Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 726739

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Mechanical strength and drying shrinkage properties of concrete

containing treated coarse recycled concrete aggregates
Sallehan Ismail , Mahyuddin Ramli
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Pulau Pinang, Malaysia

h i g h l i g h t s
 We studied method for improving the properties of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA).
 A combination of two surface treatment methods were applied on coarse RCA.
 Effect of treatment methods signicant to enhance the properties of coarse RCA.
 Treatment methods remarkably affect mechanical strength and drying shrinkage of concrete.

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 5 February 2014
Received in revised form 8 May 2014
Accepted 29 June 2014
Available online 30 July 2014
Keywords:
Recycled concrete aggregate
Surface treatment method
Calcium metasilicate
Hydrochloric acid
Mechanical strength
Dry shrinkage

a b s t r a c t
In recycling concrete, the crushing process leaves weak mortar particles and surface cracks throughout
the recycled concrete aggregates (RCA). Thus, the process is detrimental, resulting in inferior aggregate
properties. This experimental study presents a method to improve the properties of coarse RCA by
modifying their surface structure through the combination of two different surface treatment methods.
In this study, coarse RCA are rst treated by soaking in hydrochloric (HCl) acid at 0.5 mol (M) concentration. They are then impregnated with calcium metasilicate (CM) solution to coat their surface with CM
particles. The effects of both surface treatments on the properties of RCA before and after treatment
are determined. Moreover, the effect of the replacement of natural coarse aggregates with 60% treated
coarse RCA on the mechanical strength of concrete is evaluated. The ndings of this study show that
the effect of the combination of these two surface treatment methods is benecial, as the combined
methods not only modify RCA surface but also enhance RCA properties. More specically, after treatment,
the particle density, water absorption, and mechanical strength of RCA are signicantly improved. Consequently, the incorporation of treated RCA in concrete results in a mechanical strength that approximates concrete prepared with natural aggregates and surpasses the strength of concrete prepared with
untreated RCA. In addition, the effect use of treated RCA tends to reduce the drying shrinkage of concrete.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The recycling of concrete waste into recycled concrete
aggregates (RCA) has been identied as a potential source of construction aggregates. Previous studies have highlighted the benets of large-scale recycling of concrete waste: it reduces the
quantity of concrete waste that otherwise would have been disposed in landlls, decreases the dependence of the construction
industry on natural aggregates, thereby preserving natural
resources, provides savings from the treatment of waste disposal,
and yields alternative sources for urban areas facing shortage of
natural aggregates [15]. Moreover, given the urgent need to
Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 0123707810; fax: +60 046576523.
E-mail address: salleh_itm@yahoo.com (S. Ismail).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.06.058
0950-0618/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

preserve the environment and maintain ecological balance, the

method ensures sustainable development.
The most common application of RCA is in the manufacture of
roadbed gravel rather than concrete [6]. However, the acceleration
of urbanization as a result of population growth has led to a greater
demand for concrete. Concrete is one of the most important
construction materials, with an estimated annual worldwide production of about ve billion tonnes [7]. This situation requires considerable quantities of natural aggregate resources, the single
largest component of concrete, making up 7080% of its total volume [8]. However, the construction industry still has misgivings on
the use of RCA in the commercial production of concrete, especially
in structural applications.
This factor is attributable to certain unfavorable qualities of RCA
compared with those of natural aggregates. RCA is produced by

S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 726739

crushing concrete lumps into smaller particles, which are then separated using a sieve of specic size. This conventional crushing
technique, such as the use of a jaw crusher, leaves particles of
old mortar (cement paste) in the original aggregate particles of
RCA. The amount of old mortar incorporated in RCA varies across
different reports, but it can reach as high as 56% [9]. The presence
of old mortar particles, which are characterized by relatively high
porosity [1014] results in the inferior quality of RCA compared
with natural aggregates [15,16]. Moreover, the impact stress
caused by the crushing process makes the surface layer of RCA
weak, porous, and brittle [17]. The process also leaves numerous
microcracks in RCA [12]. Thus, compared with natural aggregates,
RCA are characterized by lower density, lower specic gravity,
higher water absorption, and higher porosity [10,11,16,18,19].
These properties of RCA reportedly account for the decrease in
the compressive, exural, and tensile strength, as well as in the
elastic modulus of concrete prepared with RCA [2026]. Most
researchers agree that the presence of weaker and porous old mortar in RCA particles is the main reason for the adverse characteristics of RCA and the overall deterioration of the mechanical strength
of concrete.
In terms of the microstructure of concrete, the interface zone
between the aggregate and the cement paste is important
because this zone governs the mechanical strength of concrete
[27]. Using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Katz [28] found
that the surface of RCA crushed by a jaw crusher are covered
with loose particles, which may lower the bond between the
RCA and new cement mortar, leading to a decrease in the
mechanical strength of concrete. Tam et al. [12] similarly concluded that the adherence of old mortar composed of many minute pores and cracks on RCA results in the weakening of the links
in the microstructure of concrete and ultimately affects the
strength of concrete. Moreover, the high porosity and water
absorption of RCA leads to a decrease in the effective water content for the hydration process and consequently results in a loose
interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between the RCA and the new
mortar in the hardened concrete [29].
Despite these disadvantages, the use of RCA in the production of
concrete is still of particular interest because of the other economic
and environmental benets it offers. As such, various approaches
and methods of treatment have been developed and studied to
improve the material and minimize its disadvantages. Surface
treatment is an innovative and benecial method, which modies
and enhances the physical properties of RCA before its use in the
concrete mix. The literature indicates various procedures of surface
treatment in RCA. For instance, Tam et al. [30] proposed the use of
a low concentration of acid to minimize weak or loose mortars
attached on the surface of RCA particles, thereby improving the
surface contact between the aggregate and the cement mortar. In
this method, RCA is soaked in three different types of acid, namely,
hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid, at a
molarity of 0.1 M for 24 h. In general, the treatment signicantly
reduces the water absorption of RCA by 7.2712.17%. As a result,
the compressive strength, exural strength, and elastic modulus
of the treated RCA are improved compared with those of untreated
RCA. Another procedure of RCA surface treatment is the modication or improvement of the surface of RCA by relling the pores
and cracks using suitable mineral admixtures like microllers. Katz
[28] introduced the surface treatment technique by impregnating
RCA with a silica fume (SF) solution. In this method, the dried
RCA is soaked in the silica fume solution to coat the surface of
the RCA with the silica fume particles. This treatment strengthens
the structure of the aggregate, particularly the ITZ between the
RCA surface and the cement paste, thus improving the mechanical
strength of the concrete. Other alternative methods reported
include treatment by soaking in other types of admixtures or

