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1.

INTRODUCTION

All living organisms make copies of themselves. This is process of reproduction.

Reproduction is important for the survival off all living organisms. Reproduction is also
important in maintaining continuity of organisms. Without a mechanism for reproduction,
life would come to end. There are two types of reproduction for living organisms. They
are asexual and sexual reproduction.
1.1

SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction involves the joining of a male and a female sex cell. Fertilization
happens when male and female sex cell are physically joined together. Fertilization that
happens inside a females body is called the internal fertilization. Fertilization that
happens outside a females body is called the external fertilization. Organisms that
reproduce sexually are human beings, mammals, reptiles, fish, birds, insects and some
flowering plants.
Asexual reproduction does not involve the fusion of male and female sex cells. In sexual
reproduction, a simple cell is divided by itself to reproduce an exact duplicate of an
organisms. Examples of asexual reproduction in animals include fission, sporeformation, budding and rejuvenation(regeneration). Organisms that reproduce asexually
are paramecium, hydra, planarian, amoeba, starfish and some flowering and nonflowering plants.
1.2

FIVE EXAMPLES OF ORGANISMS REPRODUCE THROUGH SEXUAL

Animals reproduce so that their races do not die out. Animals reproduce by sexually will
laying eggs or giving birth.
1.2.1 Fish
Fish reproduce in a number of different ways. In most fish species, the female lays
hundreds of small eggs, which the male fertilizes by releasing his sperm in the water
nearby. Some species of fish defend their young by building nests to lay their eggs in,
whilst other species keep their offspring in their mouths until they are old enough to take
care of themselves.
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The water provides the developing eggs with dissolved oxygen and nutrients, although
the chances of each fertilized egg surviving to adulthood are very low as they can fall
prey to predators or be destroyed by currents and tides. In most species of fish, larvae
hatch from the eggs and develop their skeleton, fins and organs as they mature. Fish
eat plankton, seaweeds and many tiny plant.
1.2.2 Frog
The frog is an amphibian. Adult frogs are characterized by long hind legs, a short body,
webbed digits, protruding eyes and the absence of a tail. Most frogs have a semiaquatic lifestyle, but move easily on land by jumping or climbing. They typically lay their
eggs in puddles, ponds or lakes, and their larvae, called tadpoles, have gills and
develop in water. Adult frogs follow a carnivorous diet, mostly of arthropods, annelids
and gastropods. Frogs are most noticeable by their call, which can be widely heard
during the night or day, mainly in their mating season.

Once adult frogs reach maturity, they will assemble at a water source such as a pond or
stream to breed. Many frogs return to the bodies of water where they were born, often
resulting in annual migrations involving thousands of frogs. Frog reproduce by laying
eggs in the water. External fertilization occurs when the eggs and sperm meet outside of
the body. The female releases her eggs, which the male frog covers with a sperm
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solution. The eggs then swell and develop a protective coating. The eggs are typically
brown or black, with a clear, gelatin-like covering.
1.2.3 Bird
A birds are group of vertebrate animal. Bird bone would be minor and hollow in most
local to reduce density and weight. All birds have beak but in different design and size.
Most bird can flight, have feather except little that lacking feather. Main features bird are
body concealed by feather, have beak and two wing, have scale to his feet., lay eggs
protected by hard shell, breathing through lung and warm-blooded.

Although most bird can fly, several species cannot fly such as ostrich, rea, emu, kiwi
and penguin. All bird have wing although on the bird that could not fly, though it may be
small and useless. All bird reproduce asexually by laying eggs. Female bird will
brooding of eggs, sometimes pair second tense will be alternate, and some species of
the bird only male bird will incubate stated egg. There were also a species of birds that
lay egg in different bird nest to be incubated by an adopt family of the bird. The food for
bird might include seeds, peanut, worm and insects. Additionally, a bird bath and grit, a
sand-like substance, that birds store in their crops to help grind food as an aid to
digestion, can be provided. Feeding bird in the park is also a popular activity.
1.2.4 Butterfly
A butterfly is an insect of order lepidoptera. Once mated a process occurs which is the
fertilisation of the females eggs. Then she is ready to lay eggs. A butterfly begin it life as
an egg. When the egg hatches, out comes a very hungry caterpillar. The caterpillar its
egg shell. Next it looks for leaves to eat. The caterpillar eats and eats until it gets too big
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for its skin. The caterpillars skin splits open and there is a new skin underneath. This
splitting is called molting.

