stimulus

stmjls/
noun
1. a thing or event that evokes a specific functional reaction in an organ or tissue.
"areas of the brain which respond to auditory stimuli"
o a thing that arouses activity or energy in someone or something; a spur or incentive.
"if the tax were abolished, it would act as a stimulus to exports"
synony spur, stimulant, encouragement, impetus, boost, prompt, prod,incentive, inducement, ins
ms:
piration, fillip; More
o an interesting and exciting quality.
"she loved the stimulus of the job"

classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental
stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

The Unconditioned Stimulus

The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response.
For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In
this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus.
The Unconditioned Response
The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the
unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the
unconditioned response.
The Conditioned Stimulus
The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the
unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. In our earlier example,
suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the
whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with
the smell, the sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the
whistle is the conditioned stimulus.

The Conditioned Response

The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our example, the
conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle.
Examples of Classical Conditioning
It can be helpful to look at a few examples of how the classical conditioning process operates both in
experimental and real-worlds settings:
Classical Conditioning a Fear Response
One of the most famous examples of classical conditioning was John B. Watson's experiment in which
a fear response was conditioned in a young boy known as Little Albert. The child initially showed no
fear of a white rat, but after the presentation of the rat was paired repeatedly with loud, scary sounds,
the child would cry when the rat was present. The child's fear also generalized to other fuzzy white
objects.
Let's examine the elements of this classic experiment. Prior to the conditioning, the white rat was a
neutral stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus was the loud, clanging sounds and the unconditioned
response was the fear response created by the noise. By repeatedly pairing the rat with the
unconditioned stimulus, the white rat (now the conditioned stimulus) came to evoke the fear response
(now the conditioned response).
You can learn more about this famous study in this overview of the Little Albert experiment as well as
some more information on the controversy about Little Albert.
This experiment illustrates how phobias can form through classical conditioning. In many cases, a single
pairing of a neutral stimulus (a dog, for example) and a frightening experience (being bitten by the
dog) can lead to a lasting phobia (being afraid of dogs).

PAVLOVS

DOG

Classical conditioning was accidentally discovered around the beginning of the

20th century by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov was studying digestive
process in dogs when he discovered that the dogs salivated before they received their
food. In fact, after repeated pairing of the lab attendant and the food, the dogs started
to salivate at the sight of the lab assistants. Pavlov coined this phenomena psychic
secretions." He noted that dogs were not only responding to a biological need
(hunger), but also a need developed by learning. Pavlov spent the rest of life

researching why this associate learning occurred, which is now called classical
conditioning.
To experiment on classical conditioning, Pavlov utilized a tuning fork and meat powder. He hit
the tuning fork and followed the sound with the meat powder. Pavlov presented the sound
(tuning fork) with the meat powder at the exact same time increments. In the beginning, the dog
salivated only to the meat powder, but after this was repeated, salivated at the sound of the
tuning fork. Even when Pavlov took away the meat powder, the dog continued to salivate at the
sound of the tuning fork.
PRINCIPLES
OF
CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
In classical conditioning, an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another. The
organism learns that the first stimulus is a cue for the second stimulus. In Pavlovs experiment
above, the tuning fork cued the dogs that food might be coming. Following is an example of
classical conditioning.
In technical terms, the food is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the salivation is the
unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate
the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the
conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food.

WATSONS
BABY
ALBERT
John B. Watson was interested in how classical conditioning could be applied to humans. In
1921, Watson and his research assistant Rosalie Rayner experimented on a 11-month-old infant
named Albert. The goal was to condition Albert to fear a white rat by paring the white rat with a
loud bang (UCS). Initially, Albert showed no fear of rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired
with the loud noise (UCS), Albert developed a fear of rats. The noise (UCS) induced fear
(UCR). After pairings between the loud noise (UCS) and the rat (CS), Albert started to fear the
rat. Watsons experiment suggested that classical conditioning could cause some phobias.

KEY CONCEPTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that elicits a response without conditioning

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Automatic response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A neutral stimulus that when paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
elicits a similar response

Conditioned Response (CR)

A response that is learned by pairing the originally neutral conditioned stimulus

(CS) with the

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Acquisition
The acquisition phase is the consistent parings of the CS (bell) and the UCS (food) that
produces a CR (salivation). In the example above, this phase occurs when the dog
begins to salivate at the sound of the bell. Conditioning occurs more rapidly when the
food follows the bell by a half a second.