727

solutions, such as nanosilica solution [31], polymer solution [11]

and silane-based water repellent [32].
Although each method implies a different and novel approach,
they all improve the physical properties of RCA and minimize its
adverse effects on concrete. However, the effects of combining
the methods on the performance of the resulting concrete are
not yet fully known. As such, this study aims to evaluate the feasibility of improving the poor physical properties of coarse RCA using
a dual treatment method, in which coarse RCA are rst pre-soaked
in an acid solvent and then impregnated with a mineral admixture
solution. The mineral admixture used is calcium metasilicate (CM),
which eventually forms the coating layer of the impregnated RCA.
This study investigates the effectiveness of this combined and dual
treatment in enhancing the properties of coarse RCA and the
mechanical strength of the resulting concrete.
2. Materials
2.1. Cement
Type I ordinary Portland cement (Cement Industries of Malaysia Berhad) with a
specic gravity of 3.15 g/cm3 was used as the main binder for the experiment. Its
typical chemical compositions are presented in Table 1.
2.2. Aggregates
In this study, all the coarse aggregates used had a maximum size of 20 mm. The
natural coarse aggregates used were crushed granite. The coarse RCA used were
generated from waste concrete cubes collected from the debris area of the Laboratory School of Housing, Building, and Planning, USM Penang, Malaysia. The strength
of the waste concrete cube was unknown. The concrete cubes were rst crushed
and then further pounded using a steel hammer to reduce their sizes. The concrete
lump was placed in a jaw crusher, where it was broken down into smaller particles.
After the crushing process, the RCA were graded according to particular sizes using
a vibrator sieve to obtain the size required. The ne aggregates used were uncrushed quartzite natural river sand. The aggregates were washed with water to
remove any unwanted substances such as clay, dirt and dust, after which they were
air-dried. The gradation of the coarse and ne aggregates based on the sieve analysis is presented in Table 2.
2.3. Superplasticizer and mixing water
To enhance the workability of the concrete, a chloride-free super plasticizing
admixture based on sulfonated naphthalene polymers was used. This superplasticizer complied with BS 5075-3 [33]. The mixing water used was tap water.
2.4. Acid
In the present study, the method involves the application of hydrochloric acid
(HCl) as an acidic solvent in the degradation action for the removal of crumbs or
loosely adhered mortars attached to the original RCA aggregate. Selection with
HCl resulted in improved properties of the recycled aggregate concrete and marked
improvement after pre-treatment, as reported by Tam et al. [30], which is due to its
effectiveness in the treatment of RCA. In addition RCA subjected in acid solution
was used to remove the adhered mortar and did not corrode or interfere with the
original aggregate of RCA. Given that granite is a common natural coarse aggregate
used for the production of concrete in Malaysia, the RCA produced in this study is
predominantly composed of granite as the natural aggregate. Hence, selecting HCl is
considered suitable for removing RCA mortar because of the highly corrosive-resistant nature of granite even at high acid concentrations [34]. Nevertheless, the prepared acid solution used for treating RCA has a low concentration with a molarity of
0.5 M. This optimal concentration is in accordance with the ndings recommended
by the works of Ismail and Ramli [35]. The HCl used in this research is supplied by
the School of Chemistry, USM Penang, Malaysia.
2.5. Calcium metasilicate (CM)
CM or wollastonite, whose molecular formula is CaSiO3, is widely used in the
production of ceramics, insulation, roof tiles, and other construction materials.
The CM used in this study was supplied by Berjaya Bintang Timur Sdn Bhd. It came
in the form of white powder, with the range of its particle sizes similar to that of the
cement particles. The specic gravity of CM is 2.87 g/cm3 and its loss on ignition is
0.46%, values that are lower than those of ordinary Portland cement. The chemical
composition of CM is presented in Table 1. The major compounds present in CM
include 50.3% SiO2 and 44.4% CaO. Fig. 1 shows the X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern

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S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 726739

Table 1
Chemical composition of cement and calcium metasilicate.
Material

Chemical composition (%)

Cement
Calcium metasilicate (CM)

SiO2

Al2O3

Fe2O3

CaO

MgO

K2O

P2O5

MnO

TiO2

Others

16
50.32

3.6
0.77

2.9
0.33

72
44.44

1.5
1.31

0.34
0.15

0.06
0.08

0.03
0.05

0.17
0.03

3.41
2.52

LOI

Specic gravity (g/cm3)

2.53
0.46

3.15
2.87

Table 2
Sieve analysis of aggregates.
Fine modulus

0.3

0.6

1.18

2.36

10

14

20

0.9
0.0
0.0

8.8
0.0
0.0

22.7
0.0
0.0

45.3
0.0
0.0

77.4
0.2
0.4

100
0.2
0.8

100
31
30

100
59.2
60.4

100
100
100

Wollastonite

Quartz

Sand
Coarse natural
Coarse RCA

Aggregate passing (%) according to sieve size (mm)

0.15

Calcite

Aggregate

Fig. 1. XRD pattern of calcium metasilicate.

of CM. Based on the XRD pattern, the major mineral phases of the CM include wollastonite (CaSiO3), quartz (SiO2), and calcite (CaCO3). Fig. 2 shows the SEM of CM,
which showed an acicular form or needle-like structure. Given its acicular nature,
CM can potentially be used as microbers to reinforce cementitious materials
[3640]. Mathur, Misra, and Goel investigated the application of CM in concrete
mixes as a partial replacement for cement and sand, and found that CM signicantly
reduced abrasion loss and shrinkage and enhanced the durability of concrete [41].
In another study, the inclusion of CM as partial replacement for cement reportedly
improved the early-age engineering performance of ultra high-performance concrete [42]. Kalla et al. [43] found that the incorporation of wollastonitey ash in
concrete mixes possibly enhanced the mechanical property and durability of concrete. However, available data for experiments using CM as materials for the surface
treatment of RCA have not yet been examined. In addition, information on the use
of CM in the production of recycled aggregate concrete is lacking.

3. Experimental program
3.1. Surface treatment of coarse RCA
This experiment involves the combination of two different
methods to improve the quality of the coarse RCA.

Fig. 2. SEM of calcium metasilicate.

