City Residences.

From 1st class we can save 19.19 – 28.89 GWh annually, and from 2nd class about
16.63 To 25.04 GWh annually .as shown in Figure (4-7), (4-8) and Figure (4-9).

Average electricity consumption by residential sector in Khartoum is around

104222825 kWh. per month, lighting responsible for more than 14% out of total
electricity consumption.

And the percent of electricity consumed for light on in unoccupied room about 30-
20% from total lighting consumption. Table (4-10) summarizes all these data.

Figures (4-10), Figures (4-11) and Figures (4-12) reported the electricity consumption
saving in maximum and minimum cases from total Khartoum city consumption, 1st
class consumption and 2nd class consumption.

Table (4-10A) Maximum percent electricity consumed for illumination of

unoccupied rooms
Max. calc.
Electricity
Electricity in Unoccupied from Unoccupie
Khartoum Electricity % Lighting in d %
(kwh)/month (kwh)/month Khartoum Electricity
(kwh)
Total 104222825 4494462 4.31 1.46E+07 4.49E+06 30.80

65
 2nd.class 41689130 2086715 5.01 5.84E+06 2.09E+06 35.75
1st.class 26055706 2407748 9.24 3.65E+06 2.41E+06 66.01

Table (4-10B) Minimum percent electricity consumed for illumination of

unoccupied rooms
Min. calc.
Electricity
Electricity in Unoccupied from Unoccupie
Khartoum Electricity % Lighting in d %
(kwh)/month (kwh)/month Khartoum Electricity
(kwh)
Total 1.04E+08 2984729 2.86 1.46E+07 2.98E+06 20.46
2nd.class 4.17E+07 1385767 3.32 5.84E+06 1.60E+06 27.40
1st.class 2.61E+07 1598962 6.14 3.65E+06 1.60E+06 43.83

10.00

8.00

6.00
%

4.00

2.00

0.00
Total 2nd.class 1st.class
min 2.86 3.32 6.14
max 4.31 5.01 9.24

Figure (4-6) Minimum and Maximum Percent Electricity Consumed for

Illumination of Unoccupied Rooms of the Residential Sector

66
 60000000

50000000

40000000
KWh 30000000

20000000

10000000

0
Daily Monthly Yearly
Min k Wh 99491 2984729 35816748
Max k Wh 149815 4494462 53933545

Figure (4-7) Saved Energy from Eliminating Lighting Consumption of

Unoccupied Rooms in Khartoum City Residences.

30000000

25000000

20000000

15000000
KWh

10000000

5000000

0
Daily Monthly Yearly
Min k Wh 44702 1385767 16629204
Max k Wh 67313 2086715 25040575

Figure (4-8) Saved Energy from Eliminating Lighting Consumption of

Unoccupied Rooms in 2nd .class Khartoum City Residences

67
 30000000

25000000

20000000
KWh
15000000

10000000

5000000

0
Daily Monthly Yearly
Min k Wh 51579 1598962 19187544
Max k Wh 77669 2407748 28892971

Figure (4-9) Saved Energy from Eliminating Lighting Consumption of

Unoccupied Rooms in 1st .class Khartoum City Residences

68
 T o t a l E l e c t r i c i t y C o n s u m p t i o n M a x i m u m CT ao st ae l SE al ev ci nt rgi cs i t y C o n s u m p t i o n M i n i m u m C a

4.4 E9 +0 6 T o t a l E le c t r ic it y
C o n s u m p tio n f o r k h a r to u m T o ta l E le c tr ic ity
R e s i d e n t i a l S e c t o r [ k W h ] 2.9 E8 +0 6 C o n s u m p tio n fo r
k h a r t o u m R e s id e n t ia l
S e c to r [k W h ]
E le c t r ic it y C o n s u m p t io n f r o m
I llu m in a t io n o f U n n o c u p ie d E le c t r ic it y C o n s u m p t io n
1.0 E4 +0 8 R o o m s in k h a r to u m f r o m I llu m in a t io n o f
R e s id e n tia l S e c t o r [k W h ] U n n o c u p ie d R o o m s in
1.0 E4 +0 8 k h a r t o u m R e s id e n t ia l
S e c to r [k W h ]

T o t a l E l e c t r i c i t y C o n s u m p t i o n f o r L i g h t i n gT oO tna ll y E Ml eacxt ir mi c ui t my C o n s u m p t i o n f o r L i g h t i n g O
S a v in g s C a s e S a v in g s C a s e

E le c t r ic it y C o n s u m p t io n
2.9 E8 +0 6 f r o m L ig h tin g f o r
E le c t r ic it y C o n s u m p tio n k h a r t o u m R e s id e n t ia l
4.4 E9 +0 6 f r o m L ig h tin g fo r S e c to r [k W h ]
k h a r to u m R e s id e n t ia l
S e c to r [k W h ]
E le c t r ic it y C o n s u m p t io n
f r o m Illu m in a t io n o f
E le c t r ic it y C o n s u m p tio n 1.4 E6 +0 7 U n n o c u p ie d R o o m s in
f r o m Illu m in a tio n o f k h a r t o u m R e s id e n t ia l
1.4 E6 +0 7 U n n o c u p ie d R o o m s in S e c to r [k W h ]
k h a r to u m R e s id e n t ia l
S e c to r [k W h ]

F ig u r e (4 -1 0 ) E le c tr ic ity C o n s u m p tio n S a v in g s fr o m k h

69
 T o t a l E l e c t r i c i t y C o n s u m p t i o n M a x i m u m C a Ts oe t Sa la Ev il ne cg tsr i c i t y C o n s u m p t i o n M i n i m u m C a

T o t a l E le c t r i c i t y
C o n s u m p t io n f o r
T o t a l E le c tr ic it y C o n s u m p t io n fo r k h a r to u m 1 s t.c la s s
2.4 1E+0 6 k h a r t o u m 1 s t . c l a s s O c c u p i e d1.6 E0 +0 6 O c c u p ie d R e s id e n c e s
R e s id e n c e s [ k W h ] [k W h ]

E le c t r ic it y C o n s u m p tio n
E le c t r ic ity C o n s u m p t io n f r o m
f r o m I llu m in a t io n o f
Illu m in a t io n o f U n n o c u p ie d
U n n o c u p ie d R o o m s in
R o o m s in k h a r t o u m 1 s t . c la s s
2.6 1E+0 7 2.6 1E+0 7 k h a r to u m 1 s t.c la s s
O c c u p ie d R e s id e n c e s [k W h ]
O c c u p ie d R e s id e n c e s
[k W h ]

T o ta l E le c tr ic it y C o n s u m p tio n fo r L ig h tin g O n ly M a x im u m
T o ta l E le c tr ic ity C o n s u m p tio n fo r L ig h tin g O
S a v in g s C a s e
S a v in g s C a s e

E le c t r ic ity C o n s u m p t io n
E le c t r ic ity C o n s u m p t io n f r o m f r o m L ig h t in g f o r k h a r t o u m
L ig h t in g fo r k h a r t o u m 1 s t . c la s s 1 s t. c la s s O c c u p ie d
2.4 1E+0 6 O c c u p i e d R e s i d e n c e s [ k W1.6h E0]+0 6 R e s id e n c e s [k W h ]

E le c t r ic ity C o n s u m p t io n f r o m E le c t r ic ity C o n s u m p t io n
I llu m in a t io n o f U n n o c u p ie d f r o m I llu m in a tio n o f
3.6 5E+0 6 R o o m s in k h a r t o u m 1 s t. c la s s 3.6 E5 +0 6 U n n o c u p ie d R o o m s in
O c c u p ie d R e s id e n c e s [ k W h ] k h a r t o u m 1 s t . c la s s
O c c u p ie d R e s id e n c e s
[k W h ]

F ig u r e (4 -1 1 ) E le c tr ic ity C o n s u m p tio n S a v in g s fr o m 1 s t.

70
 T o t a l E l e c t r i c i t y C o n s u m p t i o n M a x i m u m TCo at as le ES l ea cv ti nr i gc si t y C o n s u m p t i o n M i n i m u m

T o t a l E le c t r ic it y
C o n s u m p t io n f o r
2.0 E9+0 6 T o ta l E le c t r ic it y C o n s u m p t io n f o r
1.6 E0+0 6 k h a r to u m 2 n d .c la s s
k h a r to u m 2 n d . c la s s O c c u p ie d O c c u p ie d R e s id e n c e s
R e s id e n c e s [ k W h ] [k W h ]

E le c t r ic it y C o n s u m p t io n f r o m
I llu m in a t io n o f U n n o c u p ie d
4.1 E7+0 7 R o o m s in k h a r t o u m 2 n d . c la s s
O c c u p ie d R e s id e n c e s [ k W h ]
E le c t r ic it y C o n s u m p t io
f r o m I llu m in a tio n o f
U n n o c u p ie d R o o m s in
4.1 E7+0 7 k h a r to u m 2 n d .c la s s
O c c u p ie d R e s id e n c e s
[k W h ]

T o t a l E l e c t r i c i t y C o n s u m p t i o n f o r L i g h t i nT go tOa nl lEy l eM c at rx i icmi t uy mC o n s u m p t i o n f o r L i g h t i n

S a v in g s C a s e S a v in g s C a s e

E le c t r ic ity C o n s u m p t io n f r o m E le c t r ic it y C o n s u m p tio n f
L ig h t in g f o r k h a r t o u m 2 n d . c la s s L ig h t in g f o r k h a r to u m
O c c u p i e d R e s i d e n c e s [ k 1.6WE0+0 h6 ] 2 n d . c la s s O c c u p ie d
2.0 E9+0 6
R e s id e n c e s [ k W h ]

E le c t r ic ity C o n s u m p t io n f r o m
I llu m in a t io n o f U n n o c u p ie d R o o m s E le c t r ic it y C o n s u m p tio n f
in k h a r to u m 2 n d . c la s s O c c u p ie d I llu m in a t io n o f U n n o c u p ie
5.8 E4+0 6R e s i d e n c e s [k W h ] R o o m s in k h a r to u m 2 n d . c
5.8 E4+0 6
O c c u p ie d R e s id e n c e s [ k W

F ig u r e (4 -1 2 ) E le c tr ic ity C o n s u m p tio n S a v in g s f r o m 2

71
B- Greenhouse Gases Emitted

The greenhouse gases tracked by EIA include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, nitrous
oxide, and sulfur oxide .That’s quite a list, but CO2 accounts for the lion’s share, so
for some purposes an analysis based only on CO2 emissions is considered adequate.

NEC typically breaks down Khartoum. Electricity consumption into five end-use
sectors: Residential, Commercial, Industrial, Agricultural and Government, based on
electricity sales Figure (4-13).

Almost all residential greenhouse emissions are CO2, and CO2 emissions are strongly
related to energy consumption. Thus, the residential sector accounts for 46-47 percent
of both electricity consumption and CO2 emissions (based on primary end users).
However, the residential sector generates very little greenhouse gases other than CO2.

Residential sector in Khartoum state (2007) consumed 1250.67 GWh. out of total
energy consumed .average monthly consumption about 104.222 GWh.

The unit of energy consumption converted into (GJ) to calculate carbon dioxide
emitted

Table (4-11) reported the CO2 emitted from Khartoum City Residences (elec. sector),
by assuming all electricity powered by thermal scenario calculation find that 330.25
Gg CO2 emitted annually, and 244.39 Gg CO2 emitted annually when 74% of
electricity powered by thermal . Figure (4-14) and Figure (4-15) summarize the result.

As seen in Table (4-12) Electricity Consumed in Unoccupied Rooms Khartoum about

35.8-53.9 GWh per year and Carbon Dioxide Emitted from Eliminating Lighting
Consumption of Unoccupied Rooms about 9.5-14.2 Gg. Annually when assuming all
electricity powered by thermal scenario and 7 – 10.5 Gg.CO2 emitted when 74% of
electricity powered by thermal.

Figure (4-16) and Figure (4-17) summarize the result.