Extinction

The extinction phase is when the conditioned response no longer occurs after
repeated pairings without the unconditioned stimulus. The dogs response to
the bell can be extinguished by repeatedly presenting the bell (CS) without the
food (UCS). The dog has not completely forgotten the association between the
bell and the food. If the experimenter waits a day, the dog may have a
spontaneous recovery of the conditioned response and salivate again to the
bell.

Generalization

Occurs when there is a small difference in the presented stimulus and the
original conditioned stimulus. If Pavlovs dog heard a bell of a similar tone,
the dog would still salivate.

Discrimination
The opposite of generalization, discrimination happens when a conditioned response does
not occur when there is a difference between the presented stimulus and the original
conditioned stimulus. If Pavlovs dog heard a bell with a different tone and was not
awarded the unconditioned stimulus (food), the dog would learn not to salivate to the
second tone.

SKINNERS
OPERANT
CONDITIONING
Beginning in the 1930s, Skinner started his experimentation on the behavior of
animals. Skinner's quest was to observe the relationship between observable stimuli
and response. Essentially, he wanted to know why these animals behaved the way
that they do. Skinner controlled his experiments by using Skinner boxes. The
Skinner box was a contraption that would automatically dispense food pellets and

electric shocks. Skinner believed that the learning he observed in his Skinner boxes
could apply to human behavior.
He called this learning operant
conditioning. Operant conditioning can be described as behavior adjustments as a
result of greater or lesser negative or positive reinforcement and punishment. Skinner
hypothesized that human behaviors were controlled by rewards and punishment and
that their behaviors can be explained by principles of operant conditioning

PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING

The main principles of operant conditioning, as defined by Skinner, are reinforcement,
punishment, shaping, extinction, discrimination, and generalization.

KEY CONCEPTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING

Reinforcement
The process in which a behavior is strengthened, and thus, more likely to
happen again.
o

Positive
Reinforcement
Making a behavior stronger by following the behavior with a pleasant
stimulus. For example, a rat presses a lever and receives food.
Negative
Reinforcement
Making a behavior stronger by taking away a negative stimulus. For
example, a rat presses a lever and turns off the electric shock

Punishment
The process in which a behavior is weakened, and thus, less likely to happen
again.

Negative
Punishment
Reducing a behavior by removing a pleasant stimulus when the
behavior occurs. If the rat was previously given food for each
lever press, but now receives food consistently when not pressing

the lever (and not when it presses the lever), the rat will learn to
stop pressing the lever.
Positive
Punishment
Reducing a behavior by presenting an unpleasant stimulus when
the behavior occurs. If the rat previously pressed the lever and
received food and now receives a shock, the rat will learn not to
press the lever.

Shaping
Technique of reinforcement used to teach new behaviors. At the beginning,
people/animals are reinforced for easy tasks, and then increasingly need to perform more
difficult tasks in order to receive reinforcement. For example, originally the rat is given a
food pellet for one lever press, but we gradually increase the number of times it needs to
press to receive food, the rat will increase the number of presses.

Extinction
The elimination of the behavior by stopping reinforcement of the behavior. For
example, a rat who received food when pressing a bar, receives food no longer,
will gradually decrease the amount of lever presses until the rat eventually
stops
lever
pressing.

Generalization
In generalization, a behavior may be performed in more than one situation. For
example, the rat who receives food by pressing one lever, may press a second
lever in the cage in hopes that it will receive food.

Discrimination
Learning that a behavior will be rewarded in one situation, but not another. For example,
the rat does not receive food from the second lever and realizes that by pressing the first
lever only, he will receive food.

Note: For each of the ten examples below, decide if the behavior in question was
acquired through operant or classical conditioning. If you decide the behavior is
operant, identify which type of consequence was responsible for the behavior
change (i.e., positive/negative reinforcement; positive/negative punishment). If you
decide the behavior is classical, identify the US, UR, CS, and CR. If you want to make
this a good learning exercise, you will check your answers only AFTERyou have
attempted to analyze each example on your own. You can check your answer
against mine by following the answer link after the example.