3.45
6.17
6.08

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S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 726739

Aggregate

Loose cement paste

(a)

Aggregate

Cement paste

used to coat the RCA surface would be dissolved during mixing and
are expected to function as a ller with the product of cement
hydration for the densication of the interface structure, which
improves bond strength at contact between the aggregate surface
and the cement matrix. The procedures involved in this stage
included the following: (i) The coarse RCA was completely dried
in an oven for 24 h at 105 C and then cooled at room temperature.
(ii) The CM solution was prepared by dissolving 10% weight CM (in
powder form) in distilled water. The mixture was stirred for several minutes to ensure proper dispersion of the CM particles. (iii)
The dried coarse RCA was then immediately added to the solution.
The quantity of coarse RCA added was based on a weighted waterto-coarse RCA ratio of 1:1.7. (iv) The RCA particles were soaked in
the CM solution for 24 h to increase CM absorption. (v) After
immersion, the aggregates were drained for 10 min. A certain
amount of CM particles composed of sediments at the bottom of
the container was mixed by hand to evenly coat the surface of
the aggregate particle. (vi) The RCA was dried in an oven at
105 C for 24 h. The aggregate was cooled to room temperature
before being used in the concrete mixture. As observed, the percentage of the CM particles that adhered on the surface of the
RCA was approximately 80%. The remainder of the CM particles
did not rell nor adhere on the RCA surface (i.e., in loose particle
form) or were lost during the draining of the treatment solution.
SEM was used to visualize the microstructures on the surface of
the treated RCA. The images of the treated RCA after CM impregnation are shown in Fig. 4. The surface-treated RCA was covered with
a layer of small particles identied as CM particles.
3.2. Concrete specimen preparation and curing

(b)
Fig. 3. SEM images of the surfaces of (a) untreated RCA and (b) RCA after subjected
to 0.5 M HCl.

3.1.1. First stage: acid soaking of RCA

The SEM images in Fig. 3a show that the surface of untreated
RCA is considerably more porous and is covered with a certain
amount of loose cement paste (crumbs) and other small impurities,
such as dust, which are loosely connected to the bulk aggregate of
RCA particles as a result of the crushing process. In this stage of the
treatment, the coarse RCA were immersed in HCl for the removal of
weak or loose mortar particles adhering to the original RCA aggregates. Following Tam et al. [30] the treatment involved the following procedures: (i) The coarse RCA were placed in a plastic
container. (ii) HCl with a molarity of 0.5 M was added until the surface of the coarse RCA was covered. The aggregates were kept
immersed in acidic solvents for 24 h. (iii) The container was occasionally shaken to ensure a more efcient reaction of the acid in
the degradation of weak mortar. (iv) After the immersion, the
aggregates were watered with distilled water and drained. The
sample was passed through a 5.00 mm sieve to ensure that only
the coarse aggregates were retained. Fig. 3b shows the SEM images
of the surface of the RCA, which became cleaner and more uniform
compared with untreated RCA after subjected to the acid.
3.1.2. Second stage: coating with CM
After soaked in acid, the coarse RCA were impregnated with CM
solution. The purpose of this step was to coat the surface of coarse
RCA with CM particles to rell the pores and cracks throughout its
physical surface. Simultaneously, the present CM particles that was

The proportion of the concrete mixture was designed using the

Department of Environment (DOE) method, which is based on constant effective water/cement ratio of 0.41 for all concrete mixtures,
to achieve a target slump range of 3060 mm and a compressive
strength of 50 MPa on the 28th day [44]. Three types of mixtures
were prepared using different types of coarse aggregates. The specimen types CON composed the control concrete, which was prepared using only natural coarse aggregates. Other specimens,
such as types NR60 and TR60, were composed of untreated and
treated coarse RCA, respectively. The dosage compositions of the
coarse aggregates in both types were designed by replacing the
natural coarse aggregate with untreated and treated RCA at 60%
weight of the total coarse aggregate content. The detailed compositions of the specimens are shown in Table 3. Considering the loss
of water caused by the absorption of the aggregates during mixing,

Aggregate
CM particle

Fig. 4. SEM images of surface-treated RCA after impregnation with CM.

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S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 726739

Table 3
Details of mixing proportion.
Specimen no.

Types of coarse aggregate

Cement (kg/m3)

Water (kg/m3)

CON
NR60
TR60

Natural
Untreated RCA
Treated RCA

510
510
510

210
210
210

a superplasticizer was added in the concrete mix in type TR60 at

0.2% of the cement weight to maintain the slump of the concrete
mix. The incorporated treated coarse RCA in these types of mixture
are oven dried, as opposed to those in other mixes, which are air
dried.
All concrete mixes in this study were mixed in accordance to
the sequence prescribed in BS1881-125 [45]. A drum mixer was
used to prepare all the concrete mixes. For each concrete mix,
100 mm cubes were cast for the compressive strength test,
cylinder samples with diameter of 150 mm and length of
300 mm were cast for static modulus of elasticity test and
100 mm  100 mm  500 mm prisms were cast for the exural
strength and nondestructive test. All hardened concrete specimens
were cast in laboratory conditions, demolded at 24 h after casting,
and then fully immersed in water at 25 2 C until 7, 28, 90, and
180 days of testing were reached.
4. Testing
4.1. Determination of the properties of coarse aggregates
4.1.1. Particle density, water absorption, mechanical strength, and
chemical contents of aggregate
Several tests were conducted to assess the effect of the surface
treatment on the properties of coarse RCA. The aggregates used
were also ensured as complying with the standard requirements
for concrete based on BS 882 [46]. The density and water absorption of the aggregates were tested according to BS 812-Part 2
[47]. In this test, the coarse RCA was separated into two groups
based on particle size: 20 and 10 mm. Aggregates of different particle sizes yielded different results in terms of density and water
absorption [48]. The mechanical strength of the aggregates was
assessed by conducting crushing and impact value tests following
the procedures given in BS 812-Part 110 [49] and Part 112 [50],
respectively. The chloride and sulfate contents of the aggregates
were chemically tested on ground specimen according to the procedures stipulated in BS 812-Part 117 [51] and Part 118 [52],
respectively. In addition the pH values of the aggregates were
determined. The two different surface treatment processes
involved in this study may have various impacts on the properties
of coarse RCA after treatment. However, the corrosive characteristics of the acid solution are reported to prominently create a chemical reaction that particularly degrades the old cement mortar that
remained on RCA [30,34]. As a result, the degradation effect of the
acid may indirectly cause a permanent change in the entire bulk
properties of the RCA particles. Hence, this reason justies the
focus on the physical, mechanical, and chemical comparison test
on the properties of coarse RCA after being subjected to acid treatment. Additionally, understanding the effectiveness of acid for the
removal of loose mortar particles on the RCA surface and the safety
measures on the degradation and vulnerability effect have to be
considered in terms of their impact on the properties of coarse
RCA, which may consequently affect the aggregates durability
and performance when incorporated in concrete. Therefore, appropriate tests should be conducted, including aggregate density,
water absorption, mechanical strength, and chemical tests, after

Coarse aggregate (kg/m3)

Gravel

RCA

956
382
382

574
574

Sand (kg/m3)

SP (%)

722
722
722

0
0
0.2

the RCA is treated with acid. The various effects of acid on RCA
properties were considered. By contrast, only density and water
absorption tests were conducted to determine the porosity of
coarse RCA after the second surface treatment, which involved
coating coarse RCA with CM. In this case, fewer tests were conducted to examine the properties of RCA after the second surface
treatment in comparison with those of RCA treated with acid
because the temporary presence of CM particles on the surface of
coarse RCA may impair the accuracy of the testing results. Additionally and as previously mentioned, the mainly purpose of surface-coating RCA with CM particles is to provide reinforcement
in cementitious materials which are expected to be benecial in
improving the surface contact in the interface between the aggregate and the matrix rather than more focusing in modify on the
properties of RCA itself.