Usually the caterpillar will attach to a branch or a leaf. The pupa looks very still, but
changes are going on inside. Slowly, it turns into a pupa. As the caterpillar turns into
pupa, it forms a hard shell. The shell is called a chrysalis. Then after a long time, come
out a butterfly. Butterflies get food. Butterflies fly from flower to flower to get nectar.
Then the cycle begins again. This cycle called metamorphosis.
1.2.5 Chicken
Hens do not need to mate to lay eggs. Hens begin laying at about 20 weeks of age.
Fertilization of a hens egg takes place while the egg is still inside the hen. At the time of
fertilization, the egg has no shell and it consists of just the yolk. As the fertilization egg
travels down a tube (called oviduct) inside the hens body, albumen (egg white) is added
around the yolk. This followed by shell membranes (thin layers of eggshell lining).
Finally the egg shell is added about a day before the egg is laid; shell formation takes
at least 20 hours.

The egg is laid singly and needs to be incubated (about 40C) in order to hatch. The
mother hen incubates by sitting on them. After 3 weeks, only eggs that have been

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fertilized by mating produce chicks. These processes take about three months
altogether to complete one life cycle of a butterfly.
1.3

FIVE EXAMPLES OF ORGANISMS THAT REPRODUCE ASEXUALY

1.3.1 Hydra
Hydra is small-bodied freshwater polyps with a tube-like body and a mouth surrounded
by tentacles. The hydra's simple tubular body with its crown of tentacle.

Hydras reproduce by budding that involves protoplasmic outgrowth containing a nucleus

projecting from the side of the parent cell. This outgrowth will develop and grow to form
a new bud. A wall will be formed between the parent and the buds and this causes the
mature buds to detach from the parent cell. The detached bud will grow again as new
individuals. Hydra eat one celled animals, small crustaceans, worms, insects and other
tiny animals. They are also reported to eat small fish fry in the aquarium, where they do
occasionally show up.
1.3.2 Amoeba
An amoebas reproduce asexually by a process called "binary fission" (splitting) and by
formation spores to produce two daughter amoebas. The daughter cells produced will
develop and have the same characteristics as their parent organisms. Binary fission
take place in favourable conditions and sufficient food supply by mitotic division of
single parent cell. Amoebas eat algae, bacteria, plant cells, and microscopic protozoa
and metazoa - some amoebas are parasites. They eat by surrounding tiny particles of
food with pseudopods, forming a bubble-like food vacuole. The food vacuole digests the
food. Wastes and excess water are transported outside the cell by contractile vacuoles.
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Formation of spores take place when the conditions are dry and there is sufficient food.
The spores germinate into amoeba again under favourable environmental conditions.
1.3.3 Planarian
Planarians reproduce by a process called rejuvenation(regeneration). Rejuvenation is
one of the methods of asexual reproduction in lower or less evolved animals.
Rejuvenation is the replacement or regrowth of missing or injured body parts. The
injured part will grow again through cell divisions into a new organism or an individual. If
a planarian is cut horizontally, the head will grow a new tail and the tail section will grow
a new head. A planarian that is damaged or cut into several pieces may grow into many
new organisms.

Planarians are free-living, primarily carnivorous with a three-branched digestive cavity.