That means the Electricity consumed in unoccupied rooms by lighting contribute of

2.9 -4.4 % from total carbon dioxide emitted from residential energy consumption.

72
 Government
15%

Agricultural
2%
Residential
47%

Industerial
17%

Commercial
19%

Figure (4-13) Khartoum Energy Usage by Sector (2007)

73
*All Figures and tables are based on data obtained from the questionnaire analysis.

Table (4-11) Carbon Dioxide Emitted From Total Electricity Consumed

by Khartoum City Residences

Carbon Dioxide Emission Calculation

CO2 Carbon Dioxide Emission Factor for Commercial and Residential
Year 2007
CO2 emission factor 0.48 kg /kwh
Electricity Consumed in Khartoum City
Daily Monthly Yearly
Mar-07 kWh 3000003 93000105 1116001260
Apr-07 kWh 3848185 115445545 1385346540
All Electricity Powered by thermal Scenario
Carbon Dioxide Emitted in kg
Daily Monthly Yearly
Mar-07 kg CO2 1452002 45012051 540144610
Apr-07 kg CO2 1862521 55875644 670507725
Average kg CO2 1657262 50443847 605326168
74% thermal
Carbon Dioxide Emitted in kg
Daily Monthly Yearly
Mar-07 kg CO2 1074481 33308918 399707011
Apr-07 kg CO2 1378266 41347976 496175717
Average kg CO2 1226374 37328447 447941364
All Electricity Powered by thermal Scenario
Carbon Dioxide Emitted in Gg CO2 Eq
Daily Monthly Yearly
Mar-07 Gg CO2 Eq. 1.452 45.012 540.14
Apr-07 Gg CO2 Eq. 1.863 55.876 670.51
Average Gg CO2 Eq. 1.657 50.444 605.33
74% thermal
Carbon Dioxide Emitted in Gg CO2 Eq
Daily Monthly Yearly

74
 Mar-07 Gg CO2 Eq. 1.074 33.309 399.71
Apr-07 Gg CO2 Eq. 1.378 41.348 496.18
Average Gg CO2 Eq. 1.226 37.328 447.94

• consumption by Residential at 2007 about 47% from all consumption (NEC)

• if we compare between the value of CO2 emitted when we use power and when we use fuel
we find big varies (447.94kg CO2 from power and 1171.11kg co2 from fuel)

Table (4-12) Carbon Dioxide Emitted From Eliminating Lighting

Consumption of Unoccupied Rooms

Carbon Dioxide Emission Calculation

CO2 Carbon Dioxide Emission Factor for Commercial and Residential
Year 2007
CO2 emission factor 0.48 kg /kwh
Electricity Consumed in Unoccupied Rooms Khartoum
Daily Monthly Yearly
298472
Min kWh 99491 9 35816748
449446
Max kWh 149815 2 53933545
All Electricity Powered by thermal Scenario
Carbon Dioxide Emitted in kg
Daily Monthly Yearly
144460
Min kg CO2 48154 9 17335306
217532
Max kg CO2 72511 0 26103836
74% thermal
Carbon Dioxide Emitted in kg
Daily Monthly Yearly
106901
Min kg CO2 35634 1 12828126
160973
Max kg CO2 53658 7 19316839
All Electricity Powered by thermal Scenario
Carbon Dioxide Emitted in Gg CO2 Eq
Daily Monthly Yearly
4.815E-
Min.Gg CO2 Eq. 02 1.445 17.34
7.251E-
Max.Gg CO2 Eq. 02 2.175 26.10

75
74% thermal
Carbon Dioxide Emitted in Gg CO2 Eq
Daily Monthly Yearly
3.563E-
Min.Gg CO2 Eq. 02 1.069 12.83
5.366E-
Max.Gg CO2 Eq. 02 1.610 19.32

• CO2 Emission Factor Using fuel parameter = 73.35 kg/Gj

• Gj = 277.778kwh
• Gg CO2 Eq=Kg of gas /10^6

700.000

600.000

500.000

400.000
Gg CO2

300.000

200.000

100.000

0.000
Daily Monthly Yearly
Average GgCO2Eq 1.657 50.444 605.33

Figure (4-14) Carbon Dioxide Emitted From Khartoum City Residences

2007 (elec. powered by 100%thermal)

76
 450.000
400.000
350.000
300.000
250.000
Gg CO 2

200.000
150.000
100.000
50.000
0.000
D aily Monthly Yearly
Average GgC O 2Eq 1.226 37.328 447.94

Figure (4-15) Carbon Dioxide Emitted From Khartoum City Residences

2007 (elec. powered by 74%thermal)

3.000E+01

2.500E+01

2.000E+01
Gg CO2

1.500E+01

1.000E+01

5.000E+00

0.000E+00
Daily Monthly Yearly
Min.Gg CO2 Eq. 4.815E-02 1.445 17.34
Max.Gg CO2 Eq. 7.251E-02 2.175 26.10

Figure (4-16) Carbon Dioxide Emitted From Eliminating Lighting

Consumption of Unoccupied Room in Khartoum City Residences (elec.
powered by 100% thermal)

77
 2.000E+01
1.800E+01
1.600E+01
1.400E+01
1.200E+01
Gg CO2

1.000E+01
8.000E+00
6.000E+00
4.000E+00
2.000E+00
0.000E+00
Daily Monthly Yearly
Min.Gg CO2 Eq. 3.563E-02 1.069 12.83
Max.Gg CO2 Eq. 5.366E-02 1.610 19.32

Figure (4-17) Caron Dioxide Emitted From Eliminating Lighting Consumption of

Unoccupied Room in Khartoum City Residences (elec. powered by 74% thermal)

4.4 Energy Conservation

4.4.1 Scope for savings.

Out of sample size, 40% had ability to follow new technology of household
equipment.

(I) Refrigeration

Calculation of the theoretical amount of energy actually required for cooling of food,
at the theoretical maximum coefficient of performance (about 3 times more efficient
than existing compressors) indicates that the theoretical minimum energy required to
operate a perfectly insulated refrigerator-freezer is around 25 kWh per year. When
heat flows through highly insulated cabinets are considered, family-sized refrigerators
have the technical potential to achieve a consumption level of around 150 kWh per
year over the next few years. .(Sustainable Solutions Pty Ltd 2006)

The technological development contributing to refrigeration efficiency improvement

includes:

78
 • more efficient compressors (especially small ones, which have traditionally
been very inefficient) with very high efficiency motors and variable speed
capability (which cut cycling losses)

• high efficiency variable speed fans

• intelligent control systems that defrost only when necessary and optimise
appliance performance

• improved door seals (up to a third of heat gain can be via poorly-designed
door seals)

• improved insulation materials - although evacuated panels have been

developed, there seems to be a preference for multi-layer metallised plastic
modules filled with low conductivity gas, which seem to be more reliable over
the long term: this technology is reaching commercialisation

• Improved Power Factors from existing levels of around 0.6, to reduce

electricity supply losses.

• Refrigerators with anti-sweat heaters (which prevent condensation) consume

5 to 10% more energy. Look for models with an "energy saver" switch that
lets you turn down — or off — the heaters.

Also we can saving energy from refregration without expend money by controlin
user's behavior

• Adjust the refrigerator temperature settings. Optimum refrigerator range is 37

to 40°F and freezer range is 0 to 5°F. If the temperature control system does
not specify degrees, check the manual for corresponding settings.

• Minimize door openings as much as possible. Every time the refrigerator door
is opened, cooled air escapes. The unit must then work harder to replace the
air. Try to keep the door open no longer than necessary. Be sure to close the
door completely.

• Allow hot foods to cool before placing them in the refrigerator. Hot food
decreases the temperature in the refrigerator temporarily, forcing the
refrigerator to work harder to keep the air cool.

79
 • Keep your refrigerator away from heat sources, such as an oven, a dishwasher
and direct sunlight from a window. A 10°F increase in surrounding
temperature can result in 20% higher energy consumption.

• Keep the refrigerator full. A full refrigerator retains cold better than an empty
one. If the refrigerator is nearly empty, store water-filled containers inside.
The mass of cold items will enable the refrigerator to recover more quickly
after the door has been opened. On the other hand, don't overfill it, since that
will interfere with the circulation of cold air inside.

• Purchase a chest freezer instead of an upright freezer. Chest freezers are

typically better insulated and cold air does not spill out when the door is
opened.

• Select a refrigerator that is the right size for the household's needs. Larger
models use more energy, as do refrigerators that are under-utilized or overly
full.

• Choose top-freezer models instead of side-by-side refrigerators, which use

approximately 10 to 25% more energy.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saving Energy)

(II) Lighting

Energy-efficient lighting technologies can achieve quality home lighting with around
3-5 watts per square meter of installed lighting, compared with the 10 to 20 watts per
square meter installed in most homes.

There are many exciting developments in lighting which have potential to contribute
to significant savings over the next decade. These include:

• Install compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) in the fixtures you use most
frequently. CFLs are most efficient when they operate for two or more hours
at a time. CFLs use at least 30% less energy and last 10 times longer than
incandescent lights. Replacing four of the most often used incandescent light
bulbs with CFLs can save you $35 annually.

80
 • Ultra-high efficiency lamps with efficacies of 130 to 180 lumens/watt,
compared with 60 lumens/watt for compact fluorescent lamps

• Light distribution systems which will allow central high efficiency light
sources and day lighting systems to deliver light throughout a house.

saving with no cost:

• Make sure you are getting the best possible light by cleaning fixtures and
Replacing any yellowed or hazy lenses and diffusers twice a year.

• Disconnect or remove lamps in multiple lamp fixtures. Use task lighting where
needed. Use up to 50% less in lighting energy.

• Open blinds and shades. Turn off lights in unoccupied areas or in spaces with
sufficient natural lighting.

• Turn off the lights when not needed. It is a myth that leaving them on uses less
energy than turning them off. Turn off signage and other lights not

• Buy fixtures that have a dimmer, which allow you to manually adjust the
intensity of light in a room. Because most lights use less electricity at lower
settings, you do not need to pay for more light than you need. Dimmers can be
used with incandescent lights, including low-voltage systems, but only with
new-screw-based dimmable fluorescent bulbs. Other fluorescent lights must
have their own dimmable ballasts.

If these innovations can be promoted and are adopted, household lighting energy
consumption could decline significantly. However, if present trends continue, it will
increase.

(III) Electronic Appliances

The main issue for saving energy from electronic appliances is reducing standby
power consumption. But for owners of existing equipment, it can be quite difficult to
reduce standby power consumption. Where convenient, it can be switched off at the
power point. Also, it is important to ensure that equipment is switched off at the unit,
so even more energy is not wasted. This requires discipline, as it is usually not very
obvious that equipment has been left on.

81
Where items of electronic equipment, such as televisions or computers, are used for
long periods of time, their operational energy consumption may also be substantial, as
illustrated by the example of televisions, quoted above. There are already significant
variations in consumption between models, but this is not obvious to potential buyers.
For example, Philips recently released a 51cm television that consumes only 55 watts,
compared with 80 to 100 watts used by most models of that size. Samsung has
recently developed new tube technology that may allow brighter screens to be
generated while

less energy is consumed. Flat screen televisions which use much less energy than
traditional models are moving towards commercialisation, and these will provide
further energy savings, although if they are coupled with inefficient stereo systems,
savings will be reduced. The imminent introduction of digital TV provides an
excellent opportunity to set energy efficiency standards to apply from the date of
introduction, to avoid unnecessary energy waste.

"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservation"

(IV) Space Cooling

Iintroduce higher- than- standard efficiency indirect evaporative coolers in urban

areas as a substitute for air conditioners for achieving reductions in peak power use.
This is a very practical and readily acceptable technology for sudan . little in the way
of incentives or special financing options will be necessary to encourage its
penetration in the economy . However, indirect systems consume more energy to run
fans, so unless very efficient fans are fitted, consumption can rise to levels close to
those of conventional refrigerative airconditioners in humid regions.

