Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials
an overview of the phenomena and

mechanisms to be dealt with
Cino Viggiani
Laboratoire 3S-R (Sols, Solides, Structures - Risques)
University of Grenoble, France
ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials
pipes
"La Trahison des Images" ("The Treachery of Images") by Ren Magritte, 1928
TRUE: the painting is not a pipe, but rather an image of a pipe
and fractures
Ceci nest pas une fracture
outline
(a few) important concepts

- damage and fracture, a matter of scale
- tensile vs. shear fracture
(a few) examples of experimental observations

- various materials, various mechanisms, a few tools
fractures: are they simple?
John Rudnicki says
Multi-axial constitutive relations

Coupling of mechanical response with fluid flow and chemistry
Fracture growth, interaction and network development
Earthquake dynamics
scientific statements and spectacular cracks

Because the applied principal stresses are almost always compressive, the tensile stresses driving
opening cracks are necessarily local and, hence, crack growth is, at least initially, stable (Rudnicki 2000)
This is said to be the world's largest free-standing boulder. It's called Giant Rock (California)
scientific statements and spectacular cracks

Because the applied principal stresses are almost always compressive, the tensile stresses driving
opening cracks are necessarily local and, hence, crack growth is, at least initially, stable (Rudnicki 2000)
fracture propagation
On 26 March 2000, we received a communication from Doug H., who wrote: () Ended up at Giant Rock about dusk
and discovered that Giant Rock is now Giant Rocks () Unfortunately nobody was hurt in the "accident
http://www.deuceofclubs.com/rv/cal230b.htm
spectacular, large scale discontinuities
example of fracture complexities: Nash Point, South Wales

local perturbations and superposition of deformation phases
Helen Lewis and Gary Couples, Heriot-Watt University
back to basics: modes of fracture

conventional distinction (Griggs & Handlin 1960, Paterson & Wong 2005)
two principal modes of brittle fracture

Shear Fracture the relative
displacement is parallel to the
fracture surface
(the dominant mode of macroscopic
brittle failure in triaxial compression
tests at all but the lowest confining
pressures)
Extension Fracture separation

normal to the fracture surface
(best known from its occurrence in the
uniaxial tension and compression test)

the mode of fracture depends on mean normal stress


Triaxial compression
on Vosges Sandstone
(Bsuelle 1999)
But, all this is at the macro level

looking at the local (micro) level mode I
Chevron Cracked Notched Brazilian

Disc specimen (diameter 20 cm)
Interactions between the fracture path,

initiating from the notch tip (top), and
the mineral boundary contact type
Westerly granite

Fracture propagation normal (left) and parallel (right)
to normal to pre-existing preferably oriented microcracks in Barre granite
Nasseri & Mohanty (2007) - Fracture toughness anisotropy in granitic rocks. International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences (in press)

Fracture propagation normal (left) and parallel (right)
to normal to pre-existing preferably oriented microcracks in Stanstead granite

Fracture propagation in Bigword granite
Left: normal to pre-existing preferably oriented mesocracks
Right: curvilinear morphology of the test cracks following the curvilinear path of
mesocracks and recrystallized quartz-feldspatic minerals
ramping up of the test crack along a steep mesocrack

looking at the micro level does mode II exist?

" even cracks which seem to be favourably oriented for
mode II growth might extend in mode I by kinking "
Melin (1986) - When does a crack grow under mode II conditions? Journal of Fracture, 30: 2
" in materials with the properties of crystalline rock, mode II fracture does not exist "
" sliding along pre-existing fracture surfaces, in conjunction with eventual type I (new) fractures "
Doz & Rierab (2000) - Towards the numerical simulation of seismic excitation. Nuclear Engng. and Design, 196:3
.
"en chelon" pattern (a set of offset normal cracks): the

overall direction of the set of cracks, not the individual
fissures, marks the trace of the fault
(Hayward Fault in Oakland, California)
Post-mortem X-ray micro tomographic images of shear fractures in Beaucaire Marl (Marello et al. 2003)
Morgenstern & Tchalenko Gotechnique 1967
Sequence of shear induced displacement discontinuities in kaolin

specimens sheared in 6 cmx 6 cm conventional shear box normal to
direction of preferred orientation of original fabric
Morgenstern & Tchalenko Gotechnique 1967
Shear fracture in rock in a deep level gold mine showing Riedel Structures (Ortlepp 1997)
weve been talking of fractures what about damage?
Westerley granite
Intergranular vs intragranular (and
transgranular) cracks
Crack density
defining Damage = setting the scale
for modeling (and observations)
KONDO dixit: " the main objective of
standard Continuum Damage Mechanics
is to propose a continuum-mechanics
based framework allowing to
characterize, represent and model at
the macroscopic scale the effects of
distributed defects and their growth on
the material behavior "
back to basics: types of geomaterials, types of cracks

