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In psychology, Trait t heory is a major approach to the study of human personality. Trait theorists
are primarily interested in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of
behavior, thought, and emotion.[1] According to this perspective, traits are relatively stable over
time, differ across individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing whereas others are shy), and
influence behavior.
Gordon Allport was an early pioneer in the study of traits, which he sometimes referred to as
dispositions. In his approach, central traits are basic to an individual's personality, whereas
secondary traits are more peripheral. Common traits are those recogniz ed within a culture and may
vary between cultures. Cardinal traits are those by which an individual may be strongly recogniz ed.
Since Allport's time, trait theorists have focused more on group statistics than on single individuals.
Allport called these two emphases "nomothetic" and "idiographic," respectively.
There is a nearly unlimited number of potential traits that could be used to describe personality.
The statistical technique of factor analysis , however, has demonstrated that particular clusters of
traits reliably correlate together. Hans Eysenck has suggested that personality is reducible to three
major traits.[2][3] Other researchers argue that more factors are needed to adequately describe
human personality including humor, wealth and beauty.[4] Many psychologists currently believe that
five factors are sufficient.[5][6]
Virtually all trait models, and even ancient Greek philosophy , include extraversion vs. introversion
as a central dimension of human personality. Another prominent trait that is found in nearly all
models is Neuroticism, or emotional instability.
Co nt e nt s
1 The Two taxo no mies

Psychology

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Abnormal Biological Cognitive
Comparative Cultural Differential
Developmental Evolutionary
Experimental Mathematical
Personality Positive Social

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List s
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Theories Timeline Topics

Po rt al
V T E

2 Lo wer o rder facto rs

3 Causality

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4 List o f perso nality traits

5 See also
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6 References

The Two taxonomies

[edit]

Both approaches extensively use self- report questionnaires. The factors are intended to be orthogonal (uncorrelated), [7] though there are
often small positive correlations between factors. The five factor model in particular has been criticiz ed for losing the orthogonal structure
between factors.[8][9] Hans Eysenck has argued that fewer factors are superior to a larger number of partly related ones. [10] Although
these two approaches are comparable because of the use of factor analysis to construct hierarchical taxonomies, they differ in the
organiz ation and number of factors.
Whatever the causes, however, psychoticism marks the two approaches apart, as the five factor model contains no such trait. Moreover,
psychoticism, unlike any of the other factors in either approach, does not fit a normal distribution curve. Indeed, scores are rarely high,
thus skewing a normal distribution.[11] However, when they are high, there is considerable overlap with psychiatric conditions such as
antisocial and schiz oid personality disorders. Similarly, high scorers on neuroticism are more susceptible to sleep and psychosomatic
disorders.[12] Five factor approaches can also predict future mental disorders. [13][14]

Lower order factors

[edit]

There are two higher- order factors that both taxonomies clearly share: extraversion and
neuroticism. Both approaches broadly accept that extraversion is associated with sociability
and positive affect, whereas neuroticism is associated with emotional instability and
negative affect.[11]
Many lower- order factors are similar between the two taxonomies. For instance, both
approaches contain factors for sociability/gregariousness, for activity levels, and for
assertiveness within the higher order factor extraversion. However, there are differences too.
First, the three- factor approach contains nine lower- order factors and the five- factor
approach has six.[11]
Eysenck's psychoticism factor incorporates some of the polar opposites of the lower order
factors of openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness. A high scorer on toughmindedness in psychoticism would score low on tender- mindedness in agreeableness.
Most of the differences between the taxonomies stem from the three factor model's
emphasis on fewer high- order factors.

Causality

[edit]

Although both major trait models are descriptive, only the three- factor model offers a
detailed causal explanation. Eysenck suggests that different personality traits are caused
by the properties of the brain, which themselves are the result of genetic factors.[15] In

Similarities between lower order factors for

psychoticism and the factors of openness,
agreeableness, and conscientiousness (from
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by the properties of the brain, which themselves are the result of genetic factors.[15] In
Matthews, Deary & Whiteman, 2003)
particular, the three- factor model identifies the reticular system and the limbic system in the
brain as key components that mediate cortical arousal and emotional responses
respectively. Eysenck advocates that extraverts have low levels of cortical arousal and introverts have high levels, leading extraverts to
seek out more stimulation from socializ ing and being venturesome.[16] Moreover, Eysenck surmised that there would be an optimal level
of arousal, after which inhibition would occur and that this would be different for each person.[17]
In a similar vein, the three- factor approach theoriz es that neuroticism is mediated by levels of arousal in the limbic system and that
individual differences arise because of variable activation thresholds between people. Therefore, highly neurotic people when presented
with minor stressors, will exceed this threshold, whereas people low in neuroticism will not exceed normal activation levels, even when
presented with large stressors. By contrast, proponents of the five- factor approach assume a role of genetics and environment but offer
no explicit causal explanation.
Given this emphasis on biology in the three- factor approach, it would be expected that the third trait, psychoticism, would have a similar
explanation. However, the causal properties of this state are not well defined. Eysenck has suggested that psychoticism is related to
testosterone levels and is an inverse function of the serotonergic system, [18] but he later revised this, linking it instead to the
dopaminergic system.[19]