Example Number 1
Every time someone flushes a toilet in the apartment building, the shower becomes
very hot and causes the person to jump back. Over time, the person begins to jump
back automatically after hearing the flush, before the water temperature changes.
This example is classical conditioning because jumping away from hot water is an
automatic response.

The hot water is the US

The jumping back is the UR
The toilet flush is the CS
The jumping back to the flush alone is the CR

Go Back to Example 1
Go Forward to Example 2

Example Number 2
Your father gives you a credit card at the end of your first year in college because you
did so well. As a result, your grades continue to get better in your second year.
This example is operant conditioning because school performance is a voluntary
behavior.

The credit card is a positive reinforcement because it is given and it increases

the behavior.

Go Back to Example 2

Go Forward to Example 3

Example Number 3
Your car has a red, flashing light that blinks annoyingly if you start the car without
buckling the seat belt. You become less likely to start the car without buckling the seat
belt.
This example is operant conditioning because buckling a seat belt is voluntary.

The flashing light is a positive punishment.

The consequence is given .
The behavior of not buckling the seat belt decreases.

Go Back to Example 3
Go Forward to Example 4

Example Number 4

You eat a new food and then get sick because of the flu. However, you develop a
dislike for the food and feel nauseated whenever you smell it.
This example is classical conditioning because nausea is an automatic response.

The flu sickness is the US.

The nausea is the UR.
The new food is the CS.
The nausea to the new food is the CR.

Go Back to Example 4
Go Forward to Example 5

Example Number 5
An individual receives frequent injections of drugs, which are administered in a small
examination room at a clinic. The drug itself causes increased heart rate but after
several trips to the clinic, simply being in a small room causes an increased heart
rate.
This example is classical conditioning because the increased heart rate is an
automatic response.

The drug is the US.

The accelerated heart rate is the UR.
The small room is the CS.
The accelerated heart rate to the room is the CR.

Go Back to Example 5

Go Forward to Example 6

Example Number 6
A lion in a circus learns to stand up on a chair and jump through a hoop to receive a
food treat.
This example is operant conditioning because standing on a chair and jumping
through a hoop are voluntary behaviors.

The food treat is a positive reinforcement because it is given and it increases

the behavior.

Go Back to Example 6
Go Forward to Example 7

Example Number 7
A professor has a policy of exempting students from the final exam if they maintain
perfect attendance during the quarter. His students attendance increases
dramatically.
This example is operant conditioning because attendance is a voluntary behavior.

The exemption from the final exam is a negative reinforcement because

something is taken away that increases the behavior (attendance).

Go Back to Example 7
Go Forward to Example 8

Example Number 8
You check the coin return slot on a pay telephone and find a quarter. You find
yourself checking other telephones over the next few days.
This is an example of operant conditioning because checking the coin return slot is a
voluntary behavior.

The quarter would be a positive reinforcement because it was given and led to
an increase in the behavior.

Go Back to Example 8

Go Forward to Example 9

Example Number 9
Your hands are cold so you put your gloves on. In the future, you are more likely to
put gloves on when its cold.
This is an example of operant conditioning because putting gloves on is a voluntary
behavior.

The consequence is a negative reinforcement because the coldness is taken

away and the behavior of putting on gloves increases.

Go Back to Number 9
Go Forward to Number 10

Example Number 10
John Watson conducted an experiment with a boy named Albert in which he paired a
white rat with a loud, startling noise. Albert now becomes startled at the sight of the
white rat.
This is an example of classical conditioning because a startle response is an
automatic behavior.

The loud noise is the US.

The startle is the UR.
The white rat is the CS.
The startle response to the white rat is the CR.

Go Back to Example 10

How Are Behaviors Learned?

Have you ever wondered how our behaviors are learned? Meet Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, two
behavioral psychologists who pioneered the theories of classical and operant conditioning, respectively.
Let's examine how the theories they studied help us understand the way the way we learn.

