Topic 5: Global Positing

System

Aims
-Describe the development of the GPS and the impact it has on site
-Explain how GPS can be used to take code and phase measurements to
determine position and be able to explain the difference between these
-Identify the various sources of error in GPS and explain how each of these
affects the accuracy obtained
-Understanding the reasons why differential and relative methods are essential for
high precision surveying with GPS
-Outline the methods involved when performing static and kinematic surveys with
GPS
-Distinguish between the different types of GPS receivers and systems currently
available and be able to find further information to help choose one of these for
engineering surveys
-Identify the main applications for GPS in civil engineering and surveying

Components of GPS
GPS consists of three segments
-Space segment: satellites orbiting the Earth
-User segment: anybody that receives and uses a GPS signal
-Control segment: stations positioned around the Earth to control the satellites

GPS positioning methods

Code ranging: is the simplest form of GPS positioning and is carried out with a
single receiver. To determine the distance to each satellite by code ranging, a
receiver measures the time taken by the C/A code to travel from a satellite to the
receiver and then calculates the distance or range between the two.

Carrier phase measurements: are capable of determining highly accurate

distances, and therefore positions, with accuracies of between 10-50mm.

GPS coordinates have a degree of uncertainty associated with them and all
accuracies are quoted with a 95% probablity.

- GPS receivers that use codes only are not very expensive but not very accurate.
Receivers that use codes and carrier phase measurements are very expensive
but very accurate. Both are used in surveying but it depends on the accuracies
required.
-All measurements with GPS require that at least four satellites are tracked
simultaneously in order to be able to compute a 3D position

Errors in GPS
-Although GPS surveys do not require any observations or readings to be taken in
the same way as other surveys, the results they produce are still subject to errors
and it is important to know what these are, what their possible magnitudes are
and how to control them
-The worst sources of error in GPS are ionospheric and tropospheric delays, and
these are compensated for by mathematical modelling. This area of GPS
surveying is subject to much research at present.
-For most GPS surveys, it is recommended that no satellites with an elevation of
less than 10-15above the horizon are used, because the signals from these
experience very larger ionospheric and tropospheric delays

- another serious source of error is poor satellite geometry resulting in a high

dilution of position. Unlike ionospheric and tropospheric delays, this is a sitedependent error and can be controlled by choosing appropriate times to take
measurements.
Differential and relative GPS
Differential GPS (DGPS) is the name given to methods that are usually applied to
code measurements only. Compared to conventional point positioning, DGPS has
an accuracy of about 0.5-5m, depending on the receiver and antenna used and
how corrections are transmitted to each rover.

Surveying with GPS

Static
Although there are several methods that can be used for surveying on site with
GPS, the DGPS and augmentation systems are only used in engineering surveys
for small-scale mapping.
Static surveying was the first high precision method developed for GPS and is the
standard GPS method for determining the length of baselines that are longer
20km.
Using this method, the reference receiver is located at a known control point and
a rover that is set up at a point whose location us to be determined.

Both receivers are normally tri-pod mounted.

The receivers are placed at the control point, the duration that the GPS receiver is
left for 30mins it will result in an accuracy of 100mm, 1hour, 20mm

Rapid static
GPS is now the preferred method for control surveys on large construction sites.
For these surveys, the static method previously described but the GPS receiver
needs to be left for shorter occupation times of 10-30mins.
The reference receiver is located at a known point and the rover (or rovers)
occupy the unknown points. Because observation sessions are short, good
communication between the operators at the reference and rovers is required.
This method relies on a faster ambiguity resolution approach, and to achieve this
dual-frequency receivers must be used together with special post-processing
software. Baselines should not be longer than 10-20km, the shorter the baseline
the better.

Kinematic surveys
Kinematic GPS is used when a lot of points are to be surveyed in a relatively
small area and where the accuracy required is not as high for static surveys.
These include detail surveying (mapping) and construction measurements.

As for all high precision surveying with GPS, kinematic methods require a
reference receiver to be located at a known position, but in this case, instead of
remaining stationary, the rover is moved around the site recording position at
discrete points or whilst the rover is continuously moving.

At the start of a kinematic survey, the rover has to perform an initialisation in order
to resolve ambiguities. To do this a method known as kinematic on-the fly has
been developed and is performed while the rover is moving.

During a post-processed kinematic survey, all the data collected by the reference
and roving receivers is stored in a handheld computer, a controller or onboard
receiver and then transferred to a host computer after fieldwork has been
completed.

The problems with post-processed results not being available on site are
overcome by using a real-time kinematic (or simply RTK) GPS surveying system.
As with surveying methods, RTK surveying requires two receivers to operate at
the time and the reference receiver is again located at a known point.

Kinematic GPS can be carried out by walking with the antenna mounted on a
back-pack or by mounting it on a vehicle and with data collect

RFK surveying is the preferred method for all survey work with GPS on site,
mainly because all the results obtained with it are real-time and no postprocessing is required. This means that measurements taken for a detailed or
other dimensional survey can be checked, verified and edited on site, this means
it can be used for setting out.

GPS instrumentation
Mapping receivers

High-precision geodetic dual-frequency receivers

The category of GPS receiver that is required for nearly all work in surveying on
construction sites is a high-precision geodetic dual-frequency receiver (sometime
called survey grade receiver). These use precise relative methods for determining
position are capable of performing static and RTK surveys with accuracies at the
cm level.