Planarians may eat other living, as well as dead, invertebrates, detritus or decaying
organic matter, and some prefer diatoms.
1.3.4 Bacteria
Bacteria reproduce by a way of asexual reproduction called binary fission. In one
bacterium, the single circular chromosome duplicates. Then, the two resulting
chromosomes attach to the inside of the plasma membrane. The cell elongates and
separates into two strands. Finally, the cell membrane grows inward, the cell wall forms
separating two daughter cells each with a chromosome.
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Bacteria also reproduce with the exchange of DNA. When bacteria exchange DNA, it
has a similar effect to sexual reproduction, in that, there is a blending of genes between
two organisms. There are three was in which bacteria exchange DNA.
1. Conjugation male cell passes DNA to female cell by means of a conjugation
tube (sex pilus).
2. Transformation bacterium takes up DNA released by dead bacteria.
3. Transduction bacteriophages carry DNA from one cell to another.
Bacteria do not have a mouth. They make proteins called enzymes inside the cell and
these travel thru the cell wall into the surrounding medium. The enzymes chop the food
into tiny subunits which then come into the bacteria cell by osmosis or active transport.
Active transport is the process by which the cell grabs a molecule of glucose or other
food and pulls it in thru the cell wall. Many specialized proteins and other molecules
made by the bacterium are involved in this active transport process.
1.3.5 Paramecium
Reproduction in paramecium is more complex. Under favourable environmental
conditions, a paramecium reproduces asexually by binary fission. The paramecium has
two nuclei, a big and small one. The big one operates as the director of the cell's
activities, rather like a little brain. The smaller one is used for reproduction. The
paramecium splits in half (fission) just as the ameba does. First the smaller nucleus
splits in half and each half goes to either end of the paramecium. Then the bigger
nucleus splits and the whole paramecium splits. Under unfavourable environmental
conditions, two paramecium exchange material and form a new paramecium. This is
called conjugation.

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Paramecium eat bacteria and small particles. As food particles move down the gullet,
they are collected in small cavities called food vacuoles. As one food vacuole becomes
filled, it moves to another part of the cell and is replaced at the end of the gullet by a
new, empty vacuole. The liquid wastes from inside the cell are thought to be voided by
the contractile vacuole as it fills with liquid and empties to the outside at frequent
intervals.
1.4

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Many plants can make new plants from a small piece that has broken off, such as a twig
or stem. This is useful if the plant has been damaged by animal or by strong winds. It is
also useful to gardeners because it means that they can take cutting which grow into
new plants. The plants grown from cutting will exactly the same as the parent plant.
Flowers are the reproductive structures produced by plants which belong to the group
known as Angiosperms, or 'Flowering Plants'.
1.5

FLOWER FROM MY NEIGHBOURHOOD AREA

1.6

THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURES OF THE FLOWER

The flower is the reproductive unit of some plants (angiosperms). Parts of the Flower
include petals, sepals, one or more carpels (the female reproductive Organs), and
stamens (the male reproductive organs).
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The following table shows parts, structures and functions of a flower.

Parts of flower
Sepal

structure
Functions
Convoluted part of flower that - Protects other parts of the flower

Petal

sticks out and is generally green. at bud stage.

Parts of flower that is brightly - Draws attention of insects and
coloured and scented.

animals.
- Protect soft stamen and pistil at

Pedicel (stalk)
Receptacle

Joins flower to stem of plant.

the early stage of development.

- Supports and holds up flower to

Swollen end of flower stalk.

facilitate pollination.
- Supports ovary.

The Female Reproductive Organs

The female parts of a flower (pistil) consist of an ovary, which contains one or more
ovules, a style and the stigma.
Parts of the
flower
Style
Ovary
Stigma
Ovule

Structure

Functions

Joins stigma and ovary.

- Supports stigma so that fertilization can

Sac filled with ovules

Tip of pistil that sticky.
Found in the ovary.

take place.
- Protects ovules.
- Accepts pollens.
- Has female reproductive cells.

The Male Reproductive Organs.

The male parts of a flower consist of one or more stamens which contain anther and
filament.
Parts of flower
Anther
Filament
1.7

Structure
Has pollen sacs.
A fine tube-like structure.

Functions
- Produces pollen grains.
- Supports anther.

SKECTH THE STRUCTURES OF THE FLOWER WHICH CONSIST OF MALE

AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS.

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1.8 HOW POLINATION OCCURS.

Pollination is process of transferring the pollen from the male organ of the flower to the
female organ of the same or a different flower. The process of pollination takes place in
two ways. Cross-pollination: pollen grains are transferred from one anther to the
stigma of another plant but of the same species. Self-pollination: pollen grains are
transferred from one anther to the stigma of the same flower or another flower of the
same plant. Pollination can be accomplished by the wind or by animals. Insects are the
most common animals that will pollinate a carpel. Flowers may have both reproductive
organs i.e the pistil and stamen. Hibiscus is a bisexual plant, so that self-pollination in
hibiscus flower occurs.