4.1.2. Determination of mortar content

At present, no standard procedure for determining the amount
of adhered mortar on RCA exists. As such, the method adopted in
this study to determine the quantity of adhered mortar was that
of De Juan et al. [16]. The experimental study of De Juan et al.
[16] reported that the thermal method is signicantly suitable in
determining the amount of adhered mortar. Similar ndings were
obtained and reported by Butler et al. [53] who found that the thermal method was more effective in removing the adhered mortar,
as opposed to other methods using acid and the freeze thaw
method, which are also used in quantifying the amount of adhered
mortar content on RCA. The brief procedure for the determination
of the adhered mortar content in this study involved the following:
(i) An initial weight of oven-dried (OD) sample aggregate was
recorded. (ii) The aggregate sample was immersed in and saturated
with water for 24 h. (iii) The sample was heated in a mufe furnace
at a temperature of 500 C for 2 h and then dipped in cold water,
resulting in a thermal crash. The remaining adhered mortar was
removed by hitting the sample with a rubber mallet. (iv) Finally,
the sample was sifted through a 5.00 mm sieve to ensure that only
coarse aggregates were retained. Once the cleaning was completed,
the sample was weighed again. The weight difference between the
initial and nal weight of the sample represented the total amount
of the adhered mortar. The amount of the mortar was expressed as
the percentage mass of RCA.

4.1.3. Determination of mortar loss

This test was conducted to determine the amount of the mortar
loss of RCA after immersion in 0.5 M acid at 24 h. The effect of the
mortar loss of coarse RCA was measured through two separate
sizes of 20 and 10 mm. The procedure used to determine the loss
of adhered mortar followed that of Ismail and Ramli [35].

4.1.4. Chemical compositions of coarse aggregates

The chemical composition of RCA after soaked in HCl acid was
determined by the X-ray uorescence spectrometry (XRFS) model
AxiosMax (PANalytical). For these tests, the aggregate samples
were ground.

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S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 726739

4.2. Determination of concrete properties

4.2.1. Slump
Slump tests of fresh concrete were conducted immediately after
mixing to determine the inuence of the addition of treated RCA on
the workability of concrete. The slump test procedure was conducted in accordance with BS EN 12390-2 [54].
4.2.2. Mechanical strength
The compressive and exural strength tests of the concrete
were in compliance with BS EN 12390-3 [55] and BS EN 12390-5
[56], respectively. The results of the tests were taken from the
average of the three specimen types (concrete cube and prism) at
7, 28, 90, and 180 days. The static modulus of elasticity (E) was
determined using cylinder samples with diameter of 150 mm
and length of 300 mm, following BS 1881 [22]. This test was conducted on the concrete specimens at the age of 28 days.

Cylindrical
steel
Data acquisition
system

Computer
LVDT
Specimen

Load Cell

4.2.3. Impact resistance test

This test was conducted to gain a better understanding of the
load resistance and/or total energy absorption behavior of concrete
when subjected to impact loads [5759]. This test method was
based on the work carried out by Kwan et al. [60]. The impact
strength specimens prepared for the test were in the form of
rectangular
plates
with
the
following
dimensions:
50 mm  100 mm  500 mm. The impact resistance of concrete
was determined by using a fabricated, low drop-weight impact
instrument. The assembly equipment consisted of two components. (1) A single steel column that functioned as the loading
frame. The column had a bracket with a cylindrical steel channel
that provided a slot for the drop weight (steel ball) and acted as
a guide for the steel ball when it rolled. A steel rod with a small
diameter was pinned across the cylindrical steel channel to hold
the steel ball and to serve as a release button for the drop ball.
(2) Two support beam frames with a span of 300 mm were xed
at the bottom of the impact test rig and served as holders for the
test specimen. The instrumentation of the drop-weight impact
tests consisted of the dynamic load cell with a capacity of 200 kg,
which was attached on both support beams to measure the impact
load. The test specimen was placed at the center point of the load
cell. A linear variable displacement transducer (LVDT) with a range
of 50 mm was used to gauge the deection at the mid-span of the
specimens. The LVDT was mounted on a small steel plate. It was
aligned at the center of the edge of the specimens to avoid collision
with the steel ball during the impact test. The input energy was
provided by a steel ball weighing 450 g. This ball was released
and dropped from the cylindrical steel channel at a height of
800 mm. The position of the drop-weight impact was aimed at
the central span of the specimen plates. Drop-weight impact tests
were repeated until failure occurred. Meanwhile, data from the
load cell and the LVDT were simultaneously recorded digitally in
a computer by using a National Instrument data-acquisition system. The input data of the impact energy was digitally recorded,
blow by blow, through the data-acquisition system, which was
controlled by LabVIEW software. In the present work, data were
exported to Microsoft Excel for post-analysis. Fig. 5 presents the
setup of the drop-weight impact instrument with the concrete
plate specimen.
4.2.4. Non destructive test
Two nondestructive tests were conducted on the hardened concrete to obtain its bulk density and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV).
The bulk density of the hardened concrete was determined at 7, 28,
90, and 180 days using the water displacement method, a conrmed and tested method prescribed by BS EN 12390-7 [61].

Support

Fig. 5. The impact load test setup.

