A functional dependency (FD) is a constraint between two sets of attributes in a relation from a database.

Given a relation R, a set of attributes X

in R is said to functionally determine another attribute Y, also in R, (written X → Y) if and only if each X value is associated with precisely one
Y value. Customarily we call X the determinant set and Y the dependent attribute. Thus, given a tuple and the values of the attributes in X, one can
determine the corresponding value of the Y attribute. For the purposes of simplicity, given that X and Y are sets of attributes in R, X → Y denotes
that X functionally determines each of the members of Y - in this case Y is known as the dependent set. Thus, a candidate key is a minimal set of
attributes that functionally determine all of the attributes in a relation.(Note: the "function" being discussed in "functional dependency" is the
function of identification.)A functional dependency FD: X → Y is called trivial if Y is a subset of X.The determination of functional
dependencies is an important part of designing databases in the relational model, and in database normalization and denormalization. The
functional dependencies, along with the attribute domains, are selected so as to generate constraints that would exclude as much data
inappropriate to the user domain from the system as possible.For example, suppose one is designing a system to track vehicles and the capacity of
their engines. Each vehicle has a unique vehicle identification number (VIN). One would write VIN → EngineCapacity because it would be
inappropriate for a vehicle's engine to have more than one capacity. (Assuming, in this case, that vehicles only have one engine.) However,
EngineCapacity → VIN, is incorrect because there could be many vehicles with the same engine capacity.This functional dependency may
suggest that the attribute EngineCapacity be placed in a relation with candidate key VIN. However, that may not always be appropriate. For
example, if that functional dependency occurs as a result of the transitive functional dependencies VIN → VehicleModel and VehicleModel →
EngineCapacity then that would not result in a normalized relation.
Properties of functional dependencies
Given that X, Y, and Z are sets of attributes in a relation R, one can derive several properties of functional dependencies. Among the most
important are Armstrong's axioms, which are used in database normalization:
• Subset Property (Axiom of Reflexivity): If Y is a subset of X, then X → Y

• Augmentation (Axiom of Augmentation): If X → Y, then XZ → YZ

• Transitivity (Axiom of Transitivity): If X → Y and Y → Z, then X → Z

• Transitivity rule: if holds, and holds, then holds.

From these rules, we can derive these secondary rules:
• Union: If X → Y and X → Z, then X → YZ

• Decomposition: If X → YZ, then X → Y and X → Z

• Pseudotransitivity: If X → Y and YZ → W, then XZ → W

What is Normalization?
Normalization is the process of efficiently organizing data in a database. There are two goals of the normalization
process: eliminating redundant data (for example, storing the same data in more than one table) and ensuring data
dependencies make sense (only storing related data in a table). Both of these are worthy goals as they reduce the
amount of space a database consumes and ensure that data is logically stored.

The Normal Forms

The database community has developed a series of guidelines for ensuring that databases are normalized. These
are referred to as normal forms and are numbered from one (the lowest form of normalization, referred to as first
normal form or 1NF) through five (fifth normal form or 5NF). In practical applications, you'll often see 1NF, 2NF, and
3NF along with the occasional 4NF. Fifth normal form is very rarely seen and won't be discussed in this article.
Before we begin our discussion of the normal forms, it's important to point out that they are guidelines and
guidelines only. Occasionally, it becomes necessary to stray from them to meet practical business requirements.
However, when variations take place, it's extremely important to evaluate any possible ramifications they could
have on your system and account for possible inconsistencies. That said, let's explore the normal forms.

First Normal Form (1NF)

First normal form (1NF) sets the very basic rules for an organized database:

• Eliminate duplicative columns from the same table.

• Create separate tables for each group of related data and identify each row with a unique column or set of
columns (the primary key).

Second Normal Form (2NF)

Second normal form (2NF) further addresses the concept of removing duplicative data:

• Meet all the requirements of the first normal form.

• Remove subsets of data that apply to multiple rows of a table and place them in separate tables.
 • Create relationships between these new tables and their predecessors through the use of foreign keys.

Third Normal Form (3NF)

Third normal form (3NF) goes one large step further:

• Meet all the requirements of the second normal form.

• Remove columns that are not dependent upon the primary key.

Fourth Normal Form (4NF)

Finally, fourth normal form (4NF) has one additional requirement:

• Meet all the requirements of the third normal form.

• A relation is in 4NF if it has no multi-valued dependencies.
Remember, these normalization guidelines are cumulative. For a database to be in 2NF, it must first fulfill all the
criteria of a 1NF database.

Complementary
Colors that are opposite each other on the color wheel are considered to
be complementary colors (example: red and green).
The high contrast of complementary colors creates a vibrant look
especially when used at full saturation. This color scheme must be
managed well so it is not jarring.
Complementary colors are tricky to use in large doses, but work well
when you want something to stand out.
Complementary colors are really bad for text.