it is commonly considerered that (Paterson & Wong 2005)
Compact rocks
Crystalline
rocks "the sources of microcrack initiation are themselves microcracks
already present in the rock. Irreversible deformation involves
the growth of stress-induced extensile microcracks "
Porous rocks crack initiation also at pores (in weak porous rocks).
Intergranular bonding strength is also important (in strong
porous rocks)
what about concrete ?
similar mechanisms, concrete is also a cohesive-frictional material !
(concrete is nothing but a synthetic conglomerate)
for soil ? the standard thought: plasticity, not damage and fracture !
saturated fine-grained clays crack as they dry and shrink
shear bands / fissures are observed upon shearing
+ grain crushing for coarse-grained (and fine-grained?) soils
grain crushing upon 1D loading Bolton 2003
grain crushing upon 1D loading
and clay ?
Is clay "clastic"?
soil clasticity instead than soil plasticity

Malcolm Bolton viewpoint
A fundamental reappraisal of the strength and stiffness of

soils is under way, relating the properties of the aggregate to
the strength and stiffness of its constituent grains. A statistical
description of the successive fracturing of particles shows
promise for the understanding of self-similarity in a wide
range of materials from tectonic mlanges to sedimented
clays
"Plastic yielding" on what Schofield and Wroth call the "wet side" of critical states may then be seen as
clastic yielding (Chambers: clastic - fragmented, especially applied to a rock composed of fragments of
pre-existing rocks) with the voids ratio reducing as the breaking fragments fit more neatly into the voids
between the pre-existing grains.
fracture and damage in sandstone (1)

El Bied et al. (2002) - Microstructure of shear zones in Fontainebleau sandstone. IJRM, 39:7
7 MPa confining pressure
42 MPa confining pressure
7 MPa confinement
grains cracked,
not crushed
28 MPa confinement
intense crushing
and pulverisation
7 MPa confinement
grains cracked,
not crushed
28 MPa confinement
intense crushing
and pulverisation
fracture and damage in concrete
transverse and longitudinal slices through concrete cylinders after loading. Magnetic Resonance
Imaging allows us to see the fractures (and to carry out measurements on fracture patterns)
Marfisi & Burgoyne, Cambridge University Engineering Dept.
X-ray micro tomography damage in mortar
Magnetic resonance imaging of concrete
Landis et al., Engineering Fracture Mechanics 2003; Landis, Geox 2006

Landis et al., Engineering Fracture Mechanics 2003; Landis, Geox 2006

fracture and damage: fissured clay vs. mortar
Plane strain compression of intensely fissured clays (Vitone 2007)

"listening" to fractures (AE) rocks cry when they crack

development of failure in quasi-brittle materials is associated with microcracks,
which release energy in the form of elastic waves called acoustic emission
Lockner & Byerlee

"listening" at fractures (AE) rocks cry when they crack
Stanchits & coworkers, GFZ Potsdam

an even more "exotic" tool: infrared radiation (2)
an even more "exotic" tool: infrared radiation (1)
Wu et al., IJRM 2006

from my personal experience: fractures in clay shales
fracture development in Callovo-oxfordian argillite under

triaxial compression studied by X-ray micro tomography
Tomography
Triaxial test
3D Volumetric DIC
with Nicolas Lenoir, Jacques Desrues, Pierre Bsuelle, Michel Bornert *

* LMS-X Palaiseau, France
motivation : damage in the EDZ around radioactive waste

underground storage galleries
Callovo-oxfordian argillite
From the Borehole EST261 (depth 476m) of
the Underground Research Laboratory of
Bure
(ANDRA)
a few characteristics
Clay content : 40 %
Water content : 6 %
Permeability : 10-20 to 10-22 m
In situ vertical stress
? effective 10 MPa total 6 MPa
Excavation Damaged Zone

diffuse or localised ?
effect on permeability ?
URL in Bure (France) , depth: 490m
X-ray micro tomography (CT)
basic principle
recording attenuation profiles through a

specimen slice, under different angular
positions, using a CT scanner
reconstructing a radiograph of the slice
repeating to get a complete set of slices
over the specimen
reconstructing a 3D image of the internal
structure of the specimen from the spatial
distribution of the linear attenuation
coefficient
Otani 2000
X-ray characteristics
X-ray white beam to have a high photon flux

X-ray energy:
50 to 70 keV
spatial resolution: 14 m (voxel size)
time for scanning: 40 second for one scan
ESRF, Grenoble (France)
Experimental set-up
The triaxial compression test is performed in situ on the beam line
X-ray micro tomography scans are taken during the test
loading system
x-ray source
X-ray
source
Frelon camera
fastshutter
shutter
fast
mirror
X-ray
imaging
x-ray imaging
system
system
positioning system
displacement controlled loading (1 to 100 m/min) max axial load: 7.5 kN
Experimental set-up
Triaxial cell + XR scan set-up
max cell pressure:

10 MPa
tests on
14
X-Ray beam
Confining cell
Imager
Callovo-Oxfordian
argillite specimens
10 mm in diameter
Specimen
Results
Two undrained triaxial tests presented :

Low confining pressure (1 MPa)
High confining pressure (10 MPa)
Stress-strain response + direct CT scan
observations ;
Refined analysis of the deformation

process in the 2 tests, using 3D
volumetric DIC :
Mode II versus mode I crack development
Argillite Low confinement test (1 MPa)

Mechanical Response
25
horizontal cut
Deviateur (MPa)
20
15
10
0
0
0.01
0.02
Dformation axiale
Specimen after the test
0.03
20
Argillite High confinement test (10 MPa)

Mechanical Response
30
Horizontal cut
Deviateur (MPa)
20
4
5
10
0
0
7
0.02
0.04
Dformation axiale
10 mm
20 mm
Specimen
after test
0.06
0.08
Argillite High confinement test (10 MPa)

Mechanical response
Vertical cut
30
Deviateur (MPa)
20
10
0
0
7
0.02
0.04
Dformation axiale
10 mm
20 mm
Specimen
after test
0.06
0.08
Preliminary conclusions
Confining pressure plays a major role o

in fracture development :
Low CP : overall fracturation, a lot of open
fractures -> permeability increase
High CP : less fractures, open in mode I
only at de-confinement (CP release)
Can we obtain more information from the

CT scan images ?
impressive, huh ?
Can we obtain more from these images ?
Micro tomography :
Improved resolution
if density field
changes !
What if density does not change ?

Mode II or III cracks, shear band with
isochoric deformation (pure shear)
X-ray tomography + 3D DIC
3D - Digital Image Correlation :
Bay et al 1999, Verhulp et al 2004, Bornert et al 2004

(almost) straightforward extension of 2D DIC (Sutton et al. 1989)
basic principle of Image Correlation

two 3D-images of a specimen at two steps of loading
transformation ?
(D)
g( (x))
f(x)
(x)
is determined at x to optimize a correlation function in

order to get g((x)) in (D) the most likely to f(x) in D
D : subset around the material point
f(x): gray level distribution inside D - characterizes the material point
g((x)): gray level distribution inside (D) in the deformed image
3D - Digital Image Correlation
Deviatoric Incremental Strain field before after peak

test ESTSYN01 (10 MPa confining pressure)
Deviatoric stress (MPa)
30
20
10
0
0
0.02
0.04
Axial strain
0.06
0.08
12
Deviatoric Incremental Strain field before peak

Vertical cut along the axis
Horizontal cut close to the bottom end
Element size
280 m
Incremental strain field
Radiographic cut
at the peak cut
Radiographic
at the peak
12
Deviatoric Incremental Strain field after peak

Vertical cut along the axis
Horizontal cut close to the bottom end

Radiographic cut
after thecut
peak
Radiographic
after the peak
from my personal experience: fractures in volcanic rock

Single daisy growing in crack in rock outcropping
Analysis of fracture in a soft rock
using digital image correlation with displacement

discontinuity quantification
Steve Hall, Cino Viggiani & Pierre Bsuelle
Laboratoire 3S-R, Grenoble
Acknowledgements: Fiorenza de Sanctis & Gabriela Chacon
Laboratoire 3S-R: Equipe GDR
the material: Tufo di Napoli
(Neapolitan Yellow Tuff)
soft rock originating from the lithification

of pyroclastic soils produced during the
activity of the Phlegrean Fields
fine grained but with soft and hard
inclusions of various sizes
forms much of the foundation of Napoli
contains many cavities which are prone
to collapse
Experimental procedure: Biaxial apparatus
- unconfined plane-strain compression
specimen description
prismatic blocks
preexisting slits made using a
diamond wire saw
length = 12 mm
aperture = 0.4 mm
Inclination = 45
12 mm
rock bridge angle, : 45-120
100 mm
100 mm x 50 mm x 35 mm
8 /12
mm
45
(displacement rate =3 m/min)

Non-overlapping slits
45
45
45
60
45
75
Overlapping slits
45
90
45
105
45
120
50 mm
35 mm
no slits:
axial splitting
single slit
Wing Cracks
Secondary Cracks
failure mechanism
depends on
=45
=105
=120
Previous results (dependence of rupture on )

Mechanisms of failure from AE and
digital photos
(Hall et al., 2006)
Coalescence of rock-bridge
60
Sliding
75105 Opening+sliding
> 105
3 phases of deformation and rupture:
Opening
Phase 1: Onset of fracturing at crack tips