The UPV was measured using a portable ultrasonic nondestructive digital indicating tester, in compliance with BS EN 12504-4
[62]. The UPV test was performed using a direct transmission
method for each concrete specimen at different curing ages of 7,
28, 90, and 180 days. The transit time of the ultrasonic wave
through the specimen was recorded.
4.2.5. Drying shrinkage test
Concrete prisms measuring 100 mm  100 mm  500 mm were
prepared to conduct shrinkage test. After 24 h of removal from
their mold strain gauge, studs were glued by using a special adhesive and xed on the four longitudinal surface sides of the concrete
prism. Shrinkage measurements were taken by using a demountable mechanical strain gauge (DEMEC), which can read up to
0.001 mm. The change in length of the specimens was recorded
when their age of curing reached 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 56, 91, 120,
150, and 180 days.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Properties of the coarse aggregates
The effect of surface treatment on the properties of coarse RCA
were analyzed and compared. Table 4 shows the test results of the
properties of coarse RCA after treated with acid, together with
those of natural granite and untreated RCA.
Compared with untreated RCA with natural aggregates, the
coarse RCA have lower quality and are more porous. The results
revealed that the coarse RCA with particle sizes of 20 and
10 mm, respectively, have densities lower by 10% and 14% and
water absorptions higher by 7 and 8 times compared with those
of natural coarse aggregates. In terms of mechanical strength, the
RCA are weaker than the natural aggregates, whereas their aggregate impact and crushing value results are higher than those of
natural aggregates. These ndings may be attributed to presence

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S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 726739

Table 4
Properties of coarse aggregate.
Properties of aggregate

Sizes of aggregate (mm)

% Mortar content

20
10
20
10
20
10
20
10
14
14

Natural granite

Untreated RCA

Treated RCA
After acid soaking

% Mortar loss
Particle density oven dry (Mg/m3)
Water absorption (%)
Agg. crushing value (%)
Agg. impact value (%)
pH aggregate
Water-soluble chlorides (%)
Acid-soluble sulfates (%)
Chemical compositions
SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K20
P2O5
Cl
SO3

After impregnation with CM

22
45

2.60
2.58
0.60
0.70
24.32
13.98
12.6
<0.01
<0.01

2.33
2.23
4.44
5.58
29.15
21.78
12.56
<0.01
0.38

2.6
2.9
2.39
2.32
3.58
4.65
28.34
19.26
12.99
0.03
0.38

72.08
0.34
14.04
2.67
0.04
0.55
1.45
3.38
4.63
0.13
0.02
0.02

71.06
0.16
8.49
1.50
0.04
0.49
9.52
1.67
3.29
0.06
0.02
0.60

69.13
0.18
8.73
1.65
0.05
0.53
9.17
1.72
3.30
0.06
0.67
0.57

of weak adhered mortar components and mortaraggregate bonds

in the RCA. In determining the quantity of the mortar content of
coarse RCA, the method was found to achieve an almost 100%
removal of the adhered mortar from RCA particles based on visual
inspection after completing the thermal heat process. Based on the
thermal heat process results, approximately 22% of the measured
mortar present in RCA covers the RCA particles at a fraction size
of 1020 mm. The percentage doubles at a fraction size of 5
10 mm. These ndings showed that the percentage of mortar in
RCA tends to be higher at smaller fraction sizes. Similar ndings
have been reported previously [10,16].
However, as shown in Table 4, the properties of RCA immersed
in acid slightly improved compared with those of untreated RCA.
As observed from this study, an effect of low-concentration acid
on RCA is the removal of a signicant portion of the weak cement
mortar on its surface. Approximately 3% mass of mortar was lost
after RCA was immersed in acid. As a result, the particle density
and mechanical strength of RCA increased compared with those
of untreated RCA. Moreover, the absorption of RCA slightly
decreased.
An understanding of the chemical characteristics of RCA after
treatment with acid is also important. An acidic environment does
not lower the alkaline level of the aggregates, as indicated by the
pH of the RCA treated with acid, which remained above 12. The
exposure of RCA to HCl acid may put to risk the lead RCA containment. Excessive chloride leads to the corrosion of the reinforcement, thus affecting the durability of the structure. Table 4
shows the results of the chloride ion content as a percentage by
mass of the aggregate to the nearest two decimal places. The test
on the water-soluble chloride content of treated RCA yielded
0.03%, indicating the presence of chloride ions on this aggregate.
However, the results also showed that the chloride content in treated aggregates still remained within a specied limit of 0.05%, as
indicated in BS 882 [46] for valid use in normal reinforced concrete
purposes. The tests on acid-soluble sulfate contents (SO3) of
untreated and treated RCA yielded the same mean of 0.38% by
mass on both types of RCA. The values were still below 1.0%, in

2.39
2.34
3.48
4.48

accordance with the limit set by BS 8500-2 [63]. The sulfate content of RCA was higher than that of natural aggregates as a result
of the presence of hydrate cement paste; nevertheless, it is not
expected to exert any detrimental inuence on the cement hydration of the new concrete [13,64].
Furthermore, an XRFS analysis was conducted to identify the
chemical composition of the coarse aggregates. The major oxide
compounds traced in the coarse aggregates are shown in Table 4.
The cause of the presence of cement paste on RCA is the percentage
of CaO, which was slightly higher than that in natural aggregates.
The chemical compositions of treated and untreated RCA were
slightly similar. However, the slight reduction of SiO2 and CaO elements in treated RCA relative to untreated RCA may be a result of
the loss of a certain amount of cement mortar after treatment with
acid. The XRFS analysis showed that the chloride content of treated
RCA was relatively higher compared with that of untreated RCA.
However, the chloride content was still below 1%. This result contradicts that of the water-soluble chloride test. This discrepancy
may be attributed to the immersion of RCA in HCl acid, in which
the chloride ions absorbed by the mortar of RCA particle were
not fully extracted by the water. Given this high chloride content,
this treated RCA is not recommended for application in steelreinforced concrete. The total sulfate contents of both types of
RCA are higher than those of natural coarse aggregates, which is
similar to a line found in the results prior to the acid-soluble sulfate tests. However, the sulfate content was still below the limit
of 1.0%. Again, the present cement paste on RCA is a result of the
high sulfate content of RCA relative to that of natural aggregates.
A low concentration of acid dissolves only a small quantity of
mortar. As such, mortar is not totally removed from the original
RCA. Cracks and pores still remain on the bulk of mortar left on
the RCA, thereby increasing the aggregates absorptivity and porosity. Continuous surface treatments after the initial treatment and
impregnation of coarse RCA with CM solution signicantly
improved RCA properties. As shown in Table 4, the particle density
of RCA slightly increased, whereas its absorptivity signicantly
decreased after impregnation with CM solution. These changes

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S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 726739

The workability of all concrete mixes, which determines the

mobility and placeability of the concrete mix using the slump test
results, is depicted in Fig. 6. The target slumps for the concrete mix
are arranged from 30 mm to 60 mm. The overall slump results
indicate that the workability of CON concrete is marginally better
than that of concrete with RCA with a slump value of 60 mm.
The replacement of coarse natural aggregates with 60% RCA tends
to decrease the NR60 concrete slump by 17%. This result may be
attributed to the high absorptivity of coarse RCA caused by the porous mortar attached to it, which absorbs more water during concrete mixing, thus lowering the workability of concrete [58,65].
As observed, the slump loss tends to be greater in the TR60 concrete due to the incorporation of 60% treated RCA in OD states,
which absorb more water during mixing. In addition, the CM particles coating the surface of the coarse RCA also absorbed portions
of free water during mixing. However, the addition of a 0.2% mass
of superplasticizer to the cement can compensate for the slump
loss in the TR60 concrete mixes.