Self-pollination for hibiscus flower

1.9

HOW TO RECYCLE METAL AND NON METAL

Metal and non-metal have several different characteristics. Metal are good conductors
of heat and electricity while non-metal are poor conductors of heat and electricity. The
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surface of the metal is typically shiny but the surface of the non metals is typically dull.
Metal also have high density and easily melt at high temperatures while non metals
have low density and only melt at low temperatures. Metal are ductile and malleable so
their shape can be easily changed into thin wires or sheets. Metal will corrode, gradually
wearing away like rusting iron. The shape of non metal cannot be changed easily as
they tend to be brittle and will break.
Metal is usually separated into two groups, aluminium and steel. We can test which
metal by using a magnet. Aluminium metal is non magnetic whereas stell is magnetic.
Drink cans are usually made from aluminium and food cans usually made from steel.
Most home recycling bins, provided by local council, accept metal. Recycling means
using things that we have already been used to make new things. It also includes
reusing things as they are, and giving things you no longer need for other people to
used. There are three key factors when thinking about how to recycle 3Rs.

Recycling can sometimes be confusing and it can be difficult to know whether you are
following the right rules. A large percentage of households still do not recycle enough
and throw everything that they consider rubbish into their ordinary bin. Much of this
waste can be recycled and should be disposed of separately to general waste. Look
inside this rubbish bin to see how much of the contents should actually have been
recycled. Check our list to see how to recycle different materials.

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Asbestos is a building insulation material used before the 1970s. There are 3 types
white, blue and brown. Removal of asbestos can disturb the fibres of which it is made;
these fibres can be harmful if they are breathed in. Use a facemask and gloves when
handling asbestos. Keep asbestos damp and contained in a plastic bag when
transporting, this will reduce airborne fibres. Some councils will accept asbestos at their
household waste recycling centres. Contact your local council for further advice on the
removal of asbestos.
All waste batteries are classified as hazardous waste and recycling is always the best
option. Ordinary household batteries do contain some hazardous chemicals so ideally
should not be thrown out with the day to day rubbish. Rechargeable batteries contain
harmful metals, so should never be thrown away with daily rubbish, they should be
returned to manufacturer for disposal or recycled elsewhere. Local councils or garages
sometimes offer battery-recycling services. Contact your local council to see if they are
running a battery collection scheme. Contact the battery manufacturer for further
recycling advice. Ordinary batteries require a lot of energy to make, so in order to save
energy, use rechargeable batteries and electricity mains instead of ordinary batteries.
Rechargable batteries are the most environmentally friendly option as can last for up to
several hundred charging cycles resulting in less waste being produced.
Newspapers, office paper, printer paper, magazines, brochures are some of the things
that can be recycled. Collect these items and, whenever possible, try to separate them
according to their grade. Plastic is abundance of plastic that we can recycle. Everything
from drink containers, detergent bottles, food wrappings, ice cream boxes and others
are recyclable. Whenever we buy new electrical equipment, or sometimes furniture, we
usually get them in these cardboard boxes that no one seems to know what to do with
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other than throw away. Why not recycle them instead? Jam containers and certain food
items are still packed in bottles. Recycle these bottles or reuse them to store other food
items. Clothing Old clothing can be reused or donated to the needy. This way, you
reduce landfill space, and you give the less fortunate something nice.
The easiest thing to do is to separate your waste. Put the recyclables in one bin and
other wastes in another. Your recyclables can then be separated further according to
their categories. Make sure you clean them properly before handing it out to the
relevant collectors. Instead of throwing them away, try to reuse as much of your old
things as possible. Mineral water bottles can be used to store water, or cut in half and
used as pots. Your old curtains can be cut and used as rags, or donated to charity. Stop
buying items that are packaged in non-recyclable materials. You might even want to
start buying in bulk and use containers to keep your things fresh. Buying in bulk not only
reduces the need for unnecessary packaging, but it helps you save money as well.
1.10

WAYS TO MANAGE USED METAL AND NON METAL THAT ARE TOXIC AND

DANGEROUS TO HUMAN HEALTH.