Refrigerative airconditioners are also improving in performance, and variable speed

compressors, more efficient compressors, sophisticated controls, improved fans, etc
are all contributing to efficiency improvement.

User behaviour :

Users influence cooling energy to a great extent, in ways such as:

• selection of thermostat setting: a one degree change can change cooling costs
by 10%

82
 • leaving windows open while cooling: each airchange per hour increase adds
up to 2 kilowatts to the cooling load

• running cooling unnecessarily

• Remove and clean room air conditioner filters monthly. Dirty filters reduce the
efficiency of the air conditioner.

There are indications that many householders do not understand how to set
thermostats, so they may tend to overcool as they adjust the controls in search of
comfort.

Some of these modes of behaviour reflect fundamental issues, such as the belief that
large amounts of fresh air should enter the house to maintain good indoor air quality.
There is a need to work through these issues, then inform and educate people about
practical ways of resolving the perceived conflicts between energy efficiency and
other factors. (Paul Emrath 2007)

4.5 Summary

The result of quistinaire survey indicated that the total emission of carbon dioxide
which is the main gase emitted from the Electricity consumed in residintial sector
,for 2007, amount to ( 447.94 Gg.CO2)..

The refrigeration is the first largest contributor to household energy-related

greenhouse gas emissions (134.38 Gg.CO2) followed by fan (89.59 Gg.CO2) , ligting
( 85.12 Gg.CO2) , space cooling ( 58.23 Gg.CO2) ,TV and video (40.31 Gg.CO2) ,
major appliances ( 17.92Gg.CO2) and water pump (22.4 Gg.CO2). the Estimation of
this emission are given in Table (4-13) Note that some of these estimates are very
approximate.

Table (4-13) greenhouse gas emissions by activity

Greenhouse gas CO2. Emitted
Activity
Emissions % in Gg. CO2
Refrigeration 30 134.38
Fan 20 89.59

83
 Lighting 19 85.12
13
Space cooling (8 air conditioner,5 58.23
air cooler)
TV and video 9 40.31
Major appliances 4 17.92
Motor 5 22.4

As seen in Table (4-14) Total emission from users behavior depend on activity about
( 65.98 Gg.CO2 ) per year. 14.7% out of total emission from elec. in residential . The
lighting emits the major share of CO2. (16.1 Gg.CO2) per year, electronic appliances
(15.72 Gg.CO2) refrigeration (15 Gg.CO2), fan (10 Gg.CO2),space cooling (5.8
Gg.CO2). and water pump (3.36 Gg.CO2).

That mean we can reduce this percent if we improve the users behavior .

Total emission can saved when new technology used around (125.2 Gg.CO2), 15%
saved from refrigeration (20.16 Gg.CO2), 15% from lighting (12.77 Gg.CO2), 10%
from fan (9 Gg.CO2), 10% from space cooling (5.8 Gg.CO2 ), 10% fom electronic
appliance (5.8 Gg.CO2), 20% from water pump when we used new one with high
power factor (4.48 Gg.CO2 ) . out of all we can save 15% by using power factor
correction (67.19 Gg.CO2 ) . but as we say previously only 40% from all houesholder
had ability to follow new technolgy, that mean we can save from new technology
(50.08 Gg.CO2 ).

If implemented, the combined effect of the initiatives discussed above will

substantially reduce overall emission of carbon dioxide in khartoum. as seen in Table
(4-14) Total carbon dioxide emission reduction by activity about 25.9% of the total
emission from residintial sector ( 116.06 Gg. CO2)

Table (4-14) greenhouse gas emissions reduction by activity

Greenhouse gas reduced Greenhouse gas reduced

Activity by improving the users by following new
behavior ( Gg. CO2) technology ( Gg. CO2)

84
 Refrigeration 15 8.064
Fan 10 3.6
Lighting 16.1 5.108
Space cooling 5.8 2.32
Electronic appliances 15.72 2.32
Motor 3.36 1.792
Power factor
- 26.876
correction
TOTAL 65.98 50.08

CHAPTER 5
Conclusion and Recommendations

From the forgoing discussion, the research problem has been revealed in terms of
indicators, factors, and the environment consequences . here in ,results and finding are
going to be presented briefly, in addition to suggesting some recommendations which
are expected to be mitigation methodologies to such problems. This research has
faced many difficulties , including :

1- Defficulty to get the resources (references) because the topic is new in

sudan.

2- There is no any inventory data about electricity sector .

3- Only few people know about GHG and the energy conservation, so it took
more time and effort to explain the concept to understand it well.

4- the questionnaire was the most difficult part of the work , so many impeding
factors faced its design, distribution ,collection and analysis.

5.1 Conclusions

85
Based on the discussion of the existing situation prevailing in electricity generating
and generation expansion plan , and analysis of Questionnaire survey the research
finding can be briefed as follows :

5.1.1 Emission of greenhouse gases from thermal power plant

1- the participation of conventional thermal power plants in the

generation of electricity will declined from the present 74% (77% in 2000)
to 60% of the total up to 2014 . This participation would still be high
comparing with the present world average that is above 60% of electricity
from conventional thermal plants.

2- Although the participation of thermal power plants declined, the

emission from this type of plant would increase in 2014 by a factor of 4.5
relative to that of 2000.

3- The efficiency of exist thermal power plants is low which cause

improper fuel combustion without sufficient power production , as
appeared in the calculated gases emission quantities from fuel data
compared to gases emission quantities from energy data.

5.1.2 Energy Conservation

1- Based on electricity sales, the residential sector accounts for the main
share in the electricity consumed in Khartoum state.

2- Major sources of greenhouse gas emissions from household activities are

Energy used in homes.

3- Residential energy consumption contributes to greenhouse gas emissions

Primarily through CO2 emissions. (other gases share of smal amount)

4- Behavior of the occupants has a larger impact on lost energy

consumption.

5- More than 25% of the energy consumption and CO2 emissions

attributable to the residential sector is the result of energy “lost” by the
users' behavior and old technology.

86
 6- The acceptance of the socity to have arole in the reduction of electrecal
consumption, is very low due to their poor awareness of their behavior
and the benefit they are going to gain, if they respond positivly.

7- In Sudan, the rate of energy efficiency improvement seems to be

constrained by:

•Small market size.

•Relatively low expenditures on energy-efficiency .

•Reluctance of purchasers to pay significantly higher prices for

energy- efficient products.

5.2 Recommendations

It is recommended

1- escalating energy conservation awareness of the different social

categories.

2- Implementation of environmental studies and awareness in the

educational institutes, from the very beginning levels.

3- Enforcement of the enveronment protection law (2001) and other

international binding agreements to protect the public int

4- Raise energy efficiency standards for home appliances and electronics.

Create incentives for homeowners and businesses to become more efficient.

5- Intensive public information, training of architects and designers, and

promotion would be necessary to overcome the present culture regarding
home activity (lighting, refregration, space cooling …etc).

6- The sample size of future researches must be increased to obtain a high

level of precision.

7- Improving the efficiency of power thermal plant to decrease the pollution.

87
 8- Improvement of local factors :locally developed GHG emission factors
should be used in place of the IPCC default values in future evaluation .

9- Development of energy information network : only the most modest and

limited surveys of energy end-use in sudanese homes have been carried out
to date. inorder to inform many elements of future mitigation assessment, as
well as for many other forms of energy planning , it is essential to better
understand how energy is used in sudan.

10-IT seems reasonable to require manufacturers of all electronic equipment

to publish accurate information on the energy use of their equipment under
all operational modes, and to include this on the nameplate of the product
itself and in advertising materials. Where an item of equipment is likely to
use more than, say, 100 or 200 kWh per year under typical operating
conditions, there is a case for introducing a simplified form of appliance
energy labelling.

References
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2- Garner, J.F.and Crow,R.K.(1998),"Clean Air-Low and Practice"6th. Ed. Shaw and
Sons.(UK)
3- Clean Air Task Force,(2004) , "Dirty Air, Dirty Power", Edited by: Maria
Padian ,USA , www.cleartheair.org/dirtypower
4- Ministry of Health ,(2006), Statistic and Information Department, "Annual
Statistic Report"
5- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2001) .
"IPCC WGI Third Assessment Report - SPM"
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2005-2010)

88
9- HCENR (2003) , Sudans first national communication under the United Nations
framework convention on climate change, Volume main communications,Sudans
first communication –ch 2 greenhouse gas inventory.
10- Dar Iktisas Technology .(2001), Environment Impact Assessment for the
proposed khartoum 250MW kilo –X Independent Power Plant Project.
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12- NEC Central Lab ,(2007)," Fuel Specification Reports"

13-Nile petrolume company (2008),"Fuel Consumption by NEC."

14- Miaoulis, George, and R. D. Michener, (1976),An Introduction to Sampling.

Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

15- Yamane, Taro, (1967), Statistics, An Introductory Analysis, 2nd Ed., New York:
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(available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggrpt).
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Volume 2: Energy, Chapter 2: Stationary Combustion, Darío R. Gómez
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http://reports.eea.eu.int/EMEPCORINAIR4/en
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the Convention on Long-rangeTransboundary Air Pollution. ECE/EB.AIR/80.

89
 ISSN 1014-4625. ISBN 92-1-116861-9. Air Pollution Studies No. 15. United
Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), United Nations, New York
and Geneva. http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/welcome.html
23- K.Kubica , B.Paradiz, P.Dilara,(2003)." Emission Inventory Guide book",
Updated with particulate matter details by: Mike Woodfield , AEA
Technology ,UK , December 2006
24- Sustainable Solutions Pty Ltd for the Australian Greenhouse Office, (1998),"
Strategic Study of Household Energy and Greenhouse Issues"
25- Paul Emrath,(2007)," Residential Greenhouse Gas Emissions" Special Studies
for Housing EconomicsTop
26- Internet, "http://www.cee1.org/resid/rs-lt/fixtureassessment.pdf."
27- Internet "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservation"
28- Internet"http://www.icbe.com/carbondatabase/CO2volume calculation.asp"
29- Internet "http://www.cleartheair.org."
30- Internet "http:// earthtrends. wri. Org"
31- Internet " http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/welcome.html.

90
APPENDICES

91
 APPENDIX- 1
Health Effects of Power Plant
Pollutants

92
 Appendix- 1
Health Effects of Power Plant Pollutants

Pollutant What is it? How it is produced Health effects most

vulnerable
Population
Ozone Ozone is a highly Ozone is formed when Rapid shallow Children, elderly,
corrosive, invisible nitrogen oxides (NOx) breathing, airway people with
gas. react with other irritation, coughing, asthma or other
pollutants in the wheezing, shortness respiratory
presence of sunlight. of breath. Makes disease. People
asthma worse May be who exercise
related to premature outdoors.
birth,
cardiac birth defects,
low birth weight and
Stunted lung growth.
Sulfur SO2 is a highly SO2 is result of Coughing, wheezing, Children and
Dioxide corrosive, complete combustion shortness of breath, adults with
(SO2) invisible gas. the of fuel’s sulphur nasal congestion and asthma or other
Sulfur occurs content which is inflammation .Makes respiratory
naturally in oil & nearly 100% asthma worse.SO2 disease.
coal. converted into gas can de-stabilize
SO2.SO2 reacts in the heart rhythms .Low
air to form sulfuric birth weight,
acid, sulfates, and in increased
combination with risk of infant death.
NOx, acidic particles.

Particula A mixture of Directly emitted from PM crosses from the Elderly, children ,
-te small solid complete combustion lung into the blood people with
Matter particles (soot) the of fuel’s. Formed stream resulting in asthma.
(PM) and tiny sulfuric from SO2 and NOx in inflammation of the
acid droplets. the atmosphere. cardiac system ,a root
Small particles cause of cardiac
are complex and disease including
harmful mixtures heart attack and
of sulfur, stroke leading to
nitrogen, carbon, premature death .PM
acids, metals and exposure is also
airborne toxics. linked to low birth
weight, premature
birth, chronic air-
way obstruction and
remodeling, and
sudden
Infant death.