Bulk Density ( kg/m2)

5.2. Slump of concrete

2410
2400
2390
2380
2370

CON

2360

NR60

2350

TR60

2340
2330
0

20

40

60

80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Curing Age (Days)

Fig. 7. Bulk densities of hardened concrete mixes.

Compressive Strength (MPa)

may be a result of the coating of CM particles on the surface of RCA,

which forms a protective layer and rells the pores and cracks,
thereby improving the quality of the treated RCA.

5.3. Bulk density of concrete

70
60
50
40
CON

30

NR60

20

TR60

10
0
0

40

80

120

160

200

Curing Age (Days)

The bulk density of hardened concrete at 7, 28, 90, and 180 days
is illustrated in Fig. 7. In general, the bulk densities of the hardened
concrete mixes slightly increased along with the number of curing
days. As Fig. 7 indicates, among all the concrete specimens, the
CON concrete has the greatest density. The lower density of
concrete mixes containing coarse RCA is due to the lower particle
density of coarse RCA compared with that of the natural coarse
aggregates. However, the densities of the TR60 concrete mixes containing 60% treated coarse aggregates are higher than those of the
NR60 concrete at ages 28, 90, and 180 days. This nding may be
attributed to the reaction of CM particles with new cement paste,
which increases the hydration of the cement product and makes
the concrete with treated RCA denser than that with untreated
RCA.
5.4. Compressive and exural strength
As Fig. 8 illustrates, all the concrete specimens show a similar
prole of strength development, in which the compressive
strength increases with the curing age. However, the inclusion of
untreated RCA noticeably affects the compressive strength of the
concrete. The results indicate that the NR60 concrete prepared
with untreated RCA had a lower compressive strength than the
control concrete across all testing days. Moreover, the NR60

Slump (mm)

65
60
55
50
45

CON

NR60

Specimens
Fig. 6. Slump test results of concrete mixes.

TR60

Fig. 8. Development of compressive strength of concrete mixes with curing age.

Table 5
Compressive strength relative to the CON (control) concrete.
Curing age (days)

CON

NR60

TR60

7
28
90
180

1
1
1
1

0.83
0.86
0.89
0.92

1.03
0.96
0.99
0.98

Table 6
Flexural strength relative to the CON concrete.
Curing age (days)

CON

NR60

TR60

7
28
90
180

1
1
1
1

0.97
0.88
0.90
0.87

0.96
0.91
0.97
0.95

concrete did not achieve the target compressive strength of

50 MPa at the age of 28 days. Table 5 shows that at 7, 28, 90, and
180 days, the strength of the NR60 concrete prepared was 83%,
86%, 89%, and 92% of the control concrete, respectively. However,
the concrete prepared with the treated RCA performed better than
that prepared with the untreated RCA. At 7 days, the strength of
the TR60 concrete was 3% higher than that of the control concrete.
At 28, 90, and 180 days, the compressive strength of the TR60 concrete with treated RCA was 96%, 99%, and 98% of the control concrete, respectively, which are relatively close to the compressive
strength of the control concrete. The strength of the TR60 concrete
reached more than 50 MPa, which is the targeted strength at
28 days.
Table 6 presents the relative exural strength of all concrete
mixtures (expressed as a percentage of that corresponding to the
control concrete) and Fig. 9 plots the development of the exural

S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 726739

Flexural Strength (MPa)

7
6
5
4
CON

NR60

TR60

1
0
0

40

80

120

160

200

Fig. 9. Development of the exural strength of concrete mixes with curing age.

Flexural Strength (MPa)

7
6
5
y = 1.6118x - 6.6086
R = 0.88

3
2
1
0
5.5

6.5

7.5

37.0
36.0
35.0
34.0
33.0
32.0
31.0
30.0
29.0

CON

NR60

TR60

Specimens

Water curing age (Days)

Stac Modulus of Elascity (GPa)

734

8.5

Square root of compressive strength (MPa)

Fig. 10. Relationship between compressive and exural strength.

strength across the curing age. Quite similar trends were also
observed in the compressive strength of concrete whose exural
strength decreases when incorporated with untreated RCA. At 7,
28, 90, and 180 days, the percentage decrease in the exural
strength of the NR60 concrete was 3%, 12%, 10%, and 13%, respectively, compared with the control concrete. However, mixing concrete and treated RCA reduced the decrease in the exural strength
of concrete. The results in Table 6 show that the decrease in the
exural strength of the TR60 concrete was only 4%, 9%, 3%, and
5%, respectively, compared with the control concrete at 7, 28, 90,
and 180 days. These ndings indicate that the exural strength of
the concrete with treated RCA was better than that of the concrete
with untreated RCA. In addition, the data plotted in Fig. 10 indicate
a very good correlation between the compressive strength and
exural splitting strength of all the concrete mixtures, with a correlation coefcient of R-square value = 0.88.
Overall, the results obtained from this investigation showed
that the inclusion of 60% natural coarse aggregate with untreated
RCA in concrete mixtures leads to unfavorable results in terms of
compressive and exural strength. The contributing factors to
these changes include the following: (1) The adhered mortar on
the RCA particle results in the lower quality of RCA relative to natural aggregates. (2) The cracks and loose residual mortar particles
on the surface of the RCA particle obstruct the stronger bonds
between RCA and cement paste, thus creating weak links during
the addition of this kind of aggregate in the concrete phase
[20,28,30]. Meanwhile, the inverse results are observable in the
effects of the incorporation of treated RCA in concrete. Small but
noticeable reductions in the compressive and exural strength of
the concrete are observable compared with the concrete containing untreated RCA. The enhancement of the compressive and exural strength is attributed to the following: (1) The removal of
weak and loose mortar particles on the surface of the RCA by acid
signicantly enhances the physical and mechanical properties of
RCA. Moreover, the improvement in the quality of the surface of

Fig. 11. Static modulus of elasticity of the concrete mixes at 28 days.