Classical Conditioning
First, let's visit Mr. Pavlov. He studied what is called classical conditioning. Sometimes you will also
hear this referred to as respondent conditioning. In classical conditioning, learning refers to
involuntary responses that result from experiences that occur before a response.
Classical conditioning occurs when you learn to associate two different stimuli. No behavior is
involved. The first stimulus that you will encounter is the unconditioned stimulus. An
unconditioned stimulus produces a response without any previous learning. This response is
called an unconditioned response.
For an example of a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response, let's imagine a kiss. Kissing
creates involuntary arousal responses and causes you to experience an elevated heart rate, for
example. This is a natural response, it is not learned, and it happens automatically. The unconditioned
stimulus in this example is the kiss and an elevated heart rate is the unconditioned response.
In classical conditioning you now add a neutral stimulus to the experience. It is called a neutral stimulus
because it is not associated with the unconditioned response. Thinking of our example of a kiss,
imagine that your favorite song is playing when you kiss. The song will be the neutral stimulus. When
the song is paired with kissing, your heart rate still increases because of the kiss. However, after
repeated pairing of your favorite song with the act of kissing your brain will start to think, 'I hear my
favorite song so kissing will happen soon!' Because of this you will experience an increased heart rate
when you hear your favorite song. Your brain is now associating your favorite song with kissing. Rather
than continuing as a neutral stimulus, the song has now become a conditioned stimulus because it
produces a response with or without the occurrence of kissing. The increased heart rate is an
unconditioned response following kissing but now also becomes a conditioned response when it follows
your favorite song. It is a conditioned response following the song because the song would not produce
the elevated heart rate if it were not associated with the act of kissing.

Operant Conditioning
Next, let's visit Mr. Skinner. He studied what is called operant conditioning. Sometimes you will also
hear this referred to as instrumental conditioning. In operant conditioning, learning refers to changes in
behavior as a result of experiences that occur after a response.
Operant conditioning involves changing voluntary behaviors. A behavior response is followed by
eitherreinforcement or punishment. Reinforcement following a behavior will cause the behavior to
increase, but if behavior is followed by punishment the behavior will decrease.
Let's go back to the example of the kiss. What would happen if the person put their arms around you
and kissed you back enthusiastically? This would be an example of reinforcement and would probably
increase the likelihood that you would seek another kiss from the person.

There are two types of reinforcement. Positive reinforcement refers to the addition of something
positive. Examples would be offering praise or a treat when a desired behavior is displayed. Negative
reinforcement occurs when something undesirable is removed when a behavior is displayed. Examples
of this are taking aspirin to get rid of a headache or doing the dishes to avoid a fight with your
roommate.
Because of its name, negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment. The key difference is
that negative reinforcement involves the removal of a negative consequence to increase the likelihood
of a response. Reinforcement always increases the occurrence of a response, while punishment always
decreases the occurrence of a response.
Now, let's think about the example of the kiss again. What would happen if, when you attempted to kiss
someone, the person became angry and pushed you away? This would be an example of punishment
and would probably decrease the likelihood that you would seek a kiss from the person again.
There are also two types of punishment that occur in operant conditioning. Positive punishment is the
addition of something undesirable. Examples would be a child receiving a spanking or receiving extra
chores for misbehaving. The other type of punishment is negative punishment. Negative
punishment is the removal of something pleasing. Examples would be a child being placed in timeout
or losing video game privileges for misbehavior.

Phenomena Associated With Conditioning

Now that you understand classical and operant conditioning, let's examine a few terms that are used to
describe phenomena associated with behavioral conditioning.
Extinction is a term that refers to the disappearance of a conditioned response. The response weakens
and eventually disappears due to removal of the reinforcement or punishment in operant conditioning or
the removal of the paired stimulus in classical conditioning. An example of extinction would be a child no
longer throwing a fit to get their way after their parents stop giving them what they want when they throw
a fit.
Another term is extinction burst. An extinction burst refers to an initial increase in a conditioned
response when reinforcement is stopped. In other words, the behavior response will increase before
you see the process of extinction begin to weaken the conditioned response. Think of the first thing you
do when you push a button on the remote and it doesn't work. Your immediate reaction is to push the
button again and again to try to make it work. This is an example of an extinction burst.
Spontaneous recovery refers to the unexpected recurrence of a conditioned response after it has
shown extinction. Spontaneous recovery is usually a short lived and weakened version of the
conditioned response. Imagine you used to smoke a cigarette whenever you felt anxious. Spontaneous
recovery would occur if you have not smoked for years but suddenly crave a cigarette during a stressful
situation.
Stimulus generalization is a term that refers to showing a conditioned response to a stimulus that differs
from, but is similar to, the conditioned stimulus. In other words the conditioned response is transferred
to a new stimulus when this phenomenon occurs. Imagine you had an experience that made you scared
of mice. If you also feel scared around a hamster, you are experiencing stimulus generalization.