93
Pollutant What is it? How it is produced Health effects most
vulnerable
Population
Nitrogen A family of NOx is formed when NOx decreases lung Elderly, children,
Oxides chemical the hot combustion function and is people with
(NOx) compounds products cool down associated with asthma.
including and later on, in the respiratory disease in
nitrogen oxide atmosphere. In the children. Converts to
and nitrogen atmosphere can ozone and acidic PM
dioxide. Nitrogen convert to nitrates particles in the
occurs naturally and form fine acidic atmosphere.
in oil &coal. particles. Reacts in
the presence of
sunlight to form
ozone smog.
Carbon Coal has the Carbon dioxide is the Indirect health effects People of Color,
Dioxide highest carbon result of complete may be associated children, people
(CO2) content of any combustion of carbon with climate change with asthma.
fossil fuel. formed including the spread
of infectious disease,
higher atmospheric
ozone levels and
increased heat and
cold- related
illnesses.
Carbon CO Carbon CO is formed as an Replaces oxygen in Elderly, children ,
Monoxid monoxide is an human blood and people with
intermediate product in
-e invisible gas exposure to larger asthma.
(CO) occurs naturally the combustion of all concentrations over
in any fossil fuel prolonged periods of
fuels containing carbon
containing carbon time may lead to
and its existence in unconsciousness or
even death
exhaust gas is assign of
incomplete combustion
and /or flame
quenching.

94
 APPENDIX- 2
Fuel Specification Report

95
 Appendix – 2

Fuel Specification Report

Report NO.: 225 Reporting Date: 8/9/07

Sample Code: NEC Clab/ (D.O) Sample ID: Diesel oil
Sample Type: Diesel oil Sample Location: Tank 1
Sampling Date: 1/9/07 Customer Name: :Elobied Power Station
Receiving Date: 4/9/07 Analyst: Safa & Sarah

TEST DESCRIPTION UNIT TEST METHOD RESULT TARGET

Color ASTM Color ASTM D 1500 Greater than Report

8
Density @ 15 °C kg/m3 ASTM D 4052 838.8 Max. 870

S.G @ 15 °C kg/m3 ASTM D 4052 839.6 Max. 870

API gravity @ 15 °C degree ASTM D 4052 37.19 Report

Flash Point, PMCC °C ASTM D 93 76 Min. 60

Viscosity @ 40°C cSt ASTM 445 4.8 Max. 14.0

Water Content - Crackle test -ve -ve

Water & Sediment (by centrifuge) %v ASTM D 1796 Traces Max. 0.35

Pour Point °C ASTM D 97 16 Max. 14.0

Ash Content %w ASTM D 482 0.03 Max. 0.01

Sulphur %w ASTM D 129 0.12 Max. 1.0

Heat of combustion (Gross) cal/gm ASTM D 240 10,972.43

kJ/kg 45,939.35
Metal analysis:

Na ppm 0.28 Max. 50

K ppm AAS 0.35

96
 Appendix – 2

Fuel Fuel Specification Report

Report NO.:228 Reporting Date: 10/09/07

Sample Code: NEC Clab/ F(G.O) Sample ID: Gas oil
Sample Type: Gas oil Sample Location: Tank No (3)
Sampling Date: 6/09/07 Customer Name: Garri Power Station
Receiving Date: 6/09/07 Analyst: Safa & Sarah

TEST DESCRIPTION UNIT TEST RESULT TARGET

METHOD

Appearance - Visual Clear Clear

Color ASTM ASTM D 1500 Less than 0.5 Max 3.0

Color
Density @ 15 °C kg/m3 ASTM D 4052 832.7 Report

S.G @ 15 °C - ASTM D4052 833.5 Report

API gravity @ 15 °C degree ASTM D4052 38.27 Report

Flash Point, PMCC °C ASTM D93 71 Min 57

Viscosity @ 40°C cSt ASTM D445 2.83 2.2-8.8

Water Content - Crackle test -ve -ve

Cloud Point °C ASTM D2500 Lees Than 6 Max 12

Ash content %w ASTM D482 Nil Max 0.001

Sulphur – General bomb method %w ASTM D129 0.19 Max 1.0

Total Acid No. mgKOH/g ASTM D974 0.05 Max 0.25

Heat of combustion (Gross) cal/gm Calculated 10,991.00 Min 10,270

kJ/kg 46,017.12 43,000
Heat of combustion (Net) cal/gm Calculated 10,311.86
kJ/kg 43,173.69
Metal analysis:

Na ppm 0.66 Na+ K

AAS Max 1.0
K ppm 0.46

97
 Appendix – 2

Fuel Specification Report

Report NO.:254 Reporting Date: 17/11/07

Sample Code: NEC Clab/ (F.O) Sample ID: H.F.O
Sample Type: H.F.O Sample Location:
Sampling Date: /11/07 Customer Name: Karima Power Station
Receiving Date:12/11/07 Analyst: Safa

TEST DESCRIPTION UNIT TEST RESULT TARGET

METHOD

Appearance - Visual - Report

Density @ 15 °C kg/m3 ASTM D1298 892.0 860-900

S.G @ 15 °C - ASTM D1298 892.8 860-900

API gravity @ 15 °C degree Calculated 26.07 Report

Flash Point, PMCC °C ASTM D 93 189 Min. 60

Viscosity @ 100°C cSt ASTM 445 26.85 Max. 25

Water Content - Crackle test +ve Report

Water& Sediment by centrifuge %v ASTM D 1796 0.2 Max. 0.95

Pour point °C ASTM D 97 44 Max.40

Sulphur %w 0.20 Max. 1.0

Heat of combustion (Gross) cal/gm Calculated 10,729.06 Min

kJ/kg 44,920.62 42,000
Metal analysis:

Na ppm 0.327 Max. 50

K ppm AAS 0.453

98
 Appendix – 2

Fuel Specification Report

Report NO.:263 Reporting Date:16/12/07

Sample Code: NEC Clab/ F(HCGO) Sample ID: HCGO
Sample Type: HCGO Sample Location: Forwarding pump-PH1
Sampling Date:15/12/07 Customer Name: KNPS
Receiving Date:15/12/07 Analyst: Safa

TEST DESCRIPTION UNIT TEST RESULT TARGET

METHOD

Appearance - Visual -

Color ASTM color ASTM D1500 Greater than

8
Density @ 15 °C kg/m3 ASTM D1298 906.6

S.G @ 15 °C - ASTM D1298 907.4

API gravity @ 15 °C degree Calculated 24.44

Flash Point, PMCC °C ASTM D 93 164

Viscosity @ 40°C cSt ASTM 445 23.49

Water Content - Crackle test -ve

Water & Sediment (by centrifuge) %v ASTM D 1796 Traces

Pour Point °C ASTM D 97 24

Ash Content %w ASTM D 482 Nil

Sulphur %w ASTM D 129 0.14

Acid No. mgKOH/g ASTM D 974 1.91

Heat of combustion (Gross) cal/gm Calculated 10,776.35

kJ/kg 45118.422
Metal analysis:
Na ppm 0.36

99
 APPENDIX- 3
CO2 Emission Factor

100
Appendix -3

Emissions of Greenhouse Gases

Ei = EFi * A (A3-1)

Ei annual emission of pollutant [i]

EFi emission factor of pollutant [i]

A activity rate (fuel consumption) [GJ]

CO2 Emission Factor

EF R CO2 = 44/12 * C C fuel * ε * 1/Hu * 10 6 (A3-2)

EF R CO2 specified emission factor [g/GJ]

C C fuel Carbon content of fuel (in mass C/mass fuel [kg/kg])

ε Fraction of carbon oxidized [ ]

Hu lower heating value of fuel [MJ/kg]

Default values for ε according to IPCC /61/ are [1] for liquid fuels and for
Gaseous fuels. (IPCC 2006)

Carbon content

Carbon content = 76.99 + (10.19 * SG) – (0.76 * sulfur content) (A3-3)

SG specific gravity of the oil

SG = 141.5 / (API + 131.5) (A 3-4)

(Source: USDOE/EIA. URL:
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/gg98rpt/appendixb.html)

101
Appendix -3

CO2 Emission Factor

Gas oil
Heat of combustion (Net) = 43.174 MJ/kg

Carbon content of fuel = 0.8534 [kg/kg])

Specified emission factor = 44/12 * 0.8534 * 1/43.174 * 10 6

CO2 emission factor =72477.12 g/GJ = 72.477 kg/GJ =72.477 ton/TJ

CO2 emission factor = 0.26 kg/kWh

GJ = 277.778 kWh

Heavy fuel oil

Heat of combustion (Net) = 42.675 MJ/kg

Carbon content of fuel = 0.8599 [kg/kg])

Specified emission factor = 44/12 * 0.8599 * 1/42.675 * 10 6

CO2 emission factor =73883.23 g/GJ = 73.88 kg/GJ = 73.88ton/TJ

CO2 emission factor = 0.266 kg/kWh

GJ = 277.778 kWh

Heavy Coker gas oil

Heat of combustion (Net) = 42.863 MJ/kg

Carbon content of fuel = 0.8613 [kg/kg])

Specified emission factor = 44/12 * 0.8613 * 1/42.863 * 10 6

CO2 emission factor =73678.93 g/GJ = 73.68 kg/GJ =73.68 ton/TJ

CO2 emission factor = 0.265 kg/kWh

GJ = 277.778 kWh

102
Appendix -3

Diesel oil
Heat of combustion (Net) = 43.642 MJ/kg

Carbon content of fuel = 0.8545 [kg/kg])

Specified emission factor = 44/12 * 0.8545 * 1/43.642 * 10 6

CO2 emission factor =71789.39 g/GJ = 71.79 kg/GJ =71.79 ton/TJ

CO2 emission factor = 0.26 kg/kWh

GJ = 277.778 kWh

CO2 Emission Factor (from 1Kwh)

When we use reference approach

Average CO2 emission factor = 0.26 kg/kWh.

For estimate average fuel consumption to generate (1GWh) study was conducted
based on percentage and proportionality between systems installed capacity (GW h.)
and fuel usage records to many years.

As shown in the Table (1-0) below Total Carbon Dioxide emitted from 1GWh about
484.15 ton CO2.

That mean when we use this approach

Average CO2 emission factor = 0.484 kg/kWh

Table (1 - 0) CO2 Emission Value for Equivalent Fuel, Energy Consumption.

GWh Av. Fuel Conv. Factor Fuel CO2 Emission CO2 Emissions
consumption (TJ/ton) Consumption/TJ Factor (ton CO2)
(ton) (ton CO2/TJ)
1 153.5 0.043 6.6005 73.35 484.15

These differences between tow factors may occur from the efficiency of generation
process and process technology. But we can say the second value is more accurate
than the first one because it was based on the fuel combustion.

103
Appendix -3

Volume calculation of one ton CO2

One ton = 1000kg

One cubic meter = 1000liters
One mole CO2 = 44.0g (CO2 = 12.0g + 32.0g = 44.0g)
One ton contains 22730 moles of CO2 (1,000,000g / 44.0g/mole)
One mole is 24.47L (Boyle's law at 25°C and 1 atmosphere pressure)
Volume of one ton CO2 = 22730moles × 24.47L/mole = 556200L = 556.2m³
One ton of CO2 occupies 556.2m³ of volume.

Height of CO2 on Khartoum land surface

Khartoum 2006 CO2 production = 2,236,247.345 ton

Sudan volume of CO2 production = 2,236,247.345 ton × 556.2m³/ton =
1,243,800,773 m³
Khartoum land surface area 22,122km²
Height of CO2 on Sudan land surface = CO2 volume / surface area = 1,243,800,773
m³ / 22,122km²= 5.62cm (about 0.19 feet high)
Every year the Khartoum States emits a 5.62cm. High blanket of carbon dioxide over its land
area.