Chemical factories produce toxic waste such as acids, alkalis, nitrates, phosphates and
toxic metal such as mercury, lead and aluminium. The disposal of toxic waste into the
rivers and seas will pollute our water supply and destroy aquatic life. Improper disposal
of toxic waste will give negative impacts because it waste are dangerous and may
cause death or mutation. Toxic waste must be disposed of by placing the waste in
concrete containers lined with lead. These containers are then buried in the ground far
away from settlements or dumped onto the seabed. The excessive use of phosphate
and nitrate fertilizers can cause these chemicals to seep through the river and lakes.
These will encourage the growth of algae and weed in the lakes.
There is no doubt that metal material instead of this metal produce toxin and this give
impact to health and human life and animal. Therefore specific measures must take so
this problem get overcome that toxin revenue pollution not affect environmental health.
Is proposed the government to build toxic waste disposal centre which high and
sophisticated technology. Through this disposal centre, all toxic waste can be managed
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nicely and effectively. These centres constructed nearby, and the strategy and suitable
location to avoid the pollution that can impact to the public health.
The Public should also give awareness and understanding how important the toxic
waste material management to health especially how to use a substance that can cause
toxic such as battery that contain chemical. Plastic material combustion will produce
smoke and bad smell. Consumer should also expose that there is metal material part
instead of this metal can be recycled and use repeatedly.
The Government of environment in the Ministry of Science Technology is responsible for
protecting the environment from disposal toxic waste. The Government should ensure
revenue stated garbage dump sent to waste disposal centre toxic waste.
Undeniably is need greater toxic disposal centre built in national by using processing
cost rate minimum and reasonable. May be difficulty of obtaining well-placed supply
disposal centre toxic this because local concern but if discussion and information
continuously are given by strategy, no problem could not be prevailed.
1.11

THE MALAYSIAN GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY HAVE JOINED HAND TO

ORGANIZE PROJECT TO RECYCLE AND MANAGE USED MATERIALS.

To tackle this problem, the government through side local authority and also side nongovernmental as Pencinta Alam Malaysia together side by side carry out range of
activities to enlighten public of material management recycling.
The activity that carried out such as campaign remove material follow example type of
waste it glass, paper and plastic. The authorities also provide special barrels follow type
of waste to facilitate separation process. Apart from that side not participate government
and government hold the exhibition over recycling in shopping centres and programme
which involves the public. We can also distribute pamphlets about recycling to the public
pitch in held to enlighten how environmental pollution to be disturbing our health. From
the activities that carried out hoped that the people concern necessary we save
environment.
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1.5.4 THE PROPOSAL FOR RECYCLE CENTER IN MY NEIGHBOURHOOD.

Name of the neigbourhood

: Taman Seri Sungai Pelek

Objectives of the project

1. Reduce metal and non metal in this area.
2. Increase the communities awareness about the important of recycling metal and
non metal.
3. To show the people that metal and metal product can produce other new product.
4. To reduce total wastage in park.
Significance of the project
1. Will provide education for the community the dangerous household and danger
pollution.
2. Avoid and reduce happen pollution in the vicinity and those of the
neighbouring.
3. Ensure uninterrupted water supply holy and clean beverages.
4. Reduce waste dump in the public especially stated park.
Expenditure Cost: RM 1.7 million

Flow Chart : How to setup The Recycle Centre.

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APLICATION

Sepang Municipal
Council

Final Full
Report

Members Meeting
MPK Local
State
Government

Investigation
and Site Visit

Report Commentf
from District Land
and Development
Department.

YDP Sepang
Municipal Council

Report Comment
from Jabatan Alam
Sekitar (EIA
Report)
Report Comment
from Development
Department MPK

Full Report

Report Comment
from TNB
Local Member
Meeting MPK

Report Comment
from JBA

REFERENCES
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1. Books
Mohd Ali Shamsuddin and Dr. Arbaat Hassan.(2008). HBSC3303 Teaching of Science
:Living Things and Materials for Lower Primary School.Open University Malaysia
(OUM). Kuala Lumpur.
Ng Chee Kin, Ting Kok Weng and Mahani Ibrahim(2005). New Vision: Science Form
1.2.3. Panpac (M) Sdn.Bhd., Shah Alam.
Mah Chee Wai and Dr Lina Lim Swee Kim. (2007) Biology : SPM. Sasbadi. Petaling
Jaya.
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http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/AsexualReproduction.html
accessed on 11/06/2008
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