Analogous
Analogous color schemes use colors that are next to each other on the
color wheel. They usually match well and create serene and comfortable
designs.
Analogous color schemes are often found in nature and are harmonious
and pleasing to the eye.
Make sure you have enough contrast when choosing an analogous color
scheme.
Choose one color to dominate, a second to support. The third color is
used (along with black, white or gray) as an accent.
Triad
A triadic color scheme uses colors that are evenly spaced around the
color wheel.
Triadic color harmonies tend to be quite vibrant, even if you use pale or
unsaturated versions of your hues.
To use a triadic harmony successfully, the colors should be carefully
balanced - let one color dominate and use the two others for accent.

Split-Complementary
The split-complementary color scheme is a variation of the
complementary color scheme. In addition to the base color, it uses the
two colors adjacent to its complement.
This color scheme has the same strong visual contrast as the
complementary color scheme, but has less tension.
The split-complimentary color scheme is often a good choice for
beginners, because it is difficult to mess up.
 Color Wheel Pro - See Color Theory in Action
A software program to create color schemes and preview them on real-world examples.

You are here: Color Wheel Pro > Classic Color Schemes

Classic Color Schemes

Monochromatic color scheme

Examples:

The monochromatic color scheme uses variations in lightness and

saturation of a single color. This scheme looks clean and elegant.
Monochromatic colors go well together, producing a soothing effect. The
monochromatic scheme is very easy on the eyes, especially with blue or
green hues. You can use it to establish an overall mood. The primary color
can be integrated with neutral colors such as black, white, or gray.
However, it can be difficult, when using this scheme, to highlight the most
important elements.
Pros The monochromatic scheme is easy to manage, and always
: looks balanced and visually appealing.

Cons This scheme lacks color contrast. It is not as vibrant as the

: complementary scheme.

Tips: 1. Use tints, shades, and tones of the key color to enhance
 the scheme.
2. Try the analogous scheme; it offers more nuances while
retaining the simplicity and elegance of the monochromatic
scheme.

Analogous color scheme

Examples:

The analogous color scheme uses colors that are adjacent to each other on
the color wheel. One color is used as a dominant color while others are
used to enrich the scheme. The analogous scheme is similar to the
monochromatic one, but offers more nuances.
Pros The analogous color scheme is as easy to create as the
: monochromatic, but looks richer.

Cons The analogous color scheme lacks color contrast. It is not as

: vibrant as the complementary scheme.

Tips: 1. Avoid using too many hues in the analogous scheme,

because this may ruin the harmony.
2. Avoid combining warm and cool colors in this scheme.

Complementary color scheme

Examples:
The complementary color scheme is made of two colors that are opposite
each other on the color wheel. This scheme looks best when you put a
warm color against a cool color, for example, red versus green-blue. The
complementary scheme is intrinsically high-contrast.
When using the complementary scheme, it is important to choose a
dominant color and use its complementary color for accents. Using one
color for the background and its complementary color to highlight
important elements, you will get color dominance combined with sharp
color contrast.
Pros The complementary color scheme offers stronger contrast
: than any other color scheme, and draws maximum attention.

Cons This scheme is harder to balance than monochromatic and

: analogous schemes, especially when desaturated warm
colors are used.

Tips: 1. For best results, place cool colors against warm ones, for
example, blue versus orange.
2. If you use a warm color (red or yellow) as an accent, you
can desaturate the opposite cool colors to put more emphasis
on the warm colors.
3. Avoid using desaturated warm colors (e.g. browns or dull
yellows).
4. Try the split complementary scheme; it is similar to the
complementary scheme but offers more variety.

Split complementary color scheme

Examples:

The split complementary scheme is a variation of the standard

complementary scheme. It uses a color and the two colors adjacent to its
complementary. This provides high contrast without the strong tension of
the complementary scheme.
Pros The split complementary scheme offers more nuances than
: the complementary scheme while retaining strong visual
contrast.

Cons The split complementary scheme is harder to balance than

: monochromatic and analogous color schemes.

Tips: 1. Use a single warm color against a range of cool colors to

put an emphasis on the warm color (red versus blues and
blue-greens, or orange versus blues and blue-violets).
2. Avoid using desaturated warm colors (e.g. browns or dull
yellows), because this may ruin the scheme.

Triadic color scheme

Examples:

The triadic color scheme uses three colors equally spaced around the color
wheel. This scheme is popular among artists because it offers strong visual
contrast while retaining balance, and color richness. The triadic scheme is
not as contrasting as the complementary scheme, but it looks more
balanced and harmonious.
Pros The triadic color scheme offers high contrast while retaining
: harmony.

Cons The triadic color scheme is not as contrasting as the

: complementary scheme.

Tips: 1. Choose one color to be used in larger amounts than others.

2. If the colors look gaudy, try to subdue them.

Tetradic (double complementary) color scheme

 Examples:

The tetradic (double complementary) scheme is the richest of all the

schemes because it uses four colors arranged into two complementary color
pairs. This scheme is hard to harmonize; if all four colors are used in equal
amounts, the scheme may look unbalanced, so you should choose a color to
be dominant or subdue the colors.
Pros The tetradic scheme offers more color variety than any other
: scheme.

Cons This scheme is the hardest scheme to balance.

:

Tips: 1. If the scheme looks unbalanced, try to subdue one or more

colors.
2. Avoid using pure colors in equal amounts.