(www.icbe.com/carbondatabase/CO2volumecalculation.asp)

104
 APPENDIX- 4
SO2 Emission Factor

105
Appendix -4

SO2 Emission Factor

For SO2, specified mission factors EFR SO2 are recommended. For the determination
of specified SO2 emission factors the following general equation should be
used :

EF R SO2 = 2 * C S fuel * (1-αs) * 1/Hu * 10 6 * (1 - η*β) (A4-4)

EF R SO2 Specified emission factor [g/GJ]

C S fuel Sulfur content of fuel (in mass S/mass fuel [kg/kg])

αs Sulfur retention in ash [ ]

Hu Lower heating value of fuel [MJ/kg]

η Reduction efficiency of secondary measure.

β Availability of secondary measure.

* αs for gas not relevance

* From default values for various flue gas desulphurization techniques (FGD) (1)

η = 0.8 , β = 0.98

106
Appendix -4

SO2 Emission Factor

Gas oil
Heat of combustion (Net) = 43.174 MJ/kg

Sulfur content of fuel = 0.0019 [kg/kg])

Specified emission factor = 2 * 0.0019 * 1/43.174 * 10 6

SO2 emission factor =88.02 g/GJ = 0.088 kg/GJ =0.088 ton/TJ

Heavy fuel oil

Heat of combustion (Net) = 42.675 MJ/kg

Sulfur content of fuel = 0.002 [kg/kg])

Specified emission factor = 2 * 0.002 * 1/42.675 * 10 6 * (1 – (0.8*0.98))

SO2 emission factor =20.25 g/GJ = 0.0203 kg/GJ =0.0203 ton/TJ

Heavy Coker gas oil

Heat of combustion (Net) = 42.863 MJ/kg

Sulfur content of fuel = 0.0014 [kg/kg])

Specified emission factor = 2 * 0.0014 * 1/42.863 * 10 6 * (1 – (0.8*0.98))

SO2 emission factor =14.11g/GJ = 0.0141 kg/GJ =0.0141 ton/TJ

Diesel oil
Heat of combustion (Net) = 43.642 MJ/kg

Sulfur content of fuel = 0.0012 [kg/kg])

Specified emission factor = 2 * 0.0012 * 1/43.642* 10 6

SO2 emission factor =54.99g/GJ = 0.055 kg/GJ =0.055 ton/T

107
 APPENDIX- 5
Emission Values for Equivalent Fuel
Consumption /year Mainly in
Khartoum State

108
 E m is s io n V lu e s F o r E q u iv e le n t F u e l C o n s u m p tio n /y e a r m

2000
F u e l A n n u a l C C o on n s vu emr sp i toCi no onFn as uc mtCo 2OrpE mt i oi s ns i o n CF a2 OEc mt o ir s s i o n s
o f f u e ( lf ) t( oA n() T/ y Je( /aat() Bor )n ) ( T J ) ( (t.CC 2)O/ T .fJu )(b)e lD)( (G g 2) CE)( O
C = A *B E = C * D /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u e2 l 6 o0 i ,l 6 5 8 . 1 0 . 0 4 0 5 21 0 5 6 1 . 8 6 6 72 61 . 5 9 8 0 8 . 9 3 3 3 3 3 2
H e a v y C o k e r0 g a s o i l 0 0 0 0
G a s o l i n 1 0 0 , 3 4 7 . 8 07 . 0 4 1 5 34 1 6 7 . 4 4 7 0 74 41 . 2 3 3 0 9 . 3 4 9 5 9 3 9
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 4 1 4 5 0 7 3 .5 6 0
TO TA L 1 ,1 1 8 .2 8

F uel F u e l C o Sn 2Os Eu mm ips ts i oS n2OE Fm a ic s t sNo i XroOEn ms i s s i o Nn XOEF ma c it soCs riOo n Es m i s Cs i Oo n E F ma ci st so i ro n s

(C) (d ) (e )
( T J ) (t.(S C2O/T) .fJ u ) e lF)( (G g 2) S G)O( ( t . NX/ TO J . f u( He (l )G gX) N O(( It ). C O / T ( JJ (.)fGu ge l C) O ) ( K )
G = C * F /1 0 0 0 I = C * H /1 0 0 0 K = C * J /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u 1e l0 5o 6i l 1 . 8 6 6 21 1. 7 2 8 1 8 . 2 5 0 9 0 4 80 1. 2 2 . 1 1 2 3 7 3 2 04 .20 1 4 5 0 . 1 5 3 1 4 7 0 6
H e a v y C o k e r0 g a s o i l 0 0 0 .2 5 0 0 .0 1 4 0
G a s o l i n 4 1 6 7 . 4 4 7 0 41 1. 6 8 6 7 . 0 2 6 3 1 5 7 10 1. 1 0 . 4 1 6 7 4 4 7 0 4. 0 1 7 0 . 0 7 0 8 4 6 6
D ie s e l o il 0 1 .6 8 9 0 0 0 .0 1 2 0
TO TA L 2 5 .2 7 7 2 2 0 5 3 2 .5 2 9 1 1 7 9 4 7 0 .2 2 3 9 9 3 6 6

(a ) W h e n th e c o n s u m p tio n is e x p re s s e d in m a s s o r v o lu m e u n its , th e c o n v e rs io n fa c to r is th e n e t c
(b ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r (s e e e q u a . )
(c ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r ( s e e e q u a . )
(d ) E m is s io n I n v n to r y G u id b o o k / C O R IN A I R 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u r c e s
( e ) E m is s io n I n v n to ry G u id b o o k / C O R I N A I R 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u r c e s
(f) fu e l u s e d is e x p o r te d w ic h h a d d e fe r e n t a n a ly s is (s u lfu r c o n te n t 3 % )

109
 E m is s io n V lu e s F o r E q u iv e le n t F u e l C o n s u m p tio n /y e a r

2001
F u e l A n n u a l CC oo nn s vu e mr s pi otCinoo nnF sa uc mCt o2 OEpr mt i ios ns i o n CF 2 OEa cmt oi sr s i o n s
o f f u e l t o (n T / yJ e/ (taBo r )n )(( AT )J ) ( (t.C 2)O/ T .fJu )(b)e lD)( (G g 2) CE)( O
(a )

C = A *B E = C * D /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u e3 l 1 o0 i 1l 7 2 . 4 08 . 0 4 2 6 71 53 2 3 6 . 6 1 0 7 5 6 8 . 5 9 1 0 1 3 . 7 9 2 0 0 5
H e a v y C o k e r0 g a s o i l0 . 0 4 2 8 6 3 0 0 0
G a s o l i n 1 2 6 4 0 8 . 8 04 . 0 4 3 1 75 4 5 7 . 5 7 5 2 7 5 4 8 . 2 3 4 0 5 . 1 1 5 8 1 1 4
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 4 3 6 4 2 0 7 3 .5 6 0
TO TA L 1 ,4 1 8 .9 1

F uel F u e l C o Sn 2OsE u mm i ps st i oS n2OE Fm a i cs tNs oiXoOr En ms i s s i oN nXOEF ma c i tsCos riOo n Es m i s Cs i Oo n E Fm a ic s t so i ro n s

(C) (d ) (e )
( T J ) (t.(S C2O/T ).fJu ) e lF)( (G g 2) S G)O( ( t . XN/ TO J . f u( He (l G) gX) N O(( It ). C O / T ( J (.) Gf u ge l C) O ) ( K )
G = C * F /1 0 0 0 I = C * H /1 0 0 0 K = C * J /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u 1e 3l 2o 3i l6 . 6 1 0 15 .87 2 8 2 2 . 8 7 2 8 6 3 0 .92 2 . 6 4 7 3 2 2 1 01 . 70 1 4 5 0 . 1 9 1 9 3 0 8 5 3
H e a v y C o k e 0r g a s o i l 0 0 0 .2 5 0 0 .0 1 4 0
G a s o l i n 5 4 5 7 . 5 7 5 2 15 .86 8 6 9 . 2 0 1 4 7 1 8 08 .51 0 . 5 4 5 7 5 7 5 02 .60 1 7 0 . 0 9 2 7 7 8 7 7 9
D ie s e l o il 0 1 .6 89 0 0 0 .0 1 2 0
TO TA L 3 2 .0 7 4 3 3 4 9 7 3 .1 9 3 0 7 9 6 4 3 0 .2 8 4 7 0 9 6 3 3

(a ) W h e n th e c o n s u m p tio n is e x p re s s e d in m a s s o r v o lu m e u n its , th e c o n v e rs io n fa c to r is th e
(b ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r (s e e e q u a . )
( c ) s p e c if ie d e m is s io n f a c to r ( s e e e q u a . )
(d ) E m is s io n I n v n to r y G u id b o o k / C O R IN A I R 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o
(e ) E m is s io n In v n to ry G u id b o o k / C O R I N A I R 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o
(f) fu e l u s e d is e x p o r te d w ic h h a d d e fe r e n t a n a ly s is (s u lfu r c o n te n t 3 % )

110
 E m is s io n V lu e s F o r E q u iv e le n t F u e l C o n s u m p tio n /y e a r

2002
F u e l A n n u a l CC oo nn sv u e mr s pi oCt ino nF sa u c Cmt o2 OEpr mt ii os sni o n CF 2 aOE c mt o i rs s i o n s
o f f u e l t o ( nT / yJ /e(t aBo r)n ) ( TA J) ) ( (t.C 2 /O) T .fJu )(b)e lD)( (G g 2) E)C( O
(a )

C = A *B E = C * D /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u e3 l4 o6 i2 l 3 0 . 6 08 . 0 4 2 6 71 54 7 7 5 . 3 9 47 23 7. 8 8 1 0 9 1 . 6 0 6 1 2 9
H e a v y C o k e 0r g a s o i 0l . 0 4 2 8 6 3 0 7 3 .6 8 0
G a s o l i n 1 0 7 5 7 4 . 40 . 0 4 3 1 74 46 4 4 . 4 1 7 17 42 6. 4 7 7 3 3 6 . 6 1 3 4 2 1 5
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 4 3 6 4 2 0 7 1 .7 9 0
T O T A L 1 ,4 2 8 .2 2

F uel F u e l C o Sn 2OsE u mm i ps s t ii oSo n2OnE Fm a i cs Nts oiXOorE n ms i s s i oN nXOEF ma ci stCos iOr o n E s m i sCs iOo n E Fm a ics ts oi or n s
(C) (d ) (e )
( T J ) (t.S( C2O/T ).fJu ) e lF)( (G g 2) SG)O( ( t . XN/ T O J . f u( He (l G) gX) N O( It ). C O / T ( J ( .)Gf u g e lC) O ) ( K )
G = C * F /1 0 0 0 I = C * H /1 0 0 0 K = C * J /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u 1e 4l 7o 7i l5 . 3 9 4 0 2 . 70 2 0 3 0 . 2 9 9 9 4 0 5 00 . 42 2 . 9 5 5 0 7 8 8 05 . 40 1 4 5 0 . 2 1 4 2 4 3 2 1 7
H e a v y C o k e 0r g a s o i l0 . 0 1 4 1 0 0 .2 5 0 0 .0 1 4 0
G a s o l i n 4 6 4 4 . 4 1 7 1 04 . 60 8 8 0 . 4 0 8 7 0 8 7 00 . 91 0 . 4 6 4 4 4 1 7 01 .50 1 7 0 . 0 7 8 9 5 5 0 9 1
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 5 5 0 0 0 .0 1 2 0
T O T A L 0 .7 0 8 6 4 9 2 1 2 3 .4 1 9 5 2 0 5 6 8 0 .2 9 3 1 9 8 3 0 8

(a ) W h e n th e c o n s u m p tio n is e x p re s s e d in m a s s o r v o lu m e u n its , th e c o n v e rs io n fa c to r is th e n
(b ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r (s e e e q u a . )
(c ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r ( s e e e q u a . )
(d ) E m is s io n I n v n to r y G u id b o o k / C O R IN A I R 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u
(e ) E m is s io n In v n to ry G u id b o o k / C O R I N A I R 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u