Lesson Summary
In review, let's compare Pavlov's classical conditioning and Skinner's operant conditioning alongside
each other. Both classical conditioning and operant conditioning are processes that lead to learning.
Classical conditioning pairs two stimuli, while operant conditioning pairs behavior and response. The
learning occurs before the response in classical conditioning and after the response in operant
conditioning. You learn by association in classical conditioning, and by reinforcement or punishment in
operant conditioning. Also, classical conditioning always works with involuntary responses while operant
conditioning works with voluntary behaviors. Extinction, an extinction burst, spontaneous recovery, and
stimulus generalization are different phenomena that can occur.

Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

In classical conditioning, learning refers to involuntary responses

that result from experiences that occur before a response.

In operant conditioning, learning refers to changes in behavior as a

result of experiences that occur after a response.

Classical conditioning occurs when you learn to associate two

Operant conditioning involves changing voluntary behaviors. A

different stimuli. No behavior is involved. The first stimulus that you

behavior

will encounter is the unconditioned stimulus. An unconditioned

punishment. Reinforcement following a behavior will cause the

stimulus produces a response without any previous learning. This

behavior to increase, but if behavior is followed by punishment the

response is called an unconditioned response.

behavior will decrease.

For an example of a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response, let's

Let's go back to the example of the kiss. What would happen if the person

imagine a kiss. Kissing creates involuntary arousal responses and causes

put their arms around you and kissed you back enthusiastically? This would

you to experience an elevated heart rate, for example. This is a natural

be an example of reinforcement and would probably increase the likelihood

response,

that you would seek another kiss from the person.

it

is

not

learned,

and

it

happens

automatically.

The

response

is

followed

by

either

reinforcement

or

unconditioned stimulus in this example is the kiss and an elevated

heart rate is the unconditioned response.
There are two types of reinforcement. Positive reinforcement refers to the
addition of something positive. Examples would be offering praise or a treat
when a desired behavior is displayed. Negative reinforcement occurs when
something undesirable is removed when a behavior is displayed. Examples
of this are taking aspirin to get rid of a headache or doing the dishes to avoid
a fight with your roommate.

Because of its name, negative reinforcement is often confused with

punishment. The key difference is that negative reinforcement involves the
removal of a negative consequence to increase the likelihood of a response.
Reinforcement always increases the occurrence of a response, while
punishment always decreases the occurrence of a response.

In classical conditioning you now add a neutral stimulus to the experience. It

Now, let's think about the example of the kiss again. What would happen if,

is called a neutral stimulus because it is not associated with the

when you attempted to kiss someone, the person became angry and pushed

unconditioned response. Thinking of our example of a kiss, imagine that

you away? This would be an example of punishment and would probably

your favorite song is playing when you kiss. The song will be the neutral

decrease the likelihood that you would seek a kiss from the person again.

stimulus. When the song is paired with kissing, your heart rate still
increases because of the kiss. However, after repeated pairing of your
favorite song with the act of kissing your brain will start to think, 'I hear my

There

favorite song so kissing will happen soon!' Because of this you will

conditioning. Positive punishment is the addition of something undesirable.

experience an increased heart rate when you hear your favorite song. Your

Examples would be a child receiving a spanking or receiving extra chores for

brain is now associating your favorite song with kissing. Rather than

misbehaving.

continuing as a neutral stimulus, the song has now become a conditioned

punishment. Negative punishment is the removal of something pleasing.

stimulus because it produces a response with or without the occurrence of

Examples would be a child being placed in timeout or losing video game

kissing. The increased heart rate is an unconditioned response following

are

also two

The

types

other

of

type

punishment that

of

occur

punishment

in

is

operant

negative

kissing but now also becomes a conditioned response when it follows your
favorite song. It is a conditioned response following the song because the
song would not produce the elevated heart rate if it were not associated with
the act of kissing.

privileges for misbehavior.