RCA produces a stronger surface contact at the interfacial zone

between the cement paste and the RCA, which is important in
reecting the increase in concrete strength. (2) The extent of the
modication of the RCA surface that follows the impregnation of
the RCA with CM solution signicantly decreases the number of
pores and absorptive characteristics of RCA. This result is due to
the coat of CM particles that rells the pores and cracks on the surface of the old mortar of RCA. The low absorption of the RCA and
the presence of the CM particle on their surface reduce the formation of accumulated water lms on the surface of the aggregates,
resulting in a bleeding effect. This bleeding effect creates cracks
along the ITZ between the new cement paste and the aggregate
[66]. (3) The ne CM particles that adhered on the outer RCA surface are dissolved during mixing and are then mainly attributed as
an inert ller material that could modify and rene the pore structure, which results in a dense microstructure particularly at the
interface zone between the aggregate and the cement matrix in
RAC. In addition, the presence of these ne CM particles can provide nucleation sites for the precipitation of hydration products,
thereby increasing the speed of the cement hydration process
[67,68] and promoting the formation of a stronger and denser
cement gel. Consequently, all these effects aids in strengthening
the bond between the aggregate surface and cement matrix,
thereby improving the mechanical strength of the RAC.
5.5. Static modulus of elasticity (E)
The E of the concrete investigated at 28 days is shown in Fig. 11.
This study used the same design of the cement paste for all concrete mixes. However, the effect of E was most likely inuenced
by the inclusion of coarse RCA. The data conrm the results
obtained, namely, the E of the NR60 concrete with untreated coarse
RCA decreased by almost 12% compared with the control concrete.
The reduction in the E of the concrete prepared using RCA compared with that prepared using normal concrete was also observed
by other researchers [58,6971]. The reason behind this phenomenon is that the low values of the E of concrete prepared with RCA
are ascribed to the porosity and low modulus of the coarse RCA
compared with the natural aggregate [71,72]. According to Beshr
et al. [73], the stiffness of the coarse aggregates greatly inuence
the E of concrete. Atcin and Mehta [74] also pointed out that the
low strength of the aggregate may result in a concrete with a lower
E.
The inclusion of treated coarse RCA tends to reduce the
decrease in the E of concrete. The reduction in the E of the TR60
concrete was only approximately 4% compared with that of the
control concrete. The improvement observed in the E of the TR60
concrete may be attributed to the good interface bonds between
the aggregate and cement paste, which helped reduce the propagation of cracks during loading. Kheder and Al-Windawi [70] and Rao

735

S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 726739

Blow 1
Blow 2

Impact Force (N)

1500

Blow 3
Blow 4

1000

Blow 5
Blow 6

500

Blow 7
Blow 8

0
-2

-1

-500

Deecon (mm)

Energy Absorpon (kNmm)

2000

2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00

CON

NR60

TR60

28 days

1.49

1.00

1.25

90 days

1.99

1.25

1.75

180 days

2.29

2.08

2.22

(a)

Fig. 13. The energy absorbed by CON, NR60 and TR60 concrete plates under impact
load.

2000

Impact Force (N)

1500
Blow 1

1000

Blow 2
Blow 3

500

CON

Blow 4
Blow 5

0
-2

-1

NR60

-500

Deformaon (mm)
(b)

2000

TR60
Blow 1

Impact Force (N)

1500

Blow 2
Blow 3

1000

Fig. 14. Crack pattern of CON, NR60 and TR60 specimen.

Blow 4
Blow 5

500

Blow 6

0
-1

-500

Deecon (mm)
(c)

Fig. 12. Impact load versus midspan deection of concrete plates at 28 days: (a)
CON, (b) NR60 and (c) TR60.

et al. [18] agreed that the improvement in the bonds between the
aggregate and the cement paste is an important factor that
increases the E of concrete.
5.6. Impact resistance
The response of the CON, NR60, and TR60 series of concrete to
low-velocity impact loading was investigated at 28, 90, and
180 days. The impact resistance of the concrete plates was determined by measuring the energy absorbed by the fracture of the
specimen, which included the number of blows that caused its ultimate failure. The impact energy was calculated from the area
under the impact loaddeection curve [7578] and was analyzed,
moment by moment, after the steel ball was dropped. Fig. 12
shows an example of the impact load versus the mid-span,

deectionrelation curve of the specimens at 28 days. The graph

shows that the curve produced a peak line, thus indicating highimpact force loading once the steel ball hit the plates. The plates
continued to vibrate with small waves because some of the stored
energy that was released caused the steel ball to rebound. Notably,
the specimens were prepared in plain concrete. Thus, the ultimate
failure on most of the concrete plates occurred simultaneously
once the rst visible crack formed during experimentation.
The energy absorbed by the CON, NR60, and TR60 concrete
plates under impact load are also shown in Fig. 13. The results
show that, among all the concrete specimens, the CON concrete
demonstrated the highest impact resistance of 1.49, 1.99, and
2.29 kN mm at the testing ages of 28, 90, and 180 days, respectively. However, the impact resistance of the concrete specimens
with untreated, coarse recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) was
lower. For example, the NR60 concrete exhibited an impact resistance of 67%, 63%, and 91% at 28, 90, and 180 days, respectively,
compared with the CON concrete. The results conrmed that the
stiffness of the material is signicantly related to the impact resistance of concrete [58,77] because coarse aggregates are considered
as dominant constituents of materials during the formation of the
nal concrete structure. As discussed in previous sections, the
impact value of coarse RCA is less than that of coarse natural aggregates. Thus, coarse RCA contributes to reducing the mechanical
strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete. In addition, the
weak interface between the aggregates and the cement paste

736

S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 726739

may contribute to fracture propagation in the concrete [58]. By

contrast, the resistance of concrete to crack propagation under an
impact force is enhanced, as indicated in the TR60 concrete
specimens. Although the energy absorption of the TR60 concrete
specimens remained lower than that of the CON concrete specimens at all testing ages, the former exhibited an increment in their
fracture energy compared with the NR60 concrete specimens. This
phenomenon could be attributed to the improvement of the properties of coarse RCA and the modication that strengthened the
interface between the aggregatepaste bond as a result of surface
treatment.
An examination of the surface cracks of the specimens subjected to repeated impact loads (Fig. 14) showed that the crack
path patterns are more tortuous in the CON concrete. The stiffness
of gravel with high stress capability prevented crack propagation.
Hence, cracks failed to deviate from the interface of the particle
and the matrix (see Fig. 15a). By contrast, the failure crack path
pattern was even in the case of the NR60 concrete (Fig. 14),
whereas the crack ruptured a few grains of coarse RCA and the

interfaces (Fig. 15b). Similar crack patterns were observed in the

TR60 specimens (Figs. 14 and 15c). However, the improvement in
the aggregate matrix bond and the inclusion of the treated coarse
RCA in the TR60 specimens decreased the fracture energy of the
concrete because of the effect of aggregates with low stiffness
and quality.
In this study, the effects of including untreated and treated
coarse RCAs exhibited a similar behavior in inuencing the static
exural load and impact load resistance (energy absorption) of
concrete. Fig. 16 shows the linear relationship between these two
parameters, which presents a strong correlation (R2 = 0.82).
5.7. UPV results
The correlation between the compressive strength of all the
concrete mixtures produced by the propagation of UPV transmitted through the concrete is shown in Fig. 17. All the concrete specimens showed very good correlation between the two variables as
the R-square value of the CON, NR60, and TR60 concrete achieved