111
 E m is s io n V lu e s F o r E q u iv e le n t F u e l C o n s u m p tio n /y e a r

2003
F u e l A n n u a l C o n sv ue mr s pi Co t nioo nFn s au cCmt 2oOE prmt i so s ni o n CF 2 OEa cmt oi sr s i o n s
o f f u e l t o ( nT / Jy /e(t Bao )rn )( ( TA J ) ) ( (t.C 2 /O)T .fJu )(b)e lD)( (G g 2) E)C( O
(a )

C = A *B E = C * D /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u 3e l4 6o 1i l 8 5 . 8 06 . 0 4 2 6 17 45 7 7 3 . 4 8 17 53 8. 8 8 1 0 9 1 . 4 6 4 8 1 9
H e a v y C o k e 0r g a s o i0 l . 0 4 2 8 6 3 0 7 3 .6 8 0
G a s o l i n 2 1 8 6 0 3 . 7 03 . 0 4 3 1 97 4 3 7 . 9 9 7 47 32 9. 4 7 7 6 8 4 . 0 3 7 7 4 0 4
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 4 3 6 4 20 7 1 .7 9 0
T O TA L 1 ,7 7 5 .5 0

F uel F u e l C o S n 2OEs um m i sp s ti iSoo 2OnEn Fm a i cs Nst oiXOoEr n ms i s s i oN nXOE F ma ci sCt so Oi ro n E s m i sC s Oi o nE Fm a i cs ts oi or n s

(C) (d ) (e )
( T J ) (t.S( C2O/T .)fJu ) e lF)( (G g 2) SG)O( ( t . XN/ T O J . f u( He ( l G) gX) N O( It ). C O / T ( J ( ).Gf u g e lC) O ) ( K )
G = C * F /1 0 0 0 I = C * H /1 0 0 0 K = C * J /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u 1 e 4 l 7 o 7 i 3l . 4 8 10 5. 08 2 0 3 0 . 2 9 9 9 0 1 6 0 7 . 26 2 . 9 5 4 6 9 6 3 0 1 . 05 1 4 5 0 . 2 1 4 2 1 5 4 8 3
H e a v y C o k e 0 r g a s o i 0l . 0 1 4 1 0 0 .2 5 0 0 .0 1 4 0
G a s o l i n 9 4 3 7 . 9 9 7 4 0 3 . 90 8 8 0 . 8 3 0 5 4 3 7 0 7 . 15 0 . 9 4 3 7 9 9 7 04 . 40 1 7 0 . 1 6 0 4 4 5 9 5 6
D ie s e l o il0 0 .0 5 5 0 0 0 .0 1 2 0
T O TA L 1 .1 3 0 4 4 5 4 5 1 3 .8 9 8 4 9 6 0 5 9 0 .3 7 4 6 6 1 4 3 9

(a ) W h e n th e c o n s u m p tio n is e x p re s s e d in m a s s o r v o lu m e u n its , th e c o n v e rs io n fa c to r is th e n
( b ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r ( s e e e q u a . )
(c ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r (s e e e q u a . )
( d ) E m is s io n I n v n to r y G u id b o o k / C O R I N A I R 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u
( e ) E m is s io n I n v n to r y G u id b o o k / C O R I N A I R 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u

112
 E m is s io n V lu e s F o r E q u iv e le n t F u e l C o n s u m p tio n /y e a r m

2004
F u e l A n n u a l C Co on ns uv me r ps it oi Con no Fn as cu tmoC rp2OE t mi o i sn s i o n CF a2OEc tmo ri s s i o n s
o f f u e l t o n( T/ y Je /at( roB n) () A ( T) J ) ( (t.C
(a )
C )2O/ T .fJu )(b)e lD)( (G g 2) CE)( O
C = A *B E = C * D /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u e3 l 4 o9 i 3l 5 5 . 7 1 09 .90 4 2 6 7 15 4 9 0 8 . 7 5 5 37 53 . 8 8 1 1 0 1 .4 5 8 8 4 5
H e a v y C o k e r 0g a s o i l 0 . 0 4 2 8 6 3 0 7 3 .6 8 0
G a s o l i n 2 8 8 7 3 6 . 6 30 . 0 4 3 1 7 14 2 4 6 5 . 9 1 5 72 26 . 4 7 7 9 0 3 .4 9 2 1 4 0 6
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 4 3 6 4 2 0 7 1 .7 9 0
TO TA L 2 ,0 0 4 .9 5

F uel F u e l C o nS s2OEu m pi s t si io o nSn 2OEF ma ci st osNiroXOEn sm i s s i o Nn XOFE amc ti os Csr i Oo n Es m i s sCi oO n EF ma c i ts os ri o n

(C) (d ) (e )
( T J ) (t.( SC 2O/T) .fJ u ) e l F)( (G g 2) S G)O( ( t . NX/ TO J . f u ( eH l())G g X) N O( (I t ). C O / T (J J . (f) Gu eg l )C O ) ( K )
G = C * F /1 0 0 0 I = C * H /1 0 0 0 K = C * J /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u e1 l 4 o9 i 0l 8 . 7 5 5 30 5. 0 2 0 3 0 . 3 0 2 6 4 7 7 3 0 4. 2 2 . 9 8 1 7 5 1 0 60 9. 0 1 4 5 0 . 2 1 6 1 7 6 9 5 3
H e a v y C o k e r 0g a s o i l 0 . 0 1 4 1 0 0 .2 5 0 0 .0 1 4 0
G a s o l i n 1 2 4 6 5 . 9 1 5 20 6. 0 8 8 1 . 0 9 7 0 0 0 5 4 0 3. 1 1 . 2 4 6 5 9 1 5 2 06 . 0 1 7 0 .2 1 1 9 2 0 5 5 9
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 5 5 0 0 0 .0 1 2 0
TO TA L 1 .3 9 9 6 4 8 2 7 7 4 .2 2 8 3 4 2 5 9 6 0 .4 2 8 0 9 7 5 1 2

( a ) W h e n th e c o n s u m p tio n is e x p re s s e d in m a s s o r v o lu m e u n its , th e c o n v e r s io n fa c to r is th e n e
( b ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r ( s e e e q u a . )
( c ) s p e c if ie d e m is s io n fa c to r (s e e e q u a . )
( d ) E m is s io n I n v n to ry G u id b o o k / C O R IN A IR 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u rc
( e ) E m is s io n In v n to r y G u id b o o k / C O R IN A IR 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u rc

113
 E m is s io n V lu e s F o r E q u iv e le n t F u e l C o n s u m p tio n /y e a r m a

2005
F u e l A n n u a l C Co no ns uv me r ps it oi Con no Fn as cu t moC rp2OE t mi o i sn s i o n FC a2OEc tmo ri s s i o n s
o f (1)ft uo/yen le a(A)r ( T J (/a t() oB n) ) ( T J ) ( (t.C
C ) 2O/ T .fJ u )(b)e lD)( (G g 2) CE)( O
C = A *B E = C * D /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u e 3l 4o 1i l6 9 0 . 8 1 02 . 0 4 2 6 7 15 4 5 8 1 . 6 5 5 74 3 . 8 8 1 0 7 7 . 2 9 2 7 0 1
H e a v y C o k e r 0g a s o i l 0 . 0 4 2 8 6 3 0 7 3 .6 8 0
G a s o l i n 3 6 7 8 2 1 . 9 20 . 0 4 3 1 7 14 5 8 8 0 . 3 4 3 75 27 . 4 7 7 1 1 5 0 . 9 5 9 6 6 1
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 4 3 6 4 2 0 7 1 .7 9 0
TO TA L 2 ,2 2 8 .2 5

F u el F u e l C o nS s2OuE mm pi st si oi onSn O2 EF ma ci ts osNir oXOnE sm i s s i o Nn XOFE amc ti os Csr i Oo n Es m i s sCi oOn EF ma c i ts os ri o n s

(C) (d ) (e )
( T J ) (t.S( C 2O/T) .fJ u ) e l F)( (G g 2) S G)O( ( t . NX/ TO J . f u ( eH l ())G g X) N O ( (I t ). C O / T (J J. (f) Gu eg l ) C O ) ( K )
G = C * F /1 0 0 0 I = C * H /1 0 0 0 K = C * J /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u e 1l 4o 5i 8l 1 . 6 5 5 40 . 0 2 0 3 0 . 2 9 6 0 0 7 6 0 05 . 2 2 . 9 1 6 3 3 1 0 80 . 0 1 4 5 0 . 2 1 1 4 3 4 0 0 3
H e a v y C o k e r 0g a s o i l 0 . 0 1 4 1 0 0 .2 5 0 0 .0 1 4 0
G a s o l i n 1 5 8 8 0 . 3 4 3 5 0 7 . 0 8 8 1 . 3 9 7 4 7 0 2 3 05 . 1 1 . 5 8 8 0 3 4 3 5 07 . 0 1 7 0 .2 6 9 9 6 5 8 4 1
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 5 5 0 0 0 .0 1 2 0
TO TA L 1 .6 9 3 4 7 7 8 3 9 4 .5 0 0 .4 8 1 3 9 9 8 4 4

(1 ) fu e l c o n s u m p tio n d a ta is a c tu a l c o n s u m p tio n fr o m ( n a tio n a l e le c tr e c ity c o r p o r a tio n )

(a) W h e n th e c o n s u m p tio n is e x p r e s s e d in m a s s o r v o lu m e u n its , th e c o n v e r s io n fa c to r is th e n e t c a lo
(b ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r (s e e e q u a . )
(c) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r (s e e e q u a . )
(d ) E m is s io n In v n to ry G u id b o o k / C O R IN A IR 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u rc e s w
(e) E m is s io n In v n to ry G u id b o o k / C O R IN A IR 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u rc e s

114
 E m is s io n V lu e s F o r E q u iv e le n t F u e l C o n s u m p tio n /y e a r m

2006
F u e l A n n u a l C C o on ns vu em r sp i toCi no on Fn as uc tmCo 2rOpE tm i oi s ns i o n CF a2OEc tmo ri s s i o n s
o f f u e l t o n( T/ y J e / at( Bor n) () A( T ) J ) ( (t.CC )2O/ T .fJ u )(b)e lD)(
(a )
(G g 2) CE)( O
C = A *B E = C * D /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u e 2l 6 o 9i 3l 7 5 . 7 30 . 0 4 2 6 71 51 4 9 5 . 6 0 9 72 38 . 8 8 8 4 9 .2 9 5 6 1 3 4
H e a v y C o k e7 r 6 g7 a0 s6 o. 5 i l 0 . 0 4 2 8 6 33 2 8 7 . 8 7 0 7 71 3 . 6 8 2 4 2 .2 5 0 3 1 3 9
G a s o l i n 3 6 5 8 2 1 . 9 20 . 0 4 3 1 71 45 7 9 3 . 9 9 5 75 27 . 4 7 7 1 1 4 4 .7 0 1 4 1 7
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 4 3 6 4 2 0 7 1 .7 9 0
TO TA L 2 ,2 3 6 .2 5