List of personality traits

[edit]
Personalit y Trait s

The Big Five

personality traits

The "Big Five" also referred to as the "Five- Factor Model" are five broad factors (dimensions) of personality, that
are based upon empirical research. A mnemonic device to remember them is the acronym "OCEAN" or "CANOE".
Two of the tests to measure the Big Five are the "Big Five Inventory" and the IPIP (International Personality Item
Pool ) an abbreviated form is the "IPIP- NEO". The BFI and the IPIP- NEO are available free online for
noncommercial purposes. [20]

Composed of two related but separable traits, Openness to Experience and Intellect. Behavioral aspects include
1. Openness to
having wide interests, and being imaginative and insightful, correlated with activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal
Experience/Intellect
cortex. Considered primarily a cognitive trait.[21]
2.
Scrupulous, meticulous, principled behavior guided or conforming to one's own conscience. Associated with the
conscientiousness dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Anorexics are noted to have higher levels of conscientiousness. [22][23][24]
3. extroversion

Gregarious, outgoing, sociable, projecting one's personality outward. The opposite of extroversion is introversion.
Extroversion has shown to share certain genetic markers with substance abuse. Extroversion is associated with
various regions of the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala.[25][26][27]

4. agreeableness

Refers to a compliant, trusting, empathic, sympathetic, friendly and cooperative nature.[28][29][30]

5. neuroticism

"Refers to an individual's tendency to become upset or emotional" ( Hans Eysenck) "Neuroticism is the major
factor of personality pathology" (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1969). Neuroticism has a been linked to serotonin
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transporter (5- HTT) binding sites in the thalamus: as well as activity in the insular cortex .[31][32][33]
self- esteem (low)

A "favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the self" (Rosenberg, 1965). An individual's sense of his or her value
or worth, or the extent to which a person values, approves of, appreciates, priz es, or likes him or herself"
(Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991).[34][35][36]

harm avoidance

A tendency towards shyness, being fearful and uncertain, tendency to worry. Neonatal complications such as
preterm birth have been shown to affect harm avoidance. Those with BED, AN, and BN exhibit high levels of harm
avoidance. The volume of the left amygdala in girls was correlated to levels of HA, in separate studies HA was
correlated with reduced grey matter volume in the orbito- frontal, occipital and parietal regions.[37][38][39][40]

novelty seeking

Impulsive, exploratory, fickle, excitable, quick- tempered, and extravagant. Associated with addictive behavior.
"I don't think needing to be perfect is in any way adaptive" (Paul Hewitt, PhD)
Socially prescribed perfectionism "believing that others will value you only if you are perfect."

perfectionism

Self- oriented perfectionism "an internally motivated desire to be perfect.

Perfectionism is one of the traits associated with obsessional behavior and like obsessionality is also believed to
be regulated by the basal ganglia.[41][42][43]

alexithymia

The inability to express emotions. "To have no words for one's inner experience" (Ren J. Muller PhD).In studies
done with stroke patients, alexithymia was found to be more prevalent in those who developed lesions in the right
hemisphere following a cerebral infarction. There is a positive association with post- traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), childhood abuse and neglect and alexithymia. Utiliz ing psychometric testing and fMRI, studies showed
positive response in the insula, posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), and thalamus.[44][45][46]

rigidity

Inflexibility, difficulty making transitions, adherence to set patterns. Mental rigidity arises out of a deficit of the
executive functions. Originally termed frontal lobe syndrome it is also referred to as dysexecutive syndrome and
usually occurs as a result of damage to the frontal lobe. This may be due to physical damage, disease (such as
Huntington's disease) or a hypoxic or anoxic insult. [47][48][49][50]

impulsivity

Risk taking, lack of planning, and making up one's mind quickly (Eysenck and Eysenck). A component of
disinhibition. Abnormal patterns of impulsivity have been linked to lesions in the right inferior frontal gyrus and in
studies done by Antonio Damasio author of Descartes Error, damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex has
been shown to cause a defect in real- life decision making in individuals with otherwise normal intellect. Those who
sustain this type of damage are oblivious to the future consequences of their actions and live in the here and
now.[51][52][53][54][55][56]

disinhibition

Behavioral dis- inhibition is an inability or unwillingness to constrain impulses, it is a key component of executive
functioning. Researchers have emphasiz ed poor behavioral inhibition as the central impairment of ADHD. It may
be symptomatic of orbitofrontal lobe syndrome, a subtype of frontal lobe syndrome which may be an acquired
disorder as a result of traumatic brain injury, hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE), anoxic encephalopathy,
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degenerative diseases such as Parkinson's, bacterial or viral infections such as Lyme disease and neurosyphilis.
Disinhibition has been consistently associated with substance abuse disorders, obesity, higher BMI, excessive
eating, an increased rate of eating, and perceived hunger.[57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64]
obsessionality

Persistent, often unwelcome, and frequently disturbing ideas, thoughts, images or emotions, rumination, often
inducing an anxious state. Obsessionality may result as a dysfunction of the basal ganglia.[65][66][67]

See also

[edit]

16 Personality Factors
Big Five personality traits
Hans Eysenck
HEXACO model of personality structure
NEO- PI
Personality psychology
ProScan Survey
Trait Leadership

References

[edit]

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Categories: Personality theories

Personality traits

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