Crack failure at
interface
Adhered mortar

Original aggregate

Crack failure at adhered

mortar of RCA

Crack failure at
interface

(a)

(b)

Adhered mortar

Original aggregate

Crack failure at adhered

mortar of RCA

(c)
Fig. 15. Failure surfaces of: (a) CON, (b) NR60 and (c) TR60.

S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 726739

6.50
y = 1.0268x + 3.7457
R = 0.8223

Flexural Load (MPa)

6.00
5.50
5.00
4.50
4.00
0.70

1.20

1.70

2.20

2.70

Energy Absorpon (kNmm)

Fig. 16. Relationship between static exural strength and impact energy.

Compressive Strength (MPa)

65
60

y = 0.6679e 0.9485x
R = 0.97

55
50

y = 0.115e1.2824x
R = 0.97

45
40

CON

y = 0.1828e 1.208x
R = 0.90

35

NR60
TR60

30
25
20
4.40

4.50

4.60

4.70

4.80

4.90

5.00

737

vulnerabilities to corrosion and deterioration of the reinforcement

bar, particularly in structural concrete applications. Specifying the
dry shrinkage of concrete in long-term performance is highly
required. The Australian Standard (AS 3600 Concrete Structures)
has recommended that the nominal shrinkage limit of concrete at
56 days should not exceed 700 microstrains [79]. Fig. 18 presents
the typical variations of shrinkage development with respect to
time for all concrete mixes. From the test results, we observed that
the dry shrinkage values of all specimen, which were measured up
to 180 days overall, invariably fell below 500 microstrains. From
the results during the early ages up to 28 days, the drying
shrinkage behavior of all three concretes mixes were observed to
approximate one another and exhibit an extremely steep development. After 28 days, however, different drying shrinkage values
became clearer. In particular, NR60 concrete exhibited a high
shrinkage value compared with the control concrete. When the
shrinkage strain after 180 days of drying was considered, the
results showed that the drying shrinkage magnitude of the NR60
concrete was 26% higher than that of the control concrete. The high
shrinkage strain of the NR60 concrete was likely related to the poor
quality and low stiffness of untreated, coarse RCA, which is affected
in the long run. The volume and stiffness of the aggregates are considered as important factors that prevent the shrinkage of concrete
[80]. However, enhancing the quality of treated RCA after surface
treatment positively affected and slowed down drying shrinkage
stress.
6. Conclusion

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (km/s)

According to the results acquired throughout the experiment,
the effects of surface treatment on RCA properties and on the
mechanical strength of concrete can be summarized as follows:

Fig. 17. Relationship between compressive strength and UPV.

Drying Shrinkage (Micro Strain)

600
500
400
300
CON

200

NR60
TR60

100
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

Drying Time (Days)

Fig. 18. Drying shrinkage of concrete mixtures versus drying time.

0.97, 0.90, and 0.97, respectively. Among the concrete specimens,

the control concrete demonstrated higher UPV values. The UPV
values of the concrete mixtures with untreated RCA were the lowest. By contrast, the UPV values gained by the TR60 concrete were
slightly higher than those of the NR60 concrete. This nding can
also be attributed to the improvement of RCA properties, which
affect the CM particles, thus improving the microstructure of ITZ
and enhancing the bond strength between the new cement paste
and the RA.
5.8. Drying shrinkage
The change in volume of the concrete due to shrinkage can
result in the cracking of the concrete, thereby exposing

1. The combination of the two methods in the surface treatment of

RCA leads to different effects on the enhancement of RCA properties after the crushing process. The rst treatment used a low
concentration of acid treatments, which effectively removed a
certain portion of the weak cement mortar and loose substances
from the RCA surface, thereby signicantly improving the physical and mechanical properties of RCA. The next treatment was
the impregnation of RCA with a CM solution to rell the pores
on the remaining bulk mortar adhering on the RCA, thus potentially reducing the porosity of RCA.
2. The chemical test determining the total chloride and sulfate
contents of the treated RCA after treatment with acid is safe
to use in normal reinforced concrete, where the extract results
indicate that the chloride and sulfate contents are within the
limits of the respective standards. However, the XRF analysis
showed that the level of the contaminant chloride ions is higher
in treated RCA compared with that in untreated RCA, but the
difference is not more than 1%.
3. The decrease in the compressive and exural strength of concrete containing untreated RCA is lower than that in concrete
with natural aggregates at all testing dates. Moreover, the concrete containing untreated RCA did not achieve the target compressive strength of 50 MPa at 28 days of curing.
4. The concrete prepared with the treated RCA performs better
than that prepared with the untreated RCA. The inclusion of
treated RCA compensates for the reduction of the decrease in
the compressive and exural strength, and E of concrete.
5. The improvement in the mechanical strength of concrete containing treated RCA compared with concrete containing
untreated RCA is attributable to the surface treatment, which
improves the structure of the ITZ around the RCA, resulting in
an improved surface contact and bond strength between the
cement matrix and the aggregate.

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S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 68 (2014) 726739

6. The drying shrinkage values of concrete mixtures with treated

coarse RCA were lower than those of concrete mixtures with
untreated coarse RCA.
7. According to the overall results, the surface treatment method
proposed in this present work is considered to be a reliable
new technique that can minimize the adverse effect related to
the inherent low quality of RCA products. The signicant
improvement in the use of treated RCA, as demonstrated in this
study, enables its application in structural and non-structural
concrete with less detriment to concrete performance. For
safety purposes and to avoid corrosion caused by chloride, however, the treated RCA can alternatively be applied in structural
concretes designed with noncorrosive reinforcement materials,
such as those that use ber-reinforced polymer (FRP), for structural reinforcement. Despite this treatment method having a
multi-step process, the method does not require complicated
mechanical equipment and high energy consumption. Hence,
this treatment process is considered cost-effective and benecial in providing an alternative method to encourage the application of RCA in large-scale concrete production and in ensuring
a feasible method to achieve sustainability in the construction
industry.

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