F uel F u e l C o nS 2sOEu m ips ts ii ooSnn2OE F ma ic st sNo i rXoOEn ms i s s i o Nn XOFE am c it soCs riOo n Es m i s Cs i Oo n EF ma ci st so iro n s
(C) (d ) (e )
( T J ) (t.(SC2O/T) .fJ u ) e lF)( (G g 2) S G)O( ( t . NX/ TO J . f u( eH l( )G gX) N O(( It ). C O / T ( JJ .()fGu ge l C) O ) ( K )
G = C * F /1 0 0 0 I = C * H /1 0 0 0 K = C * J /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u e1 l1 o4 i9 l 5 . 6 0 9 02 .8 0 2 0 3 0 . 2 3 3 3 6 0 8 60 8. 2 2 . 2 9 9 1 2 1 8 50 6. 0 1 4 5 0 . 1 6 6 6 8 6 3 3 5
H e a v y C o k 3e 2r 8 g 7 a . s8 7o 0i l 7 01 . 0 1 4 1 0 . 0 4 6 3 5 8 9 70 .72 5 0 . 8 2 1 9 6 7 6 70 7. 0 1 4 0 . 0 4 6 0 3 0 1 9
G a s o l i n 1 5 7 9 3 . 9 9 5 50 7. 0 8 8 1 . 3 8 9 8 7 1 6 10 1. 1 1 . 5 7 9 3 9 9 5 50 7. 0 1 7 0 . 2 6 8 4 9 7 9 2 5
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 5 5 0 0 0 .0 1 2 0
TO TA L 1 .6 6 9 5 9 1 4 5 6 4 .7 0 0 4 8 9 0 9 0 .4 8 1 2 1 4 4 4 9

(a ) W h e n th e c o n s u m p tio n is e x p re s s e d in m a s s o r v o lu m e u n its , th e c o n v e rs io n fa c to r is th e n e t c a
(b ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r (s e e e q u a . )
(c ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r ( s e e e q u a . )
(d ) E m is s io n I n v n to r y G u id b o o k / C O R IN A I R 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u r c e s
(e ) E m is s io n In v n to ry G u id b o o k / C O R I N A I R 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u r c e s

115
 E m is s io n V lu e s F o r E q u iv e le n t F u e l C o n s u m p tio n /y e a r m a

2007
F u e l A n n u a l C C o on ns vu emr sp i toCi no on Fn as uc tmCo 2rpOE tmi oi s ns i o n CF a2OEc mt o ir s s i o n s
o f f u e l t o n( T/ yJ e / at( Bor n) () A( T ) J ) ( (t.CC )2O/ T .fJu )(b)e lD)(
(a )
(G g 2) CE)( O
C = A *B E = C * D /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u e 2l 1o 5i l0 8 7 . 8 0 . 0 4 2 6 79 51 7 8 . 8 7 1 8 76 35 . 8 8 6 7 8 .1 3 5 0 5 3 4
H e a v y C o k 1e 2r 9g 8a 4s 2o . i1l 50 . 0 4 2 8 65 35 6 5 . 4 2 4 0 77 35 . 6 8 4 1 0 .0 6 0 4 4 5 9
G a s o l i n 4 4 8 5 3 9 . 6 70 . 0 4 3 1 71 49 3 6 5 . 2 5 1 77 21 . 4 7 7 1 4 0 3 .5 3 5 3 4 8
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 4 3 6 4 2 0 7 1 .7 9 0
TO TA L 2 ,4 9 1 .7 3

F uel F u e l C o nS 2sOEu m ips ts ii ooSnn2OE F ma ci st sNo i rXoOEn ms i s s i o Nn XOEF am c it soCs riOo n Es m i s Cs i Oo n EF ma ci st so iro n s
(C) (d ) (e )
( T J ) (t.(SC2O/T) .fJ u ) e lF)( (G g 2) S G)O( ( t . NX/ TO J . f u( eH l( )G gX) N O( ( It ). C O / T ( JJ .()fGu eg l )C O ) ( K )
G = C * F /1 0 0 0 I = C * H /1 0 0 0 K = C * J /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u e9 l1 o7 i8 l . 8 7 1 8 06 .5 0 2 0 3 0 . 1 8 6 3 3 1 0 90 9. 2 1 . 8 3 5 7 7 4 3 70 3. 0 1 4 5 0 . 1 3 3 0 9 3 6 4 2
H e a v y C o k5 e5 r 6 g5 a. 4s 2o 4i l0 07 .5 0 1 4 1 0 . 0 7 8 4 7 2 4 70 .92 5 1 . 3 9 1 3 5 6 0 10 9. 0 1 4 0 . 0 7 7 9 1 5 9 3 7
G a s o l i n 1 9 3 6 5 . 2 5 1 70 1. 0 8 8 1 . 7 0 4 1 4 2 1 50 1. 1 1 . 9 3 6 5 2 5 1 70 1. 0 1 7 0 . 3 2 9 2 0 9 2 7 9
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 5 5 0 0 0 .0 1 2 0
TO TA L 1 .9 6 8 9 4 5 7 2 9 5 .1 6 3 6 5 5 5 6 3 0 .5 4 0 2 1 8 8 5 8

(a) W h e n th e c o n s u m p tio n is e x p r e s s e d in m a s s o r v o lu m e u n its , th e c o n v e rs io n f a c to r is th e n e t c a l

(b ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r (s e e e q u a . )
(c) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n f a c to r ( s e e e q u a . )
(d ) E m is s io n In v n to ry G u id b o o k / C O R IN A IR 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u rc e s w
(e) E m is s io n I n v n to ry G u id b o o k / C O R IN A IR 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u rc e s

116
 E m is s io n V lu e s F o r E q u iv e le n t F u e l C o n s u m p tio n /y e a r m

2008
F u e l A n n u a l CC oo nn sv ue mr s pi Cot ino nF sa u c Cmt 2oOEprmt ii os sni o n CF 2 OaE cmt oi rs s i o n s
o f f u e l t o ( nT / Jy /e(t Bao r)n ) ( TA J) ) ( (t.C 2 /O)T .fJu )(b)e lD)( (G g 2) E)C( O
(a )

C = A *B E = C * D /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u e2 l7 o6 i1 l 2 3 . 0 09 . 0 4 2 6 71 51 7 8 3 . 5 5 27 83 7. 8 8 8 7 0 . 5 6 8 8 8 5 7
H e a v y C o k2 e8 r 5 g8 a4 s1 o. 7i 0l1 . 0 4 2 8 61 32 2 5 2 . 0 3 37 23 2. 6 8 9 0 2 . 7 2 9 8 0 7 3
G a s o l i n 5 8 1 4 0 2 . 0 03 . 0 4 3 1 72 45 1 0 1 . 4 5 17 2 4. 4 7 7 1 8 1 9 . 2 7 7 8 8 2
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 4 3 6 4 2 0 7 1 .7 9 0
T O T A L 3 ,5 9 2 .5 8

F uel F u e l C o Sn 2OEs u mm i sp s t i iSoo 2nOnE Fm a i cs Nts oiXOorE n ms i s s i oN nXOEF ma ci stC os Oiro n E s m i sCs iOo n E Fm a i cs ts oi or n s
(C) (d ) (e )
( T J ) (t.S( C2O/T ).fJu ) e lF)( (G g 2) SG)O( ( t . XN/ T O J . f u( He ( l G) gX) N O( It ). C O / T ( J ( .)Gf u g e lC) O ) ( K )
G = C * F /1 0 0 0 I = C * H /1 0 0 0 K = C * J /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u 1 e 1l 7o 8i l3 . 5 5 2 0 8 . 07 2 0 3 0 . 2 3 9 2 0 6 1 02 . 32 2 . 3 5 6 7 1 0 5 0 7 . 03 1 4 5 0 . 1 7 0 8 6 1 5 1 7
H e a v y C o 1k 2e 2r 5g 2a .s 0 o3 i3l0 2 . 02 1 4 1 0 . 1 7 2 7 5 3 6 0 6 . 28 5 3 . 0 6 3 0 0 8 3 00 . 40 1 4 0 . 1 7 1 5 2 8 4 6 5
G a s o l i n 2 5 1 0 1 . 4 5 1 02 . 40 8 8 2 . 2 0 8 9 2 7 7 00 . 91 2 . 5 1 0 1 4 5 1 02 . 40 1 7 0 . 4 2 6 7 2 4 6 7 1
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 5 5 0 0 0 .0 1 2 0
T O T A L 2 .6 2 0 8 8 7 5 0 1 7 .9 2 9 8 6 4 0 0 1 0 .7 6 9 1 1 4 6 5 3

(1) f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n d a t a c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e(2 g0 -2e0 n04),e0 tr9ha et i oe n e l ro ga yd cf …o nr c…v a.e sr…tt i nt …og mi n a ts hs e o nf e f cu ed l e

(a ) W h e n th e c o n s u m p tio n is e x p re s s e d in m a s s o r v o lu m e u n its , th e c o n v e r s io n fa c to r is th e
(b ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r (s e e e q u a . )
(c ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r ( s e e e q u a . )
(d ) E m is s io n I n v n to r y G u id b o o k / C O R IN A I R 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o
(e ) E m is s io n I n v n to r y G u id b o o k / C O R I N A I R 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u

117
 E m is s io n V lu e s F o r E q u iv e le n t F u e l C o n s u m p tio n /y e a r m

2009
F u e l A n n u a l C C o on ns vu emr sp i toCi no onFn as uc tmCo 2rOpE tm i oi s ns i o n CF a2 OEc mt o ir s s i o n s
o f f u e l t o n( T/ yJ e / at( Bor )n )( A( T ) J ) ( (t.CC )2O/ T .fJu )(b)e lD)(
(a )
(G g 2) CE)( O
C = A *B E = C * D /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u e 2l 7 o 4 i 7l 0 1 . 8 70 . 0 4 2 6 7 15 1 7 2 2 . 9 0 2 73 3 . 8 8 8 6 6 .0 8 8 0 2 2 1
H e a v y C o k 3e r2 2g 4a s7 6o . i1l 0 . 0 4 2 8 61 33 8 2 2 . 2 9 3 70 37 . 6 8 1 0 1 8 .4 2 6 5 5 4
G a s o l i n 5 9 7 1 7 7 . 9 70 . 0 4 3 1 72 45 7 8 2 . 5 6 1 76 2 8 . 4 7 7 1 8 6 8 .6 4 2 7 2 3
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 4 3 6 4 2 0 7 1 .7 9 0
TO TA L 3 ,7 5 3 .1 6

F uel F u e l C o Sn 2Os Eu m ips ts i o S n 2OE Fma ic st sNo i XroOEn ms i s s i o Nn XOEF am c it soCs riOo n Es m i s Cs i Oo n E F ma ci st so iro n s
(C) (d ) (e )
( T J ) (t.(SC2O/T) .fJ u ) e lF)( (G g 2) S G)O( ( t . NX/ TO J . f u( He l( )G gX) N O(( It ). C O / T ( JJ .()fGu ge l C) O ) ( K )
G = C * F /1 0 0 0 I = C * H /1 0 0 0 K = C * J /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u e1 l1 o7 i2l 2 . 9 0 2 03 . 0 2 0 3 0 . 2 3 7 9 7 4 9 10 7. 2 2 . 3 4 4 5 8 0 4 06 . 0 1 4 5 0 . 1 6 9 9 8 2 0 8 3
H e a v y C o k1 e3 r 8 g2 a2 s . 2o 9i l3 0 .70 1 4 1 0 . 1 9 4 8 9 4 3 30 .22 5 3 . 4 5 5 5 7 3 2 60 9. 0 1 4 0 . 1 9 3 5 1 2 1 0 3
G a s o l i n 2 5 7 8 2 . 5 6 1 60 8. 0 8 8 2 . 2 6 8 8 6 5 4 20 8. 1 2 . 5 7 8 2 5 6 1 60 8. 0 1 7 0 . 4 3 8 3 0 3 5 4 9
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 5 5 0 0 0 .0 1 2 0
TO TA L 2 .7 0 1 7 3 4 6 7 7 8 .3 7 8 4 0 9 8 9 7 0 .8 0 1 7 9 7 7 3 5

(a) W h e n th e c o n s u m p tio n is e x p re s s e d in m a s s o r v o lu m e u n its , th e c o n v e rs io n fa c to r is th e n e t c a

(b ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r (s e e e q u a . )
(c) s p e c ifie d e m iss io n fa c to r (s e e e q u a . )
(d ) E m is s io n In v n to ry G u id b o o k / C O R IN A IR 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u r c e s
(e) E m is s io n In v n to r y G u id b o o k / C O R IN A IR 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u rc e s