(internal and external)
depends on inclusions etc.
Phase 2: Propagation of external wing
cracks
10,0
Vertical failure stress vs
little dependence on slit configuration
8,0
2nd jump in AE activity/energy
R (MPa)
di Sanctis (2005):
onset of coalescence
(internal/interaction cracks),
initiation of rock bridge
6,0
4,0
2,0
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
135
()
Phase 3: Development of coalescence and

interaction cracks
dependent on the slit configuration
(shorter time for =120 than for =105)
Final jump in AE Failure
photographic analysis
deformation tracked using
high resolution digital photographs

13.5 mega-pixels
through transparent side-walls of load cell
identification and tracking of fracture development

Photographic analysis
DIC: Our method (PhotoWarp)
Best correlation
displacement vector
(integer - pixel)
Sub-pixel refinement
- search peak of function
describing local crosscorrelation variation
Vectorial conditioning
-to edit poor points
-sensitive to correlation
strength
-prevents folding of field
and other inconsistencies
2 images of specimen
at different load states
Continuum
hypothesis
Vector-displacement field
with sub-pixel accuracy
Tensor strain field
DIC: Our method (PhotoWarp)
Best correlation
displacement vector
(integer - pixel)
Sub-pixel refinement
- search peak of function
describing local crosscorrelation variation
Vectorial conditioning
-to edit poor points
-sensitive to correlation
strength
-prevents folding of field
and other inconsistencies
2 images of specimen
at different load states
Quantification of
displacement
jumps
Vector-displacement field
with sub-pixel accuracy
Discontinuous deformation (fracture):

Displacement discontinuity quantification
DIC
dN
dT
dz
dx
d
dz
dT
dx
dN
Displacement jumps
along fracture
[uN] & [uT]
PhotoWarp
(DIC-2D)
12
10
Vertical force (kN)
Tffds32: =45: DIC strain
0
0
time (hours)
Max.
shear
strain
ongoing work
further development of DIC-discontinuity method and analysis
of tests to analyse failure processes
(unconfined) plane-strain punch-through shear:
PhD T. Backers
Triaxial PTS test in tufo (collab. 3S-R - GFZ)
+ Ultrasonic, AE and DIC monitoring
the end (of this lecture)

Single daisy growing in crack in rock outcropping
Thank you for your attention .

Climbing the Yosemite crack
and good luck with the following lectures!

cvcvcvc
cvcvcvc
This book derives from the symposium held in September 1993. The contributions discuss recent advances in fracture mechanics studies of concrete, rock, ceramics and other brittle disordered
materials at micro and structural levels. It draws together research and new applications in continuum, damage and fracture mechanics approaches.Introduction. Keynote paper : the scaling laws and
renormalization group in the mechanics and micromechanics of fracture. Fracture in brittle matrix composites. Fracture mechanics of concrete. Fracture mechanics of rock. Fracture mechanics of
ceramics. Continuum models. Discrete crack models. Micromechanisms and micromechanical models. Damage, localization and size effect. Application of fracture mechanics.

Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

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Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

an overview of the phenomena and

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

TRUE: the painting is not a pipe, but rather an image of a pipe

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

Ceci nest pas une fracture

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

(a few) important concepts

(a few) examples of experimental observations

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

fractures: are they simple?

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

John Rudnicki says

Multi-axial constitutive relations

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

scientific statements and spectacular cracks

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

scientific statements and spectacular cracks

spectacular, large scale discontinuities

example of fracture complexities: Nash Point, South Wales

Helen Lewis and Gary Couples, Heriot-Watt University

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

back to basics: modes of fracture

two principal modes of brittle fracture

Extension Fracture separation

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

back to basics: modes of fracture

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

back to basics: modes of fracture

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

back to basics: modes of fracture

But, all this is at the macro level

looking at the local (micro) level mode I

Chevron Cracked Notched Brazilian

Interactions between the fracture path,

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

looking at the local (micro) level mode I

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

looking at the local (micro) level mode I

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

looking at the local (micro) level mode I

ramping up of the test crack along a steep mesocrack

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

looking at the micro level does mode II exist?

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

looking at the micro level does mode II exist?

"en chelon" pattern (a set of offset normal cracks): the

Morgenstern & Tchalenko Gotechnique 1967

Sequence of shear induced displacement discontinuities in kaolin

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

Morgenstern & Tchalenko Gotechnique 1967

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

looking at the micro level does mode II exist?

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

weve been talking of fractures what about damage?

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

back to basics: types of geomaterials, types of cracks

grain crushing upon 1D loading Bolton 2003

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

grain crushing upon 1D loading

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials

grain crushing upon 1D loading

ALERT Doctoral School 2007 Damage and Fracture in Geomaterials