A feature that is increasingly being incorporated into geodetic receivers is

Bluetooth technology. This enables portable equipment such as computers,
mobile and other electronic devices to communicate with each other without using
cables. When they are within range of each other (about 10 m), Bluetooth
devices will detect each other and establish contact if they are programmed to
communicate then established between them for data transfer.

GPS in engineering surveying

Throughout the early years of GPS, it was only used in surveying for establishing
the positions of points in control networks covering large areas and even
continents, and often only for research purposes.
Today, the situation has changed completely and satellite positioning systems are
now used extensively in surveying and on site for an increasing number of
applications.
Where the different methods of surveying with GPS in a construction and
engineering environment are identified.
For all of these, the basic principles of surveying remain the same as for those
used with total stations and other equipment a control network is put in place
first from which other measurements are taken.
The most important question to be asked by anyone proposing to use GPS is
whether it is the most appropriate method for their site. It may be useful to contact
some sites that are currently using GPS to ask how it compares to total stations
and other well-established methods of surveying.

It is worth noting that GPS is not as accurate as total stations, theodolites and
levels for measurements that are taken over relatively short distances and when
features such as structural grids and lines are set out.
This, plus the fact that GPS equipment is more expensive than conventional
surveying equipment, may put GPS at a disadvantage for work requiring a high
accuracy of less then 10 mm on construction sites.
However, compared to total stations, GPS has the advantages that it only requires
a single operator to use it although some total stations are single-operator.
Having decided to use GPS, it is recommended that each of the following are
considered when choosing the equipment that will be used:
-For all engineering and construction work, carrier phase geodetic receivers are
essential, as these will provide the best possible accuracy for measuring and
setting out. These are the most expensive type of GPS receiver and some of their
specifications have already been discussed in the previous section.
-Precise relative positioning must be used, again to provide the best possible
accuracy. This requires base stations to be established, possibly with repeaters
on those sites where radio reception is difficult. Access to a mobile phone network
may also be required.

- When results are post-processed, a suitable computer must be available that

can run suitable software and that can also store the large amounts of data
generated by GPS surveys.
-For some sites where the use of GPS is only occasional, it maybe more costeffective to hire the equipment required rather than purchase it or even contract
out the GPS surveying altogether to a specialist company.
-The issue of training with GPS is very important. If staff who are expected use to
the equipment have little or no experience of GPS, training will have to be
provided. If any results are to be post-processed, tuition in the use of the software
for this will also have to be provided.
-As well as training, it is advisable to find out what technical support is offered by
a manufacturer to assist with any problems that may be encountered after making
a purchase.
- Finally in this section, it is obvious that GPS technology is developing at a fast
pace will the equipment being purchased become out of date quickly or will it
capable of using the extra signals proposed for GPS and the satellite coverage
planned for GLONASS and Galileo?

GPS combined with a total station

A logical progression in the development of GPS and total stations is to integrate
these into one instrument. The Leica SmartStation shown in below combines their
GPS SmartAntenna (an antenna and receiver mounted in a single housing) with
their TPS 1200 total station.
When the SmartStation is used for GPS measurements, the SmartAntenna is
connected to the top of the TPS 1200 together with an RTK communications
device.

When detail surveying with the SmartStation, it is not necessary to set it up over a
control point; it can simply be set up anywhere convenient for taking
measurements.
The position of the point occupied is then determined to centimetre accuracy
using GPS with reference to a base station.
Having determined the coordinates of the SmartStation, a second unknown point
is sighted. The coordinates of this second point are not determined at this time but
the total station is orientated to it and measurements are taken to the required
points of detail.
Following this, the SmartStation is set up at the second point and its position is
now determined once again using the integrated GPS SmartAntenna.
Since the coordinates of both points are now known, the correct bearing between
them is determined by the SmartStation, which then re-computes the coordinates
of all the detail surveyed from the first point using the correct bearing.

To continue measurements, the SmartStation now works as a total station and

is orientated by sighting the first point occupied.
When a detail survey is carried out conventionally, traversing or GPS might be
used to determine the positions of a series of control points on site from which
further observations would be taken to locate detail.
This requires two separate surveys but by integrating GPS with a total station,
a survey could be completed in one operation with one instrument resulting in a
saving in time.
In addition, given that GPS must be used to fix the position of at least two
points, the technique allows a total station to be used where GPS signal
reception can be unreliable (for example near to vegetation and in built-up
areas).
Ideally, a check should be carried out on any detail survey carried out with the
SmartStation by coordinating a known position with the TPS 1200 or by
measuring the distance between the two points with the TPS 1200 and by
comparing this with that obtained from their known coordinates.

When setting out with the SmartStation, it is again set up wherever convenient
and coordinates are determined at this point using RTK GPS.
The instrument is then moved to a second unknown point and the coordinates
of this are also determined. By using the first point for orientation, setting out
can then be performed with the TPS 1200.
In this case, fixing the position of the SmartStation with GPS is rather like using
a free station point, but without the need for any control to be sighted or
occupied.
This can have advantages when site control points become damaged or
obstructed and cannot be used. Again, if GPS signal reception is intermittent or
unreliable on site but can be used to fix the two set up points, it allows setting
out to continue with a total station, without the need for control points