118
 E m is s io n V lu e s F o r E q u iv e le n t F u e l C o n s u m p tio n /y e a r

2010
F u e l A n n u a l CC oo nn sv u e mr s pi oCt ino nF sa u c Cmt o2 OEpr mt i i os sni o n CF 2 aOE c mt o i rs s i o n s
o f f u e l t o ( nT / yJ /e (t aBo r)n ) ( TA J) ) ( (t.C 2 /)OT .fJu )(b)e lD)( (G g 2) E)C( O
(a )

C = A *B E = C * D /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u e3 l0 o1 i2l 2 0 . 9 06 . 0 4 2 6 71 52 8 5 4 . 6 0 47 43 7. 8 8 9 4 9 . 6 9 8 1 7 8 1
H e a v y C o k 3 e 2r 6 g 3 a 2s 2 o. 70i l . 0 4 2 8 61 3 9 8 7 . 1 6 97 83 9. 6 8 1 0 3 0 . 5 7 4 6 7 8
G a s o l i n 6 2 7 5 4 3 . 6 06 . 0 4 3 1 72 47 0 9 3 . 5 6 97 92 8. 4 7 7 1 9 6 3 . 6 6 0 6 7 1
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 4 3 6 4 2 0 7 1 .7 9 0
T O T A L 3 ,9 4 3 .9 3

F uel F u e l C o Sn 2OsE u mm i ps s t ii oSo n2OnE Fm a i cs Nts oiXOorEn ms i s s i oN nXOEF ma ci stCos iOr o n E s m i sCs iOo n E Fm a ics ts oi or n s
(C) (d ) (e )
( T J ) (t.S( C2O/T ).fJu ) e lF)( (G g 2) SG)O( ( t . XN/ TO J . f u( He (l G) gX) N O( It ). C O / T ( J ( .)Gf u g e lC) O ) ( K )
G = C * F /1 0 0 0 I = C * H /1 0 0 0 K = C * J /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u 1e 2l 8o 5i l4 . 6 0 4 0 4 . 70 2 0 3 0 . 2 6 0 9 4 8 4 07 . 12 2 . 5 7 0 9 2 0 8 09 . 40 1 4 5 0 . 1 8 6 3 9 1 7 6 5
H e a v y C o 1k 3e r9 8g 7a .s 1 o6 i9l0 8 . 90 1 4 1 0 . 1 9 7 2 1 9 0 0 9 . 25 5 3 . 4 9 6 7 9 2 4 07 .30 1 4 0 . 1 9 5 8 2 0 3 7 8
G a s o l i n 2 7 0 9 3 . 5 6 9 09 . 80 8 8 2 . 3 8 4 2 3 4 1 05 . 81 2 . 7 0 9 3 5 6 9 09 .80 1 7 0 . 4 6 0 5 9 0 6 9
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 5 5 0 0 0 .0 1 2 0
T O T A L 2 .8 4 2 4 0 1 7 2 4 8 .7 7 7 0 7 0 3 6 4 0 .8 4 2 8 0 2 8 3 3

(a ) W h e n th e c o n s u m p tio n is e x p re s s e d in m a s s o r v o lu m e u n its , th e c o n v e rs io n fa c to r is th e n
(b ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r (s e e e q u a . )
(c ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r ( s e e e q u a . )
(d ) E m is s io n I n v n to r y G u id b o o k / C O R IN A I R 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u
(e ) E m is s io n In v n to ry G u id b o o k / C O R I N A I R 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t s o u

119
 E m is s io n V lu e s F o r E q u iv e le n t F u e l, C o n s u m p tio n /y

2014
F u e l A n n u a l CC o o nn s vu e mr sp i otCinoo nnF sa uc mCt o2 OEpr mt i ios ns i o n CF 2 OaE c mt o i rs s i o n s
o f f u e l t o (n T/ yJ e/ (taBo r )n )( ( AT )J ) ( (t.C 2)O/ T .fJu )(b)e lD)( (G g 2) CE)( O
(a )

C = A *B E = C * D /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u e4 l 0 o3 i 3l 3 7 . 0 06 . 0 4 2 6 71 57 2 1 2 . 4 0 9 7 0 34 . 8 8 1 2 7 1 . 6 5 2 7 8
H e a v y C o k 4e 2r 5g 6a 5s 6 o . i1 l0 . 0 4 2 8 61 38 2 4 4 . 8 9 7 7 4 31 . 6 8 1 3 4 4 . 2 8 4 0 4 1
G a s o l i n 7 6 5 2 2 4 . 4 05 . 0 4 3 1 73 43 0 3 7 . 8 0 07 42 . 4 7 7 2 3 9 4 . 4 8 0 6 6
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 4 3 6 4 2 0 7 1 .7 9 0
TO TA L 5 ,0 1 0 .4 2

F uel F u e l C o Sn 2OsEu mm i ps st i oS n2OE Fm a ics tNs oi XoOr En ms i s s i oN n XOEF ma c i tsCos riOo n Es m i s Cs i Oo n E F ma ic st so i ro n

(C) (d ) (e )
( T J ) (t.(S C2O/T) .fJu ) e lF)( (G g 2) S G)O( ( t . XN/ TO J . f u( He (l G) gX) N O(( It ). C O / T ( J (.)fG u ge l C) O ) ( K
G = C * F /1 0 0 0 I = C * H /1 0 0 0 K = C * J /1 0 0 0
H e a v y f u 1e 7l 2o 1i l2 . 4 0 9 00 . 40 2 0 3 0 . 3 4 9 4 1 1 9 0 .32 3 . 4 4 2 4 8 1 8 00 .70 1 4 5 0 . 2 4 9 5 7 9 9 3 1
H e a v y C o k1 e8 r2 g4 a4 s. 8 o9 i 7l 04 . 10 1 4 1 0 . 2 5 7 2 5 3 0 05 . 42 5 4 . 5 6 1 2 2 4 3 05 .4 0 1 4 0 .2 5 5 4 2 8 5 6 4
G a s o l i n 3 3 0 3 7 . 8 0 0 04 . 0 8 8 2 . 9 0 7 3 2 6 4 03 .61 3 . 3 0 3 7 8 0 0 04 . 0 1 7 0 .5 6 1 6 4 2 6 0 7
D ie s e l o il 0 0 .0 5 5 0 0 0 .0 1 2 0
TO TA L 3 .5 1 3 9 9 1 3 9 3 1 1 .3 0 7 4 8 6 2 1 .0 6 6 6 5 1 1 0 2

(a) W h e n th e c o n s u m p tio n is e x p re s s e d in m a s s o r v o lu m e u n its , th e c o n v e rs io n fa c to r is t

(b ) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r ( s e e e q u a . )
(c) s p e c ifie d e m is s io n fa c to r (s e e e q u a . )
(d ) E m is s io n I n v n to ry G u id b o o k / C O R IN A IR 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t
(e) E m is s io n In v n to ry G u id b o o k / C O R IN A IR 9 0 d a ta o f c o m b u s tio n p la n ts a s p o in t

120
 APPENDIX- 6
Questionnaires Design

121
 ‫‪Appendix – 6 Questionnaires‬‬

‫بسماللهالرحمن الرحيم‬
‫التحكمبتلوث الهواء الناتج منمحطات توليد الكهرباء بواسطةتغيير نمطالستهلك‬ ‫دراسة‪/‬‬
‫استبيان حول است هلك الكهرباء والطرق المثلى للترشيد‬
‫ل‬
‫الجزء الو‪:‬‬
‫)‪ ( 1‬المنطقة ‪................................. :‬‬
‫ى‬
‫نوع المبن ‪:‬‬ ‫(‪)2‬‬
‫سكني‬ ‫‪-2‬‬ ‫خدمي‬ ‫‪-1‬‬
‫ق‬‫)‪ ( 3‬عدد الطواب ‪:‬‬
‫أكثر منطابقين‬ ‫‪-3‬‬ ‫‪ - 2‬طابقين‬ ‫أرضي‬ ‫‪-1‬‬
‫ى‬
‫)‪ ( 4‬عدد الغرف بالمبن ‪:‬‬
‫نوعية لمبات الضاءة المستخدمة‪:‬‬ ‫(‪)5‬‬
‫‪ - 4‬هالوجين‬ ‫‪ - 3‬فلورسنت‬ ‫‪ - 2‬تنجستان‬ ‫نيون‬ ‫‪-1‬‬
‫)‪ ( 6‬ال دوات الكهربائية المستعملة‪:‬‬
‫تلفزيون‬ ‫‪-2‬‬ ‫زمن التشغيل …‪ .‬ساعه‪ /‬اليوم‬ ‫‪ - 1‬ثلجة‬
‫زمن التشغيل …‪ .‬ساعه‪ /‬اليوم‬ ‫موتور‬ ‫‪-3‬‬ ‫التشغيل …‪ .‬ساعه‪ /‬اليوم‬ ‫زمن‬
‫زمن التشغيل …‪ .‬ساعه‪ /‬اليوم‬ ‫مراوح‬ ‫‪-4‬‬
‫نوعية التكييف المستخد‪:‬م‬ ‫)‪( 7‬‬
‫زمن‬ ‫مكيفغاز‬ ‫زمن التشغيل …‪ .‬ساعه‪ /‬اليوم ‪- 2‬‬ ‫مكيفات مياه‬ ‫‪-1‬‬
‫التشغيل …‪ .‬ساعه‪ /‬اليوم‬
‫)‪ ( 8‬الستهلك الشهري )تقريبا ً(‪:‬‬
‫دينار سوداني‬ ‫كيلو واط‬

‫ي‬
‫الجزء الثان ‪:‬‬
‫‪ -2‬ل‬ ‫نعم‬ ‫‪-1‬‬ ‫ة‬
‫هل تناموالنوار مضاء ‪:‬‬ ‫)‪( 9‬‬
‫‪ -2‬ل‬ ‫نعم‬ ‫( ‪ ( 10‬هل تناموالتلفزيون مضاء‪- 1 :‬‬
‫‪ -2‬ل‬ ‫نعم‬ ‫‪-1‬‬ ‫هل تنامتحت التكييف‪:‬‬ ‫)‪( 11‬‬
‫ل‬ ‫‪- 2‬‬ ‫)‪ ( 12‬هل تترك النوار مضاءة نهارًا‪ - 1 :‬نعم‬
‫الزمن ……‪ .‬ساعه‪ .‬قدره اللمبة …‪ .‬واط‬ ‫عدد الغرف المضاءة وهي فارغة‬ ‫)‪( 13‬‬

‫‪122‬‬
 ‫‪Appendix – 6 Questionnaires‬‬

‫الثالث‬
‫‪:‬‬ ‫الجزء‬
‫السداد لتغيير نوعية اللمبات المستعملة إذا توفرت نوعية تقلل الستهلك‬
‫)‪ (14‬هل لديك تع‬
‫ى‬
‫وبسعر أغل ‪:‬‬
‫‪ -2‬ل‬ ‫نعم‬ ‫‪-1‬‬
‫)‪ (15‬إذا توفر لك جهاز للتحكمفي زمن الضاءة بتكلفة ل تتعدى ‪ .....‬دينار هل تستعمله؟‬

‫‪ -2‬ل‬ ‫‪ -1‬نعم‬
‫)‪ (16‬هل لديك الستعداد لتغيير الجهزه الكهربائية المستعملة لديك إذا توفرت نوعيةل‬
‫تقلل الستهلك ولكن تعمل بمحركات كهربائية ذات كفاءة اكبر وتعمل على توفير المداد‬
‫ى‬
‫الكهربائي وبسعر أغل ‪:‬‬

‫‪ -2‬ل‬ ‫نعم‬ ‫‪-1‬‬

‫)‪ (17‬هل تتبع نظام ترشيد إستهلك الكهرباء )اطفاء أنوار الماكن الغيرالمستخدمةعلى‬
‫سبيل المثال(‪:‬‬

‫‪ -2‬ل‬ ‫‪ -1‬نعم‬

‫‪123‬‬